Municipal Educational Institution

Secondary School No. 27

"Eureka-Development"

"Silver Age of Russian Culture"

Completed by: Sukhanova Galina,

11th grade student

Checked by: Uklein Vadim

Vasilevich

Mirny, 2008

Plan

· INTRODUCTION

· What is culture?

· MAIN PART

o Silver Age culture:

- Beginning of the Silver Age

- Enlightenment

- The science

- Literature

· Symbolism

Acmeism

· Futurism

- Painting

- Architecture

· Modern

· Neoclassicism

· Constructivism

- Sculpture

- Music, theater, ballet, cinema

- Historical features of the Silver Age

o CONCLUSION

- Conclusion

- List of unknown words

- List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

N You can't understand the present without knowing the past. Historical and cultural experience of the past helps solve modern problems. Currently, Russia is at the turn of the twenty-first century. And the Russian state is experiencing a turning point in its development.

Culture is one of the most important areas public life, the spiritual and creative potential of society at a certain stage of its development. Currently, the cognitive and moral function of cultural history is increasing. Most people interested in Russia's past first of all learn about national history through cultural history.

Culture (cultura) is a Latin word. It means cultivation, processing, improvement.

Culture is the result of human creativity in various spheres of his activity. This is the totality of all the knowledge that society has at one or another stage of its development. But in the process of cultural development, a person not only acts, creating a world of objects and ideas, but also changes, creates himself. The state of society as a whole depends on cultural level its members.

Culture and its achievements, especially in such areas as science, education, literature, and fine arts, have always been the privilege of the ruling classes. However, the culture of society is not reduced to the culture of the ruling classes. It is necessary to warn against a simplistic assessment of this culture as reactionary, and folk culture as progressive in everything: it should be borne in mind that the same class at different stages of social development could either act as a carrier of the progressive development of culture, or as a brake on it.

Subject in general to general historical laws, the historical and cultural process retains a certain internal independence. This gives grounds to highlight in the history of culture periods, reflecting primarily changes in the process of its development.

The culture of a people is part of its history. Its formation and subsequent development are closely related to the same historical factors that influence the formation and development of the country’s economy, its statehood, and the political and spiritual life of society. The concept of culture naturally includes everything that is created by the mind, talent, and handicraft of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, view of the world, nature, human existence, and human relationships.

Finally, we must not forget that cultural monuments of the past are the heritage of the culture of the future. Cultural heritage is the most important form in which continuity in the historical development of society is expressed. Today we are especially clear about this.

MAIN PART

Beginning of the Silver Age

Beginning of the 20th century - a turning point not only in the political and socio-economic life of Russia, but also in the spiritual state of society. Industrial era dictated its own conditions and standards of life, destroying the traditional ideas of people. The aggressive onslaught of production led to a violation of the harmony between nature and man, to the smoothing of human individuality, to the triumph of standardization of all aspects of life. This gave rise to confusion, an anxious feeling of impending disaster. All the ideas about good and evil, truth and lies, beautiful and ugly, which previous generations had suffered through, now seemed untenable and required urgent and radical revision.

The processes of rethinking the fundamental problems of humanity have affected, to one degree or another, philosophy, science, literature, and art. And although this situation was typical not only for our country, in Russia the spiritual quest was more painful, more poignant than in the countries of Western civilization. The flowering of culture during this period was unprecedented. It covered all types of creative activity, gave rise to outstanding works of art and scientific discoveries, new directions of creative search, opened a galaxy of brilliant names that became the pride of not only Russian, but also world culture, science and technology. This sociocultural phenomenon went down in history as the Silver Age of Russian culture.

The new stage in the development of Russian culture is conventionally called the “Silver Age”, starting from the reform of 1861 to the October Revolution of 1917. This name was first proposed by the philosopher N. Berdyaev, who saw in highest achievements the culture of their contemporaries is a reflection of the Russian glory of previous “golden” eras, but this phrase finally entered literary circulation in the 60s of the last century.

Silver Age. This is how the turn of the 19th-20th centuries was named. - a time of spiritual innovation, a major leap in the development of national culture. It was during this period that new literary genres were born, the aesthetics of artistic creativity were enriched, and a whole galaxy of outstanding educators, scientists, writers, poets, and artists became famous.

By this time, many peoples inhabiting the Russian Empire had received their own alphabet, they had their own literature, their own national intelligentsia.

The beginning of the Silver Age was laid by the Symbolists, a small group of writers who carried out at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. "aesthetic revolution" Symbolists in the 90s years XIX V. came up with the idea to reassess all values. It was based on the problem of the relationship between individual and collective principles in public life and in art. This problem was not new. It arose immediately after the abolition of serfdom and the Great Reforms, when civil society began to actively form. The populists were among the first to try to solve it. Considering the collective principle as determining, they subordinated the individual principle to it, the personality to society. A person had value only if he brought benefit to the team. The populists considered social and political activity to be the most effective. In it, a person had to reveal himself. The strengthening in society of the populist approach to man and his activities, which occurred in the 60s - 80s of the 19th century, led to the fact that literature, philosophy and art began to be looked at as a secondary phenomenon, less necessary compared to political activity. The Symbolists directed their “aesthetic revolution” against the Narodniks and their ideology.

The phrase “Silver Age” has become a permanent definition of Russian culture late XIX- beginning of XX centuries; it began to be used as a designation for the entire artistic and, more broadly, the entire spiritual culture of the early 20th century in Russia.

The concept of the “Silver Age” cannot be reduced to the work of one or even dozens of significant artists - it characterizes the “spirit of the era”: bright individuals. The very spiritual atmosphere of the time provoked creative personality to artistic originality. It was a borderline, transitional, crisis era: the development of capitalism, revolutions sweeping across the country, Russia’s participation in the First World War...

Late XIX - early XX centuries. represents a turning point not only in the socio-political, but also in the spiritual life of Russia. The great upheavals that the country experienced over a relatively short historical period could not but affect its cultural development.

Education

The education system in Russia has taken steps forward. Although it still remained three-stage, it was supplemented with new structures.

The modernization process included not only fundamental changes in the socio-economic and political spheres, but also a significant increase in literacy and educational level of the population. To the credit of the government, they took this need into account. Government spending on public education increased more than 5-fold from 1900 to 1915.

The main focus was on primary schools. The government intended to introduce universal elementary education. However, school reform was carried out inconsistently. Several types of primary schools have survived, the most common being parish schools (in 1905 there were about 43 thousand of them). The number of zemstvo primary schools has increased. In 1904 there were 20.7 thousand, and in 1914 - 28.2 thousand. In 1900, more than 2.5 million students studied in the primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, and in 1914 - already about 6 million

The restructuring of the secondary education system began. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools grew. In gymnasiums, the number of hours allocated to the study of natural and mathematical subjects increased. Graduates of real schools were given the right to enter higher technical educational institutions, and after passing the Latin language exam - to the physics and mathematics faculties of universities.

In 1896, on the initiative and at the expense of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, a network of commercial schools was created, providing an average seven-year, eight-year education, which provided general education and special training. In them, unlike gymnasiums and real schools, joint education of boys and girls was introduced. In 1913, 55 thousand people, including 10 thousand girls, studied in 250 commercial schools, which were under the patronage of commercial and industrial capital. The number of secondary specialized educational institutions: industrial, technical, railway, mining, land surveying, agricultural, etc.

Since 1912, higher primary schools were put into operation, where one could enroll after primary school and then transfer to secondary educational institutions without an exam. Big changes have also occurred in higher education. In the context of the revolutionary upsurge, the tsarist government restored the autonomy of higher educational institutions, allowed student organizations and the election of deans and rectors. In 1909, the next (ninth) university was founded in Saratov. New technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk.

To ensure the reform of primary schools, pedagogical institutes were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as over 30 higher courses for women, which laid the foundation for mass access of women to higher education. In 1911, women's right to higher education was legally recognized.

By 1912, there were 16 technical higher educational institutions. Private higher education institutions have become widespread. In 1908, a bill was passed through the Duma to open the first people's university. Worked in 1908 – 1918. At the expense of the liberal figure General A.L. Shanyavsny, the university provided secondary and higher education and contributed to the democratization of higher education. Persons of both sexes were accepted into it, regardless of nationality and political views. By 1914, there were about 105 institutions of higher education, with approximately 127 thousand students. Moreover, over 60% of students did not belong to the nobility.

The literacy rate has increased to 39%. The network of cultural and educational institutions, along with Sunday schools, was supplemented by workers' courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses. They were established, as a rule, at the expense of wealthy people and were a kind of clubs with a library, assembly hall, tea house and trading shop.

However, despite advances in education, 3/4 of the country's population remained illiterate. Due to high tuition fees, secondary and higher schools were inaccessible to a significant part of the Russian population. 43 kopecks were spent on education. per capita, while in England and Germany - about 4 rubles, in the USA - 7 rubles. (in terms of our money).

The science

Russia's entry into the era of industrialization was marked by successes in the development of science. At the beginning of the 20th century. the country made a significant contribution to world scientific and technological progress, which was called the “revolution in natural science,” since the discoveries made during this period led to a revision of established ideas about the world around us.

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. Russian science is reaching the forefront. In various fields at this time, scientists appeared whose discoveries changed traditional ideas about the world around us. In the field of natural sciences, the works of physiologist I.P. Pavlov played such a role. Research in the field of biology, psychology, and human physiology was characterized by an unprecedented surge. I. P. Pavlov created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his research in the physiology of digestion.

Physicist P. N. Lebedev was the first in the world to establish the general laws inherent in wave processes of various natures (sound, electromagnetic, hydraulic, etc.)" and made other discoveries in the field of wave physics. He created the first physics school in Russia.

The foundations of new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. V. I. Vernadsky. Ahead of their time, scientists worked who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new areas of science. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydrodynamics and aerodynamics. Zhukovsky from the beginning of the 20th century. devoted his main attention to these issues. A large group of his students worked with him, who subsequently grew into major specialists in various fields of aviation science and technology. In 1902, under the leadership of Zhukovsky, one of the first wind tunnels in Europe was built at the mechanical office of Moscow University. In 1904, under his leadership, the first aerodynamic institute in Europe was built in the village of Kuchino near Moscow. In the same year, Zhukovsky organized an aeronautical section at the Moscow Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography. In 1910, with the direct participation of Zhukovsky, an aerodynamic laboratory was opened at the Moscow Higher Technical School.

After the October Revolution of 1917, Zhukovsky, together with the young scientists he led, actively became involved in the creation of a new Soviet aviation. In December 1918, a government decree established the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI), and Zhukovsky was appointed its head. The theoretical courses for military pilots created by Zhukovsky were reorganized into the Moscow Aviation College, on the basis of which the Institute of Red Air Fleet Engineers was created in 1920, transformed in 1922 into the Air Force Engineering Academy named after Professor N.E. Zhukovsky.

A number of Zhukovsky's studies were devoted to the theory of motion of a heavy rigid body around a fixed point, and these studies were remarkable for the geometric method used in them. Zhukovsky paid a lot of attention to the problem of traffic stability. His doctoral dissertation “On the Strength of Motion” (1879, published in 1882) was dedicated to her, which served as the basis for the study of the stability of airplanes in the air. Several works were devoted to the theory of gyroscopes.

Zhukovsky carried out a number of studies on partial differential equations and on the approximate integration of equations. He was the first to widely apply methods of the theory of functions of a complex variable in hydro- and aerodynamics. In articles on theoretical astronomy, Zhukovsky touched upon the theory of comet tails and gave a simple method for determining the elements of planetary orbits.

Zhukovsky's scientific merits were highly appreciated in a special decree of the Council of People's Commissars in December 1920.

Zhukovsky’s student and colleague was S.A. Chaplygin, a Russian scientist, one of the founders of aerodynamics, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1929). He created works on theoretical mechanics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics and gas dynamics.

At the origins of modern cosmonautics stood a nugget, a teacher at the Kaluga gymnasium, K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903, he published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal. He was the first to substantiate the possibility of using rockets for interplanetary communications, indicated rational ways for the development of astronautics and rocket science, and found a number of important engineering solutions for the design of rockets and liquid rocket engines. Tsiolkovsky's technical ideas are used in the creation of rocket and space technology.

The outstanding scientist V.I. Vernadsky gained worldwide fame thanks to his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, and radiology. His teachings on the biosphere and noosphere laid the foundation for modern ecology. The innovation of the ideas he expressed is fully realized only now, when the world finds itself on the brink of an environmental catastrophe.

Vernadsky made significant contributions to mineralogy and crystallography. In 1888-1897, he developed the concept of the structure of silicates, put forward the theory of the kaolin core, clarified the classification of siliceous compounds and studied the sliding of crystalline matter, primarily the phenomenon of shear in rock salt and calcite crystals. In 1890-1911 he developed genetic mineralogy, established a connection between the form of crystallization of a mineral, its chemical composition, genesis and conditions of formation. During these same years, Vernadsky formulated the basic ideas and problems of geochemistry, within the framework of which he carried out the first systematic studies of the patterns of structure and composition of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Since 1907, Vernadsky has been conducting geological research on radioactive elements, laying the foundation for radiogeology.

In 1916-1940 he formulated the main principles and problems of biogeochemistry, created the doctrine of the biosphere and its evolution. Vernadsky set the task of quantitatively studying the elemental composition of living matter and the geochemical functions it performs, the role of individual species in the transformation of energy in the biosphere, in geochemical migrations of elements, in lithogenesis and mineralogenesis. He schematically outlined the main trends in the evolution of the biosphere: the expansion of life on the surface of the Earth and the strengthening of its transformative influence on the abiotic environment; an increase in the scale and intensity of biogenic migrations of atoms, the emergence of qualitatively new geochemical functions of living matter, the conquest of new mineral and energy resources by life; transition of the biosphere to the noosphere.

In 1903, Vernadsky’s monograph “Fundamentals of Crystallography” was published, and in 1908 the publication of separate issues of “An Experience in Descriptive Mineralogy” began.

In 1907, Vernadsky began research on radioactive minerals in Russia, and in 1910 he created and headed the Radium Commission of the Academy of Sciences. Work at KEPS stimulated the development of Vernadsky's systematic research on problems of biogeochemistry, the study of living matter and the biosphere. In 1916, he began to develop the basic principles of biogeochemistry, studying the chemical composition of organisms and their role in the migration of atoms in the geological shells of the Earth.

In 1908, the Nobel Prize was awarded to biologist I. I. Mechnikov for his work on immunology and infectious diseases. Once, when Mechnikov observed under a microscope the moving cells (amebocytes) of a starfish larva, the idea occurred to him that these cells, which capture and digest organic particles, not only participate in digestion, but also perform a protective function in the body. Mechnikov confirmed this assumption with a simple and convincing experiment. Having introduced a rose thorn into the body of a transparent larva, after a while he saw that amebocytes had accumulated around the splinter.

In 1891-92, Mechnikov developed the doctrine of inflammation, closely related to the problem of immunity. Considering this process in a comparative evolutionary aspect, he assessed the phenomenon of inflammation itself as a protective reaction of the body aimed at getting rid of foreign substances or a source of infection.

The beginning of the 20th century was the heyday of Russian historical science. The largest specialists in the field of Russian history were V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Kornilov, N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky, S. F. Platonov. Problems of general history were dealt with by P. G. Vinogradov, R. Yu. Vipper, E. V. Tarle. The Russian school of Oriental studies gained worldwide fame. Revolutionary situation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. It was accompanied by a rise in general interest in politics and the humanities: history, philosophy, economics, law. These sciences were transformed from “armchair” sciences into journalistic ones, and a number of scientists began to engage in political activities.

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. Religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov, acquired special significance. With extreme force and persuasiveness, he spoke out against the materialism and positivism that dominated Russian science, trying to enrich philosophy with ideas drawn from Christianity. Following Solovyov, such remarkable philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E. devoted themselves to the search for ways in which humanity could draw closer to the Lord and create a truly Christian society. N. Trubetskoy, S. L. Frank, etc.

At this time, a number of very bright works, related to various areas of historical research: “Essays on the history of Russian culture” by P. N. Milyukov, “Peasant Reform” by A. A. Kornilov, “History of Young Russia” by M. O. Gershenzon, etc.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Scientific and technical societies were also popular. They united scientists, practitioners, amateur enthusiasts and existed on contributions from their members and private donations. Some received small government subsidies. The most famous were: the Free Economic Society (it was founded back in 1765), the Society of History and Antiquities (1804), the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature (1811), Geographical, Technical, Physico-chemical, Botanical, Metallurgical, several medical, agricultural, etc. These societies not only served as centers of scientific research, but also widely disseminated scientific and technical knowledge among the population. A characteristic feature of the scientific life of that time were congresses of naturalists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, archaeologists, etc.

Literature

Russian literature continued to play an extremely important role in the cultural life of the country. During these years, Leo Tolstoy still lived and worked. In 1899 it was published last novel"Resurrection", in which the protest against social evil and social injustice sounded sharp and angry. Tolstoy did not accept or support modernism in art.

A significant phenomenon in the development of the realistic trend in Russian literature were the works of such writers as I.A. Bunin, V.V. Veresaev, A.I. Kuprin, A.N. Tolstoy, N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, E.V. Chirikov and others.

At the time in question, A.P. created his best works. Chekhov: novellas and short stories ("My Life", "Men", "House with a Mezzanine", "Lady with a Dog", "Bride", etc.), dramatic works staged on the stage of the Art Theater. His work reflected the “terribly simple” and complex life of Russia. Chekhov was not a supporter of a certain system of socio-political views, but his works carried the expectation of a new, better life. “The present culture,” he wrote in 1902, “is the beginning of work for a great future.”

In the 90s, the creative path of A.M. Gorky (Peshkova, 1868-1936) began. Gorky published his first story “Makar Chudra” in 1892 in the newspaper “Tiflis Bulletin”. “Essays and Stories”, published in the late 90s, brought the writer all-Russian fame. The heroic romance of the young Gorky was a hymn to the “madness of the brave” and reflected the democratic revolutionary sentiments that spread in the 90s. In his works written at this time ("Old Woman Izergil", "Chelkash", "Girl and Death", "Song of the Falcon", "Petrel"), he sang of the proud, free person, love as the source of life, the fearlessness of those who called for a fight and was ready to give his life for freedom.

During these years, young writers came to Russian literature. In 1893, I. A. Bunin’s first story, “Tanka,” appeared in the magazine “Russian Wealth.” In 1897, a collection of his stories, “To the Ends of the Earth,” was published, dedicated to the bitter fate of migrant peasants. At the end of the 90s, the first significant works of A.I. Kuprin appeared ("Olesya", "Moloch"). I.A. Bunin (1870-1953) and A.I. Kuprin (1870-1938) are the largest writers of Russian realistic literature of the 20th century. In the pre-emigrant period, Bunin wrote such significant works as “Village” (1910), “Sukhodol” (1911), in which suffering and thinking rural Russia spoke. The writer did not hide his “great sadness” over the disappearance of the old way of life. Kuprin's story "The Duel" (1905), which was perceived as a picture of disintegration not only in the army, but also discord in all public life, had a great public resonance.

The main forces of realist writers were grouped around the publishing partnership "Znanie" (1898-1913). In 1900, Gorky began collaborating with this publishing house, becoming one of its leaders (since 1902). He widely attracted young and already well-known writers to participate in the “Knowledge” collections.

One of the new phenomena of literature of the 20th century was proletarian poetry, in which the theme of the struggle of the working class was heard. Its peculiarities were social optimism and romantic pathos. The poets themselves viewed their poetry only as a “forerunner” of the new literature of the future. In 1914, the first “Collection of Proletarian Writers” was published, edited by M. Gorky.

The theme of the proletarian is included in literature. In 1906, A.M. Gorky wrote the drama “Enemies” and the novel “Mother,” in which he formulated new aesthetic principles for the reproduction of life. In one of his letters to A.P. Chekhov, he wrote about the need to approve “heroic realism,” which would not only depict life, but would also be “higher, better, more beautiful.” In the novel "Mother" for the first time the life of workers was depicted reliably, the heroes - Pavel and Nilovna - had their own prototypes (the head of the Sormovo party organization Pyotr Zalomov and his mother Anna Kirillovna). The novel "Mother" was published entirely in Russian in 1907 abroad. At the same time, the book was translated into a number of foreign languages.

Symbolism

Russian symbolism as literary direction developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.

“SYMBOLISM” is a movement in European and Russian art that emerged at the turn of the 20th century, focused primarily on artistic expression through SYMBOL“things-in-themselves” and ideas that are beyond sensory perception. Striving to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world, its “imperishable” beauty, the symbolists expressed a longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of world socio-historical changes, and trust in age-old cultural values ​​as a unifying principle.

The culture of Russian symbolism, as well as the very style of thinking of the poets and writers who formed this direction, arose and developed at the intersection and mutual complementation of outwardly opposing, but in fact firmly connected and explaining one another lines of philosophical and aesthetic attitude to reality. It was a feeling of unprecedented novelty of everything that the turn of the century brought with it, accompanied by a feeling of trouble and instability.

The theoretical, philosophical and aesthetic roots and sources of creativity of symbolist writers were very diverse. Thus, V. Bryusov considered symbolism a purely artistic movement, Merezhkovsky relied on Christian teaching, Vyacheslav Ivanov sought theoretical support in the philosophy and aesthetics of the ancient world, refracted through the philosophy of Nietzsche; A. Bely was fond of Vl. Solovyov, Schopenhauer, Kant, Nietzsche.

At first symbolic poetry was formed as romantic and individualistic poetry, separating itself from the polyphony of the “street”, withdrawing into the world of personal experiences and impressions.

“Symbolism itself has never been a school of art,” wrote A. Bely, “but it was a tendency towards a new worldview, refracting art in its own way... And we viewed new forms of art not as a change in forms alone, but as a distinct sign changes in the internal perception of the world."

The artistic and journalistic organ of the Symbolists was the magazine “Scales” (1904 – 1909). “For us, representatives symbolism, As a harmonious worldview, Ellis wrote, there is nothing more alien than the subordination of the idea of ​​life, the inner path of the individual, to the external improvement of the forms of community life. For us there can be no question of reconciling the path of the individual heroic individual with the instinctive movements of the masses, always subordinated to narrowly egoistic, material motives.”

These attitudes determined the struggle of the Symbolists against democratic literature and art, which was expressed in the systematic slander of Gorky, in an effort to prove that, having joined the ranks of proletarian writers, he ended as an artist, in attempts to discredit revolutionary democratic criticism and aesthetics, its great creators - Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky.

The symbolists tried in every possible way to make “theirs” Pushkin, Gogol, called by V. Ivanov “the frightened spy of life,” and Lermontov.

Associated with these attitudes is a sharp contrast between symbolism and realism. “Whereas realist poets,” writes K. Balmont, “view the world naively, like simple observers, submitting to its material basis, symbolist poets, re-creating materiality with their complex impressionability, dominate the world and penetrate its mysteries.” Symbolists strive to contrast reason and intuition. “...Art is the comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways,” states V. Bryusov and calls the works of the symbolists “mystical keys of secrets” that help a person achieve freedom.

V. Ya. Bryusov (1873 – 1924) went through a complex and difficult path of ideological quest. The revolution of 1905 aroused the admiration of the poet and contributed to the beginning of his departure from symbolism. However, Bryusov did not immediately come to a new understanding of art. Bryusov’s attitude towards the revolution is complex and contradictory. He welcomed the cleansing forces that had risen to fight the old world, but believed that they only brought the elements of destruction:

I see a new battle in the name of a new will!

Break - I will be with you! build - no!

The poetry of V. Bryusov of this time is characterized by the desire for a scientific understanding of life and the awakening of interest in history. A. M. Gorky highly valued the encyclopedic education of V. Ya. Bryusov, calling him the most cultural writer in Rus'. Bryusov accepted and welcomed the October Revolution and actively participated in the construction of Soviet culture.

The ideological contradictions of the era (one way or another) influenced individual realist writers. In the creative life of L.N. Andreev (1871 - 1919) they affected a certain departure from the realistic method. However, realism as a direction in artistic culture has retained its position. Russian writers continued to be interested in life in all its manifestations, the fate of the common man, and important problems of public life.

The traditions of critical realism continued to be preserved and developed in the works of the greatest Russian writer I. A. Bunin (1870 - 1953). His most significant works of that time are the stories “Village” (1910) and “Sukhodol” (1911).

The year 1912 marked the beginning of a new revolutionary upsurge in the socio-political life of Russia.

D. Merezhkovsky, F. Sologub, 3. Gippius, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont and others are a group of “senior” symbolists who were the founders of the movement. In the early 900s, a group of “younger” symbolists emerged - A. Bely, S. Solovyov, V. Ivanov, A. Blok and others.

The platform of the “younger” symbolists is based on the idealistic philosophy of V. Solovyov with his idea of ​​the Third Testament and the coming of Eternal Femininity. V. Solovyov argued that the highest task of art is “... the creation of a universal spiritual organism,” that a work of art is an image of an object and phenomenon “in the light of the future world,” which is related to the understanding of the role of the poet as a theurgist and clergyman. This, as explained by A. Bely, contains “the connection of the peaks of symbolism as art with mysticism.”

The recognition that there are “other worlds”, that art should strive to express them, determines the artistic practice of symbolism as a whole, the three principles of which are proclaimed in the work of D. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of the decline and new trends in modern Russian literature.” This is “...mystical content, symbols and the expansion of artistic impressionability” .

Based on the idealistic premise of the primacy of consciousness, symbolists argue that reality, reality, is the creation of the artist:

My dream - and all the spaces,

And all the successions

The whole world is just my decoration,

My tracks

(F. Sologub)

“Having broken the shackles of thought, being shackled is a dream,” Balmont urges. The poet’s calling is to connect the real world with the transcendental world.

The poetic declaration of symbolism is clearly expressed in V. Ivanov’s poem “Among the Deaf Mountains”:

And I thought: “Oh genius! Like this horn,

You must sing the song of the earth, so that in your hearts

Wake up a different song. Blessed is he who hears."

And from behind the mountains an answering voice sounded:

“Nature is a symbol, like this horn. She

Sounds for echo. And the echo is God.

Blessed is he who hears the song and hears the echo.”

The poetry of the Symbolists is poetry for the elite, for the aristocrats of the spirit.

A symbol is an echo, a hint, an indication; it conveys a hidden meaning.

Symbolists strive to create a complex, associative metaphor, abstract and irrational. This is “ringing-resonant silence” by V. Bryusov, “And the bright eyes are dark with rebellion” by V. Ivanov, “dry deserts of shame” by A. Bely and by him: “The day is a matte pearl - a tear - flows from sunrise to sunset." This technique is revealed very precisely in poem 3. Gippius “The Seamstress.”

There is a stamp on all phenomena.

One seems to be merged with the other.

Having accepted one thing, I try to guess

Behind him is something else, What is hidden.

Very great importance in the poetry of the Symbolists, the sound expressiveness of verse acquired, for example, in F. Sologub:

And two deep glasses

From thin-sounding glass

You put it to the bright cup

And the sweet foam poured out,

Leela, Leela, Leela, rocked

Two dark scarlet glasses.

Whiter, lily, whiter

You were white and ala...

The revolution of 1905 found a unique refraction in the work of the Symbolists.

Merezhkovsky greeted 1905 with horror, having witnessed with his own eyes the coming of the “coming boor” he had predicted. Excitedly, with a keen desire to understand, Blok approached the events. V. Bryusov welcomed the cleansing thunderstorm.

After the revolutionary events of 1905, contradictions intensified even more within the ranks of the Symbolists, which ultimately led this movement to crisis.

By the tenth years of the twentieth century, symbolism needed updating. “In the depths of symbolism itself,” wrote V. Bryusov in the article “The Meaning of Modern Poetry,” “new movements arose, trying to infuse new strength into the decrepit organism. But these attempts were too partial, their founders were too imbued with the same school traditions for the renewal to be any significant.”

It should be noted, however, that Russian symbolists made a significant contribution to the development of Russian culture. The most talented of them, in their own way, reflected the tragedy of the situation of a person who could not find his place in a world shaken by grandiose social conflicts, and tried to find new ways for artistic understanding of the world. They made serious discoveries in the field of poetics, rhythmic reorganization of verse, and strengthening of the musical principle in it.

The last decade before October was marked by quests in modernist art. The controversy surrounding symbolism that took place in 1910 among the artistic intelligentsia revealed its crisis. As N.S. Gumilev put it in one of his articles, “symbolism has completed its circle of development and is now falling.”

Acmeism

Symbolism was replaced by acmeism. In 1912, a new literary movement announced itself with the collection “Hyperboreas”, which appropriated the name Acmeism (from Greek acme, which means the highest degree of something, the time of flourishing). “The Workshop of Poets,” as its representatives called themselves, included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, S. Gorodetsky, G. Ivanov, M. Zenkevich and others. M. Kuzmin, M. Voloshin also joined this direction , V. Khodasevich et al.

The founders of Acmeism are considered to be N. S. Gumilev (1886 - 1921) and S. M. Gorodetsky (1884 - 1967.

The Acmeists, in contrast to the symbolist vagueness, proclaimed the cult of real earthly existence, “a courageously firm and clear view of life.” But at the same time, they tried to establish primarily the aesthetic-hedonistic function of art, evading social problems in their poetry. The aesthetics of Acmeism clearly expressed decadent tendencies, and its theoretical basis remained philosophical idealism. However, among the Acmeists there were poets who, in their work, were able to go beyond the framework of this “platform” and acquire new ideological and artistic qualities (A. A. Akhmatova, S. M. Gorodetsky, M. A. Zenkevich).

The Acmeists considered themselves the heirs of a “worthy father” - symbolism, which, in the words of N. Gumilyov, “...has completed its circle of development and is now falling.” Affirming the bestial, primitive beginning(they also called themselves Adamists), the Acmeists continued to “remember the unknowable” and in its name proclaimed any renunciation of the struggle to change life. “To rebel in the name of other conditions of existence here, where there is death,” writes N. Gumilev in his work “The Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism,” “is as strange as a prisoner breaking a wall when there is an open door in front of him.”

S. Gorodetsky also asserts this: “After all the “rejections,” the world was irrevocably accepted by Acmeism, in all its beauties and ugliness.” Modern man felt like a beast, “devoid of both claws and fur” (M. Zenkevich “Wild Porphyry”), Adam, who “... looked around with the same clear, keen eye, accepted everything he saw, and sang hallelujah to life and the world.”

And then same Acmeists constantly sound notes of doom and melancholy. The work of A. A. Akhmatova (A. A. Gorenko, 1889 - 1966) occupies a special place in the poetry of Acmeism. Her first collection of poetry, “Evening,” was published in 1912. Critics immediately noted the distinctive features of her poetry: restraint of intonation, emphasized intimacy of subject matter, psychologism. Akhmatova's early poetry is deeply lyrical and emotional. With her love for man, faith in his spiritual powers and capabilities, she clearly departed from the Acmeistic idea of ​​the “primordial Adam.” The main part of A. A. Akhmatova’s creativity falls on the Soviet period.

A. Akhmatova’s first collections “Evening” (1912) and “Rosary” (1914) brought her great fame. A closed, narrow intimate world is reflected in her work, painted in tones of sadness and sadness:

I'm not asking for wisdom or strength.

Oh, just let me warm myself by the fire!

I'm cold... Winged or wingless,

The merry god will not visit me.

The theme of love, the main and only one, is directly related to suffering (which is due to the facts of the poetess’s biography):

Let it lie like a tombstone

On my life love.

Characterizing the early work of A. Akhmatova, A. Surkov says that she appears “... as a poet of sharply defined poetic individuality and strong lyrical talent... “feminine” intimate lyrical experiences...”.

A. Akhmatova understands that “we live solemnly and difficultly,” that “somewhere there is a simple life and light,” but she does not want to give up this life:

Yes, I loved them those night gatherings -

There are ice glasses on the small table,

Above the black coffee there is a fragrant, thin steam,

The red fireplace is heavy, winter heat,

The hilarity of a caustic literary joke

And the friend's first glance, helpless and creepy."

The Acmeists sought to return the image to its living concreteness, objectivity, to free it from mystical encryptedness, which O. Mandelstam spoke very angrily about, assuring that the Russian symbolists “...sealed all the words, all the images, destining them exclusively for liturgical use. It turned out to be extremely uncomfortable - I couldn’t walk, I couldn’t stand, I couldn’t sit down. You can't dine on a table, because it's not just a table. You can’t light a fire, because it might mean something that you yourself won’t be happy with.”

And at the same time, Acmeists claim that their images are sharply different from realistic ones, because, in the words of S. Gorodetsky, they “... are born for the first time” “as hitherto unseen, but from now on real phenomena.” This determines the sophistication and peculiar mannerism of the Acmeistic image, no matter in what deliberate bestial savagery it may appear. For example, from Voloshin:

People are animals, people are reptiles,

Like a hundred-eyed evil spider,

They entwine glances into rings.

The circle of these images is narrowed, which achieves extreme beauty, and which makes it possible to achieve greater sophistication when describing it:

Slower the snow hive,

Crystal is clearer than a window,

And a turquoise veil

Carelessly thrown on a chair.

Fabric, intoxicated with itself,

Pampered by the caress of light,

She's experiencing summer

As if untouched in winter.

And if in ice diamonds

Frost flows forever,

Here - flutter dragonflies

Fast-living, blue-eyed.

(O. Mandelstam)

The literary heritage of N. S. Gumilyov is significant in its artistic value. His work was dominated by exotic and historical themes, and he was a singer of “strong personality.” Gumilyov played a large role in the development of the form of verse, which was distinguished by its precision and accuracy.

It was in vain that the Acmeists so sharply dissociated themselves from the Symbolists. We find the same “other worlds” and longing for them in their poetry. Thus, N. Gumilev, who welcomed the imperialist war as a “sacred” cause, asserting that “seraphim, clear and winged, are visible behind the shoulders of warriors,” a year later wrote poems about the end of the world, about the death of civilization:

The peaceful roars of monsters are heard,

Suddenly the rains pour down furiously,

And everyone is tightening their fat

Light green horsetails.

The once proud and brave conqueror understands the destructiveness of the enmity that has engulfed humanity:

Isn't that all equals? Let time roll on

We understood you, Earth:

You're just a gloomy gatekeeper

At the entrance to God's fields.

This explains their rejection of the Great October Socialist Revolution. But their fate was not the same. Some of them emigrated; N. Gumilyov allegedly “took an active part in the counter-revolutionary conspiracy” and was shot. In the poem “Worker,” he predicted his end at the hands of a proletarian who cast a bullet, “which will separate me from the earth.”

And the Lord will reward me in full measure

For my short and short life.

I did this in a light gray blouse

A short old man.

Such poets as S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, V. Narbut, M. Zenkevich were unable to emigrate.

For example, A. Akhmatova, who did not understand and did not accept the revolution, refused to leave her homeland:

He said: "Come here,

Leave your land deaf and sinful,

Leave Russia forever.

I will wash the blood from your hands,

I will take the black shame out of my heart,

I'll cover it with a new name

The pain of defeat and resentment."

But indifferent and calm

I covered my ears with my hands,

She did not immediately return to creativity. But the Great Patriotic War again awakened the poet in her, a patriotic poet, confident in the victory of her Motherland (“Courage”, “Oath”, etc.). A. Akhmatova wrote in her autobiography that for her in poetry “... my connection with time, with the new life of my people.”

The work of such talented Acmeist poets as N. Gumilev, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, M. Kuzmin, O. Mandelstam went beyond the framework of the proclaimed theoretical principles. Each of them brought into poetry his own, unique to him, motives and moods, his own poetic images.

Futurism

Simultaneously with Acmeism in 1910 - 1912. arose futurism.

The futurists came out with different views on art in general and poetry in particular. They declared themselves opponents of modern bourgeois society, which disfigures the individual, and defenders of the “natural” person, his right to free, individual development. But these statements often amounted to an abstract declaration of individualism, freedom from moral and cultural traditions.

Unlike the Acmeists, who, although they opposed symbolism, nevertheless considered themselves to a certain extent its successors, the futurists from the very beginning proclaimed a complete rejection of any literary traditions and first of all from the classical heritage, arguing that it is hopelessly outdated. In their loud and boldly written manifestos, they glorified a new life, developing under the influence of science and technological progress, rejecting everything that was “before”, they declared their desire to remake the world, which, from their point of view, should be facilitated to a large extent by poetry.

Like other modernist movements, futurism was internally contradictory. The most significant of the futurist groups, which later received the name cubo-futurism, united such poets as D. D. Burliuk, V. V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh, V. V. Kamensky, V. V. Mayakovsky, and some others. A type of futurism was the egofuturism of I. Severyanin (I.V. Lotarev, 1887 - 1941). In the group of futurists called “Centrifuge,” Soviet poets N. N. Aseev and B. L. Pasternak began their creative careers.

Futurism proclaimed a revolution of form, independent of content, absolute freedom of poetic speech. Futurists rejected literary traditions. In their manifesto with the shocking title “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” published in a collection of the same name in 1912, they called for throwing Pushkin, Dostoevsky, and Tolstoy off the “Steamboat of Modernity.” Rejecting everything, they affirmed “The Lightnings of the New Future Beauty of the Self-Valuable Word.” Unlike Mayakovsky, they did not try to overthrow the existing system, but sought only to update the forms of reproduction modern life.

A. Kruchenykh defended the poet’s right to create an “abstruse” language that does not have a specific meaning. In his writings, Russian speech was indeed replaced by a meaningless set of words. However, V. Khlebnikov (1885 - 1922), V.V. Kamensky (1884 - 1961) managed in their creative practice to carry out interesting experiments in the field of words, which had a beneficial effect on Russian and Soviet poetry.

Among the futurist poets, the creative path of V. V. Mayakovsky (1893 - 1930) began. His first poems appeared in print in 1912. From the very beginning, Mayakovsky stood out in the poetry of Futurism, introducing his own theme into it. He always spoke out not only against “all sorts of old things,” but also for the creation of something new in public life.

In the years preceding the Great October Revolution, Mayakovsky was a passionate revolutionary romantic, an exposer of the kingdom of the “fat,” anticipating a revolutionary storm. The pathos of denial of the entire system of capitalist relations, the humanistic faith in man sounded with enormous force in his poems “Cloud in Pants”, “Spine Flute”, “War and Peace”, “Man”. The theme of the poem “A Cloud in Pants,” published in 1915 in a censored form, was subsequently defined by Mayakovsky as four cries of “down with”: “Down with your love!”, “Down with your art!”, “Down with your system!”, “ Down with your religion!” He was the first of the poets who showed in his works the truth of the new society.

In Russian poetry of the pre-revolutionary years there were bright personalities that are difficult to attribute to a specific literary movement. These are M. A. Voloshin (1877 - 1932) and M. I. Tsvetaeva (1892 - 1941).

Russian culture on the eve of the Great October Revolution was the result of a complex and enormous path. Distinctive features it has always remained democracy, high humanism and genuine nationality, despite periods of cruel government reaction, when progressive thought and advanced culture were suppressed in every possible way.

The richest cultural heritage of pre-revolutionary times, cultural values ​​created over centuries constitute the golden fund of our national culture.

Painting

In painting, the “Silver Age” continued until the emigration of a galaxy of outstanding representatives from Russia abstract art(Larionov, Goncharova, Kandinsky, Malevich, Tatlin, etc.).

During this difficult period for the country, for the painters of the turn of the century, other methods of expression, other forms of artistic creativity became characteristic - in images that were contradictory, complicated and reflecting modernity without illustrativeness or narrative. Artists painfully search for harmony and beauty in a world that is fundamentally alien to both harmony and beauty. That is why many saw their mission in cultivating a sense of beauty. This time of “eves”, expectations of changes in public life, gave rise to many movements, associations, groupings, and a clash of different worldviews and tastes. But it also gave rise to the universalism of a whole generation of artists who appeared after the “classical” Peredvizhniki. It is enough to name only the names of V.A. Serov and M.A. Vrubel.

After 1915, Moscow became the capital of innovative art . From 1916 to 1921, it was in Moscow that avant-garde trends in painting were formed. The association “Jack of Diamonds” (Konchalovsky, Kuprin, Falk, Udaltsova, Lentulov, Larionov, Mashkov, etc.), which rejected academic and realistic art, and the “Supremus” circle (Malevich, Rozanova, Klyuv, Popova) are gaining strength. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, new directions, circles and societies appear every now and then, new names, concepts and approaches appear:

Departure from realism towards “poetic realism” in the works of V. A. Serov. One of the greatest artists, an innovator of Russian painting at the turn of the century, according to G.Yu. Sternin, was Valentin Aleksandrovich Serov (1865-1911). His “Girl with Peaches” (portrait of Vera Mamontova) and “Girl Illuminated by the Sun” (portrait of Masha Simanovich) represent a whole stage in Russian painting. Serov was brought up among outstanding figures of Russian musical culture (his father was a famous composer, his mother was a pianist), he studied with Repin and Chistyakov, studied the best museum collections Europe and upon returning from abroad joined the Abramtsevo circle.

The images of Vera Mamontova and Masha Simanovich are permeated with a feeling of the joy of life, a bright sense of being, and a bright, victorious youth. This was achieved by “light” impressionistic painting, which is so characterized by the “principle of randomness”, sculpting the form with a dynamic, free brushstroke, creating the impression of a complex light-air environment. But unlike the impressionists, Serov never dissolves an object in this environment so that it dematerializes, his composition never loses stability, the masses are always in balance. And most importantly, it does not lose the integral generalized characteristics of the model.

Serov quickly became one of the best portrait painters in Russia, shrewdly sharpening the most characteristic features of the model and achieving the utmost vividness of the light-air and color environment.

In the direction of impressionism by K. A. Korovin. Korovin, under the influence of impressionism, developed a free decorative style. Colorful spectacular theatrical scenery. Already in early landscapes Konstantin Alekseevich Korovin (1861-1939) solved purely pictorial problems - to paint gray on white, black on white, gray on gray. “Conceptual” landscape (M.M. Allenov’s term), such as Savrasov’s or Levitanov’s, does not interest him.

For the brilliant colorist Korovin, the world appears as a “riot of colors.” Generously gifted by nature, Korovin studied both portraits and still life, but it would not be wrong to say that landscape remained his favorite genre. He brought into art the strong realistic traditions of his teachers from the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture - Savrasov and Polenov, but he has a different view of the world, he sets other tasks. Korovin’s generous artistic talent was brilliantly manifested in theatrical and decorative painting. As a theater painter, he worked for the Abramtsevo theater (and Mamontov was perhaps the first to appreciate him as theater artist), for the Moscow Art Theatre, for the Moscow Private Russian Opera, where his lifelong friendship with Chaliapin began, for the Diaghilev enterprise.

Korovin raised theatrical scenery and the importance of the artist in the theater to a new level, he made a whole revolution in the understanding of the role of the artist in the theater and had a great influence on his contemporaries with his colorful, “spectacular” decorations, revealing the very essence of a musical performance.

In the direction of post-impressionism by V. E. Borisov-Musatov. Already in the early plein air sketches-paintings of Borisov-Musatov there is a feeling of exciting, inexplicable mystery (“Window”). The main motif through which a “different world”, hidden under a haze of colors, opens up for the artist are “noble nests,” decaying ancient estates (he usually worked on the Sleptsovka and Zubrilovka estates in the Saratov province). The smooth, “musical” rhythms of the paintings again and again reproduce Borisov-Musatov’s favorite themes: these are corners of the park and female figures (the artist’s sister and wife), which seem to be images human souls wandering in the otherworldly realm of sleep. In most of his works, the master preferred watercolor, tempera or pastel to oil, achieving a special, “melting” lightness of the brushstroke.

From painting to painting (“Tapestry”, “Pond”, “Ghosts”) the feeling of “another world” increases; in the “Requiem”, written in memory of the deceased sister, we already see a whole multi-figured sacrament, where the deceased is accompanied by her “astral doubles”. At the same time, the master creates clean, deserted landscapes, full of the finest lyricism (“Hazel Bush”, “Autumn Song”). He gravitates towards a large, monumental style of wall painting, but all plans of this kind (for example, a cycle of sketches on the theme of the seasons, 1904-05) were never realized in architecture.

The artist’s dreamy temperament (“I live in a world of dreams and fantasies among birch groves, dozing off in deep sleep autumn mists,” he writes to A. N. Benois in 1905 from Tarusa) does not deprive his work of a sense of historicity. The poetics of estate life is filled with him (just as in the literature of that time - in the works of A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, A. Bely, etc.) with a premonition of approaching fatal, catastrophic milestones. Early death master strengthened the perception of his images as a lyrical requiem dedicated old Russia. Borisov-Musatov was the immediate predecessor of the Blue Rose artists, who were united, in particular, by deep respect for his heritage.

In the direction of “pictorial symbolism” from M.A. Vrubel. The artist’s craving for monumental art, going beyond the scope of easel painting, intensified over the years; A powerful outburst of this craving was the giant panels “Mikula Selyaninovich” and “Princess Dreams”. However, it was easel painting, even if it took on the character of panels, that remained the main channel of his search. The coloristic luxury of such paintings as “Girl against the background of a Persian carpet”, “Venice”, “Spain” does not obscure the anxiety lurking behind the external splendor. Sometimes the gap of dark chaos is tempered by the element of folklore: in the paintings “Pan”, “The Swan Princess”, “Towards Night”, mythological themes are inseparable from the poetry of native nature. The lyrical revelation of the landscape, as if enveloping the viewer with its colorful haze, is especially impressive in “Lilac.” Vrubel’s portraits of K. D. and M. I. Artsybushev, as well as S. I. Mamontov, are more analytical and nervously tense.

Vrubel created his most mature paintings and graphic works at the turn of the century - in the genre of landscape, portrait, book illustration. In the organization and decorative-planar interpretation of the canvas or sheet, in the combination of the real and the fantastic, in the commitment to ornamental, rhythmically complex solutions in his works of this period, the features of Art Nouveau increasingly assert themselves.

Vrubel more clearly reflected the contradictions and painful tossing of the transition era. On the day of Vrubel’s funeral, Benois said: “Vrubel’s life, as it will now go down in history, is a marvelous pathetic symphony, that is, the fullest form of artistic existence. Future generations... will look back on the last tens of years of the 19th century as the “era of Vrubel”... It was in it that our time expressed itself in the most beautiful and saddest way that it was capable of.”

Art critics note that genre painting was developing in the 90s, but it was developing somewhat differently. Thus, the peasant theme is revealed in a new way. The split in the rural community is emphasized and accusatoryly depicted by Sergei Alekseevich Korovin (1858-1908) in the film “On the World.” Abram Efimovich Arkhipov (1862-1930) was able to show the hopelessness of existence in hard, exhausting work in the film “Washerwomen”. He achieved this to a large extent thanks to new pictorial discoveries and newly understood possibilities of color and light. The lack of agreement and the successfully found expressive detail make the painting by Sergei Vasilyevich Ivanov (1864-1910) “On the Road” even more tragic. Death of a migrant." The shafts sticking out, as if raised in a scream, dramatize the action much more than the dead man depicted in the foreground or the woman howling above him. Ivanov owns one of the works dedicated to the revolution of 1905 - “Execution”. The impressionistic technique of “partial composition”, as if a randomly snatched frame, is preserved here: only a line of houses, a line of soldiers, a group of demonstrators is outlined, and in the foreground, on a sunlit square, is the figure of a dead man and a dog running from gunfire. Ivanov is characterized by sharp light and shadow contrasts, an expressive outline of objects, and a well-known flatness of the image. His language is lapidary.

In the 90s of the XIX century. Art includes an artist who makes the worker the main character of his works. In 1894, a painting by N.A. appeared. Kasatkina (1859-1930) “Miner”, in 1895 - “Coal Miners. Change".

At the turn of the century, a slightly different path of development than that of Surikov was outlined in the historical theme. For example, Andrei Petrovich Ryabushkin works in the historical genre rather than in the purely historical genre. “Russian women of the 17th century in the church”, “Wedding train in Moscow. XVII century”, “They are going. (The people of Moscow during the entry of a foreign embassy into Moscow at the end of the 17th century)”, “Moscow street of the 17th century on a holiday” and so on - these are everyday scenes from the life of Moscow in the 17th century. Ryabushkin was especially attracted to this century, with its gingerbread elegance, polychrome, and patterns. The artist aesthetically admires the bygone world of the 17th century.

Apollinary Mikhailovich Vasnetsov (1856-1933) pays even more attention to the landscape in his historical compositions. His favorite topic is also the 17th century, but not everyday scenes, but the architecture of Moscow. “Street in Kitai-Gorod. Beginning of the 17th century." Painting “Moscow at the end of the 17th century. At Dawn at the Resurrection Gate,” may have been inspired by the introduction to Mussorgsky’s opera “Khovanshchina,” for which Vasnetsov had recently completed sketches of the scenery.

A new type of painting, in which the contemporary art folk artistic traditions were created by Philip Andreevich Malyavin (1869-1940), who in his youth studied icon painting at the Athos Monastery and then studied at the Academy of Arts under Repin. His images of “women” and “girls” have a certain symbolic meaning - healthy soil of Rus'. His paintings are always expressive, and although these are, as a rule, easel works, they receive a monumental and decorative interpretation under the artist’s brush. “Laughter”, “Whirlwind” is a realistic depiction of peasant girls laughing infectiously loudly or rushing uncontrollably in a round dance. Malyavin combined expressive decorativeism with realistic fidelity to nature in his painting.

On topic Ancient Rus', like a number of masters before him, was addressed by Mikhail Vasilyevich Nesterov (1862-1942), but the image of Rus' appears in the artist’s paintings as a kind of ideal, almost enchanted world, in harmony with nature, but disappeared forever like the legendary city of Kitezh. This acute sensation nature, admiration for the world, for every tree and blade of grass are especially clearly expressed in one of Nesterov’s most famous works of the pre-revolutionary period - “Vision to the Youth Bartholomew.” Before turning to the image of Sergius of Radonezh, Nesterov had already expressed interest in the theme of Ancient Rus' with such works as “The Bride of Christ”, “The Hermit”, creating images of high spirituality and quiet contemplation. He dedicated several more works to Sergius of Radonezh himself: “The Youth of St. Sergius”, the triptych “The Works of St. Sergius”, “Sergius of Radonezh”.

In the artist’s desire for a flat interpretation of composition, elegance, ornamentation, and refined sophistication of plastic rhythms, the undoubted influence of Art Nouveau was evident.

An extremely important place in the development of abstract painting belongs to the brilliant Russian artist, poet and art theorist V.V. Kandinsky (1866-1944). In 1910 he created his first abstract work and wrote a treatise entitled “On the Spiritual in Art” (published in 1912 in German, fragments of the Russian version were read by N. I. Kulbin in December 1911 at the All-Russian Congress of Artists in St. Petersburg). Having put forward as the fundamental foundation of art its spiritual content, Kandinsky believed that the hidden inner meaning can be most fully expressed in compositions organized on the basis of rhythm, the psychophysical effect of color, contrasts of dynamics and statics.

The artist grouped abstract paintings into three cycles: “Impressions”, “Improvisation” and “Compositions”. The rhythm, the emotional sound of color, the energy of the lines and spots of his pictorial compositions were intended to express powerful lyrical sensations, similar to the feelings awakened by music, poetry, and views of beautiful landscapes. The carrier of internal experiences in Kandinsky’s non-objective compositions became coloristic and compositional orchestration, carried out by pictorial means - color, dot, line, spot, plane, contrasting collision of colorful spots. Another creator of modern art was K.S. Malevich (1878-1935). With him begins the era of Suprematism (from the Latin supremus - highest, last), or the art of geometric abstraction. Coming from a large Polish family, he came to Moscow in 1905 to study painting and sculpting. After the outbreak of World War I, he performed a number of propaganda patriotic popular prints with texts by V. V. Mayakovsky for the publishing house “Modern Lubok”. In the spring of 1915, the first paintings of the abstract geometric style appeared, which soon received the name “Suprematism”. Malevich gave the name “Suprematism” to the invented direction - regular geometric figures painted in pure local colors and immersed in a kind of “white abyss” where the laws of dynamics and statics reigned. The term he coined went back to the Latin root “suprem”, which formed the word “suprematia” in the artist’s native language, Polish, which translated meant “supremacy”, “supremacy”, “dominance”. At the first stage of the existence of the new artistic system, Malevich, with this word, sought to fix the primacy, the dominance of color over all other components of painting. In 1915, Malevich exhibited 39 “non-objective” works in Petrograd, including “Black Square”. In 1931 he created sketches of the paintings of the Red Theater in Leningrad, the interior of which was decorated according to his design. In 1932-33 headed the experimental laboratory at the Russian Museum. Malevich's work in the last period of his life gravitated towards the realistic school of Russian painting.

The revolution of 1917 forced painters to transfer innovative experiments from the confined space of workshops to the open spaces of city streets. Freed from enslavement by plot and objects, painters rushed to discover the internal laws of art. The new style was characterized by geometric abstractions from the simplest shapes (square, rectangle, circle, triangle).

Architecture

Silver Age architecture developed in a direction that emphasized the functional purpose of buildings. These were mainly rich mansions and public buildings. They were distinguished by lush external decoration and stucco molding. Silhouettes of ships, tower cranes, and airplanes were depicted on the facades of houses. Urban construction began. Complex development was carried out in large cities of Russia.

Architecture as an art form is most dependent on socio-economic relations. Therefore, in Russia, under the conditions of the monopolistic development of capitalism, it became a concentration of acute contradictions, which led to the spontaneous development of cities, which damaged urban planning and turned large cities into monsters of civilization.

Tall buildings turned courtyards into poorly lit and ventilated wells. Greenery was being pushed out of the city. The disproportion between the scale of new buildings and old buildings has acquired a grimace-like character. At the same time, industrial architectural structures appeared - factories, factories, train stations, arcades, banks, cinemas. For their construction, the latest planning and design solutions were used; reinforced concrete and metal structures were actively used, which made it possible to create rooms in which large masses of people were simultaneously located.

Modern

It is difficult to find a period in the history of architecture when the intensity of creative quests was so hot and intense, and the results of quests were so diverse, ambiguous and contradictory. The natural result of these searches was the amazing diversity and exceptional diversity of modernity in its specific manifestations. The first manifestations of Art Nouveau date back to the last century of the 19th century, neoclassicism was formed in the 1900s.

Modernism in Russia is characterized by a rejection of classical forms. He openly emphasized the functional purpose of buildings, attaching great importance to structures, facades, interiors and using frescoes, mosaics, stained glass, ceramics, and sculpture to decorate them. The buildings acquired a distinctly individualized appearance and were distinguished by an open layout. In St. Petersburg, the entire Petrograd side is built up in the Art Nouveau style; in Moscow, such buildings are scattered throughout the historical center inside the Garden Ring. The leading architect of this style was Fyodor Osipovich Shekhtel (1859-1926). According to his designs, the Moscow Art Theater building and the Ryabushinsky mansion at the Nikitinsky Gate (1900-1902) were built in Moscow - works most typical of pure modernism. His Yaroslavl Station is an example of stylistically mixed architecture. In the Ryabushinsky mansion, the architect departs from traditional predetermined construction schemes and uses the principle of free asymmetry. Each of the facades is arranged differently. The building is maintained in the free development of volumes, and with its protrusions it resembles a plant taking root, this corresponds to the principle of Art Nouveau - to give an architectural structure an organic form. On the other hand, the mansion is quite monolithic and meets the principle of a bourgeois home: “My home is my fortress.” The diverse facades are united by a wide mosaic frieze with a stylized image of irises (floral ornament is characteristic of the Art Nouveau style). Stained glass windows are characteristic of Art Nouveau. They and the design of the building are dominated by whimsical types of lines. These motifs reach their climax in the interior of the building. Furniture and decoration were made according to Shekhtel's designs.

The alternation of gloomy and light spaces, the abundance of materials that give a bizarre play of light reflection (marble, glass, polished wood), the colored light of stained glass windows, the asymmetrical arrangement of doorways that change the direction of the light flow - all this transforms reality into a romantic world. As Shekhtel's style developed, rationalistic tendencies appeared. The trading house of the Moscow Merchant Society in Malo Cherkassky Lane (1909), the building of the printing house “Morning of Russia” (1907) can be called pre-constructivist. The main effect is the glazed surfaces of the huge windows, rounded corners, which give the building plasticity.

The most significant masters of Art Nouveau in St. Petersburg were F.I. Lidval (1870-1945, Astoria Hotel, Azov-Don Bank) I.N. Lyalevich (building of the Mertex company on Nevsky Prospekt).

Neoclassicism

In St. Petersburg, Art Nouveau was strongly influenced by Classicism. Thus was born neoclassical architectural style. Its representatives were architects I. A. Fomin and I. V. Zholtovsky.

In 1919, I. A. Fomin headed the architectural workshop of the Council for the Settlement of the Plan of Petrograd and its Outskirts under the Council of Communal Services. He was responsible for the redevelopment and landscaping of the Champ de Mars in Petrograd (1920–1923). According to his design, the Institute of Chemical Technology was built in Ivanovo (1929). The main buildings in Moscow: a residential building of the Dynamo society (1928-1930, together with A. Ya. Langman) - one of the first experiments in the search for a new style; the new building of the Mossovet (1929-1930), the building of the Ministry of Railways at the Red Gate (1933-1936); participated in the construction of the vaults of the Moscow metro station “Red Gate” (1935); designer of the Sverdlov Square station (now Teatralnaya; 1938, together with L. M. Polyakov). One of Zholtovsky's first Moscow works was participation in the restoration of the Metropol Hotel building, which burned down just before its completion in 1902. The following year he won a competition for the design of the building of the Racing Society in Moscow (1903-05). At the same time, he built the mansion of manufacturer Nosov on Vvedenskaya Square, the architecture of which has a dual character.

Zholtovsky’s works are characterized by the use compositional techniques and architectural motifs from classical architecture, especially the Renaissance. The architect’s first post-revolutionary works were a project for the redevelopment of Moscow (together with A.V. Shchusev) and a project for the master plan and pavilions of the All-Russian Agricultural and Handicraft Exhibition, which opened on August 19, 1923 in Moscow, on the banks of the Moscow River. Zholtovsky's project was implemented almost without any changes. Neoclassicism was a purely Russian phenomenon and was most widespread in St. Petersburg in 1910. This direction set as its goal to revive the traditions of Russian classicism of Kazakov, Voronikhin, Zakharov, Rossi, Stasov, Gilardi of the second half of the 18th and the first third of the 19th century. They created many outstanding structures, characterized by harmonious compositions and exquisite details. The work of Alexander Viktorovich Shchusev (1873-1949) is closely associated with neoclassicism. But he turned to the heritage of national Russian architecture of the 11th-17th centuries (sometimes this style is called the neo-Russian style). Shchusev built the Marfa-Mariinskaya Convent and the Kazansky Station in Moscow. For all its merits, neoclassicism was a special variety in the highest form of retrospectivism.

Constructivism

Direction in Russian art of the 1920s. (in architecture, decoration, and theatrical and decorative art, posters, book art, artistic construction, design). Proponents of constructivism, having put forward the task of “constructing” the environment that actively guides life processes, sought to comprehend the formative possibilities new technology, its logical, expedient designs, as well as the aesthetic possibilities of materials such as metal, glass, wood. Constructivists sought to contrast ostentatious luxury with the simplicity and emphasized utilitarianism of new object forms, in which they saw the reification of democracy and new relationships between people. In architecture, the principles of constructivism were formulated in the theoretical speeches of A. A. Vesnin and M. Ya. Ginzburg, practically they were first embodied in the project of the Labor Palace for Moscow created by the brothers A. A., V. A. and L. A. Vesnin (1923 ) with its clear, rational plan and the structural basis of the building (reinforced concrete frame) revealed in the external appearance. In 1924 it was created creative organization constructivists - OSA, whose representatives developed the so-called functional design method, based on a scientific analysis of the functioning features of buildings, structures, and urban planning complexes. Along with other groups of Soviet architects, the constructivists (the Vesnin brothers, Ginzburg, I. A. Golosov, I. I. Leonidov, A. S. Nikolsky, M. O. Barshch, V. N. Vladimirov, etc.) searched for new principles plans for populated areas, put forward projects for the reconstruction of everyday life, and developed new types of public buildings (Palaces of Labor, Houses of Councils, workers' clubs, factory kitchens, etc.). At the same time, in their theoretical and practical activities, constructivists made a number of mistakes (treating the apartment as a “material form”, schematism in the organization of life in non-roofed projects of communal houses, underestimation of natural and climatic conditions, etc.

The aesthetics of constructivism contributed greatly to the development of modern artistic design. Based on the developments of constructivists (A. M. Rodchenko, A. M. Gan and others), new types of dishes, fittings, and furniture were created that were easy to use and designed for mass production; artists developed designs for fabrics (V.F. Stepanova, L.S. Popova) and practical models of work clothes (Stepanova, V.E. Tatlin). Constructivism played a significant role in the development of poster graphics (photomontages of the Stenberg brothers, G. G. Klutsis, Rodchenko) and book design (use of the expressive capabilities of type and other typesetting elements in the works of Gan, L. M. Lisitsky, etc.). In the theater, the constructivists replaced traditional scenery with “machines” for the work of actors, subordinate to the tasks of stage action (the work of Popova, A. A. Vesnin and others on the productions of V. E. Meyerhold, A. Ya. Tairov). Some ideas of constructivism were embodied in Western European (W. Baumeister, O. Schlemmer, etc.) fine arts. One of the founders of Russian constructivism chose the language of the 1920s poster, emphasizing the constant role of revolutionary Soviet art in mobilizing the people to defeat the enemy. In the early 1920s, domestic posters quickly acquired an original appearance that distinguished them from the poster art of Western European countries. Compositional experiments with blocks of text, fonts, color, geometric shapes and photographic images led the artists to create a poster of a new “design”. He not only informed, enlightened and agitated, but also “revolutionarily rebuilt” the consciousness of citizens using artistic means, free from the excesses of traditional descriptiveness and illustrativeness. The language of such a poster was akin to the language of architectural and book experiments, literary and theatrical innovations, and cinematic editing of those years.

The first experience of dynamic figurative embodiment of the idea of ​​revolutionary struggle was demonstrated by L. Lissitzky’s poster “Beat the Whites with a Red Wedge!”, printed in Vitebsk in 1920. However, the collaboration of “advertising designers” A. Rodchenko and V. Mayakovsky marked the beginning of the implementation of revolutionary artistic ideas in posters. It was Soviet advertising of 1923-1925, created through the efforts of these masters, that was the forerunner of the political poster of constructivism. And the authors themselves constantly emphasized the propaganda and political significance of their advertising works, calling on everyone to buy Mosselprom products and suck the nipples of Rubber Trust (1923). A. Rodchenko's passion for creative photomontage, documentary and staged photography allowed the master to pioneer a new poster form. In an advertisement for Dziga Vertov’s newsreel film “Kinoglaz,” he demonstrated the possibilities of using photo editing in combination with catchy text both to convey the author’s task to “reveal and show the truth,” and to achieve a strong emotional impact of the poster on the viewer (1924). The pinnacle of the laconic embodiment of the advertising idea was “Lengiz” by A. Rodchenko with a photographic portrait of L. Brik (1925). Among the indisputable masterpieces of the use of photomontage are the advertising film posters of A. Rodchenko’s contemporaries: A. Lavinsky for S. Eisenstein’s film “Battleship Potemkin” (1926), V. and G. Stenberg for Dziga Vertov’s documentary “The Eleventh” (1928) and S. Semenov-Menes for the film by V. Turin “Turksib” (1929). The poster provided a field for various creative experiments. “Advertising on a Tram” by Leningrader D. Bulanov demonstrated a propaganda platform for millions of residents of the socialist city (1927). In the OZET lottery poster, M. Dlugach made the image of the “hammer and sickle”, assembled from photographs creating a background for the young man’s invitingly raised hand, the political symbol of the country (1930). The years 1924-1925 can rightfully be considered the time of the birth of the constructivist political poster. Photomontage made it possible to convey a picture of real life, compare the past and present of the country, and show its successes in the development of industry, culture and the social sphere. Lenin's death brought forward the need to create "Leninist exhibitions" and "corners" in workers' and rural clubs, educational institutions and military units. Propaganda and educational posters, combining documentary photographs with text “sidebars”, illustrated pages of the leader’s biography and his testaments, as on the sheet of Yu. Chass and V. Kobelev “Lenin and Electrification” (1925). G. Klutsis, S. Senkin and V. Elkin created a series of photomontage political posters (“Without revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary movement” G. Klutsis; “The role of an advanced fighter can only be fulfilled by a party led by an advanced theory” S. Senkin. Both 1927 ). The photomontage poster finally established itself as the main means of mobilizing the masses during the First Five-Year Plan (1928/29-1932). He demonstrated the power of a developing power, the support of which was the unity of the people. The example was the poster by G. Klutsis “Let’s carry out the plan for great works” (1930). The “street” format of two printed sheets gave it a special sound. The raised hand of the worker on V. Kulagina’s poster symbolized the call for female shock workers of the Five-Year Plan to join the ranks of the Communist Party (1932). G. Klutsis also found a compositional solution for posters with a photograph of Stalin. The figure of the leader in the unchanging gray overcoat with quotes from his statements against the backdrop of collective farm work or the construction of factories and mines convinced everyone of the correct choice of the path along which the country was going (“For the socialist reorganization of the countryside...”, 1932). V. Elkin created a collective portrait of the country’s leadership and displayed it on a poster: “Long live the Red Army - an armed detachment of the proletarian revolution!” a grandiose picture of the festive parade on Red Square (1932). In the early 30s, the ranks of followers of constructivist artists were joined by V. Koretsky and V. Gitsevich. They developed a form of poster in which photographs were tinted and combined with hand-drawn images. The poster by V. Gitsevich “For the proletarian park of culture and recreation” (1932) and the sheet by V. Koretsky “Soviet athletes are the pride of our country!” stand out. (1935), which clearly and succinctly reflected the most important ideological guidelines of those years. It should be noted that in the photomontage poster of the mid-30s, G. Klutsis, V. Elkin, S. Senkin, V. Koretsky and other artists abandoned the constructivist experiment with fonts and test blocks, focusing on the image.

Poster slogans took up mainly space at the bottom of the sheet (G. Klutsis “Long live our happy socialist homeland...”, 1935). While maintaining originality and standing out from the general background of the world poster, as evidenced by its successes at international exhibitions, the photomontage political poster has lost its former dominance on the streets of the cities of our country. The vast propaganda experience of constructivist artists turned out to be in demand only when creating pavilions of the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition in Moscow (opened in 1939) and national expositions of the USSR at exhibitions abroad. L. Lisitsky’s last work was the poster “Everything for the front! Everything for victory! (1942).

Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was liberated from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, lumpy texture, dynamic forms, permeated with air and light. Sculpture at the beginning of the 20th century. developed under the strong influence of Impressionism, which forced masters to turn to the search for new plastic volumes and pay great attention to the dynamics of images. The development paths of Russian sculpture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries were largely determined by its connections with the art of the Wanderers. This is precisely what explains its democracy and content. Sculptors actively participated in the search for something new, modern hero. Materials became more diverse: not only marble and bronze were used, as before, but also stone, wood, majolica, even clay. Attempts were made to introduce color into sculpture. At this time, a brilliant galaxy of sculptors worked - P.P. Trubetskoy, A.S. Golubkina, S.T. Konenkov, A.T. Matveev. The very first consistent representative of this trend was P.P. Trubetskoy, refuses impressionistic modeling of the surface, and enhances the overall impression of oppressive brute force. He created 50 sculptural works: “Moscow Cab Driver” (1898), “Princess M.K. Tenishev" (1899), "I.I. Levitan" (1899), "F.I. Chaliapin" (1899-1890), "S.Yu. Witte" (1901), etc. Picturesque sculpted figurines ("Lion Tolstoy on a Horse", 1900), an equestrian monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg (opened in 1909). In 1906 he went to Paris, in 1914 - to the USA. During this period, he executed busts and sculptures of prominent figures of European and American culture of that time. An original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A.S. Golubkina, who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of ​​awakening the human spirit. Women's images, created by the sculptor, are marked by a feeling of compassion for people who are tired, but not broken by life’s trials.

The art of Anna Semyonovna Golubkina (1864-1927) bears the stamp of her time. It is emphatically spiritual and always deeply and consistently democratic. Golubkina is a convinced revolutionary. Her sculptures “Slave” (1905), “Walking” (1903), portrait of Karl Marx (1905) are a natural response to the advanced ideas of our time. Golubkina is a great master of psychological sculptural portraiture. And here she remained true to herself, working with the same creative enthusiasm on portraits of both the Great Writer (“Lev Tolstoy”, 1927) and a simple woman (“Marya”, 1905). The sculptural work of Sergei Timofeevich Konenkov (1874-1971) was distinguished by its particular richness and variety of stylistic and genre forms. His work “Samson Breaking the Bonds” (1902) is inspired by the titanic images of Michelangelo. “The militant worker of 1905, Ivan Churkin” (1906) is the personification of an indestructible will, tempered in the fire of class battles. After a trip to Greece in 1912, like V. Serov, he became interested in ancient archaics. Images of pagan ancient Greek mythology were intertwined with images of ancient Slavic mythology. Abramtsevo’s ideas of folklore were also embodied in such works as “Velikosil”, “Stribog”, “Starichek” and others. “The Beggar Brethren” (1917) was perceived as Russia becoming a thing of the past. The figures carved from wood of two poor, miserable wanderers, hunched over, gnarled, wrapped in rags, are both realistic and fantastic. The traditions of classical sculpture were revived by Ivan Timofeevich Matveev (1878-1960), a student of Trubetskoy at the Moscow School. He developed a minimum of basic plastic themes in the motifs of the nude figure. The plastic principles of Matveevsky sculpture are most fully revealed in the images of young men and boys (“Sitting Boy”, 1909, “Sleeping Boys”, 1907, “Young Man”, 1911, and a number of statues intended for one of the park ensembles in Crimea). Matveev’s antique light curves of the boys’ figures are combined with a specific precision of poses and movements, reminiscent of the paintings of Borisov-Musatov. Matveev in his works embodied the modern thirst for harmony in modern art forms. In general, the Russian sculptural school was little affected by avant-garde trends and did not develop such a complex range of innovative aspirations characteristic of painting.

Theatre, Music, Ballet, Cinema

The Silver Age is not only the rise of poetry, it is also the era of artistic discoveries in theatrical art. At the end of the 19th century. The performing arts experienced a crisis, which manifested itself in the fact that the repertoire of theaters was mostly of an entertaining nature, it did not touch upon the pressing problems of life, and the acting was not distinguished by a wealth of techniques. Deep changes were needed in the theater, and they became possible with the advent of plays by A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky. In 1898, the Moscow Art and Public Theater opened (since 1903, the Moscow Art Theater), the founders of which were Stanislavsky (1868 - 1938) and Nemirovich - Danchenko (1858 -1943), innovators of theatrical art.

To restructure the entire life of the Russian theatre, to remove all bureaucracy, to captivate all artistic forces with a community of interests - this is how the tasks of the new theater were defined. Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, using domestic and world theater experience, asserted a new type of art that corresponded to the spirit of the times. In the theater's repertoire, the leading position was occupied by plays by Chekhov (The Seagull, Uncle Vanya, Three Sisters), then by Gorky (The Bourgeois, At the Lower Depths). The best performances productions of “Woe from Wit” by Griboedov, “A Month in the Country” by Turgenev, “The Blue Bird” by Maeterlinck, and “Hamlet” by Shakespeare began.

A notable feature of the culture of the early 20th century. became the works of outstanding theater directors. K. S. Stanislavsky, the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving the most important tasks of acting transformation. V. E. Meyerhold conducted searches in the field of theatrical convention, generalization, and the use of elements of folk farce and mask theater. E. B. Vakhtangov preferred expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.

Beginning of the 20th century - this is the time of the creative takeoff of the great Russian composers-innovators A. N. Scriabin, I. F. Stravinsky, S. I. Taneyev, S. V. Rachmaninov. In their work they tried to go beyond traditional classical music and create new musical forms and images. Musical performing culture has also achieved significant flourishing. Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding opera singers F. I. Chaliapin, A. V. Nezhdanova, L. V. Sobinov, I. V. Ershov. New trends also affected the ballet scene. They are associated with the name of choreographer M. M. Fokin

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian ballet has taken leading positions in world choreographic art. The Russian school of ballet relied on the academic traditions of the late 19th century and the stage productions of the outstanding choreographer M. I. Petipa, which became classics. At the same time, Russian ballet has not escaped new trends. Young directors A. A. Gorsky and M. I. Fokin, in contrast to the aesthetics of academicism, put forward the principle of picturesqueness, according to which not only the choreographer and composer, but also the artist became full authors of the performance. The ballets of Gorsky and Fokine were staged in the scenery of K. A. Korovin, A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, N. K. Roerich. The Russian ballet school of the “Silver Age” gave the world a galaxy of brilliant dancers - A. T. Pavlov, T. T. Karsavin, V. F. Nijinsky and others. At the beginning of the 20th century. The tendency towards combining various types of creative activity became more and more clearly evident. At the head of this process was the “World of Art,” which united not only artists, but also poets, philosophers, and musicians. In 1908-1913. S. P. Diaghilev organized “Russian Seasons” in Paris, London, Rome and other capitals of Western Europe, presented by ballet and opera performances, theatrical painting, music, etc. In the first decade of the 20th century. in Russia, following France, appeared the new kind art - cinema. In 1903, the first “electric theaters” and “illusions” appeared, and by 1914 about 4 thousand cinemas had already been built. In 1908, the first Russian feature film, “Stenka Razin and the Princess,” was shot, and in 1911, the first full-length film, “The Defense of Sevastopol.” Cinematography developed rapidly and became very popular. In 1914, there were about 30 domestic film companies in Russia. And although the bulk of film production consisted of films with primitive melodramatic plots, world-famous filmmakers appeared: director Ya. A. Protazanov, actors I. I. Mozzhukhin, V. V. Kholodnaya, A. G. Koonen. The undoubted merit of cinema was its accessibility to all segments of the population. Russian films, created mainly as film adaptations of classical works, became the first sign in the formation of “mass culture” - an indispensable attribute of bourgeois society.

Historical features of the Silver Age

By the time Alexander III ascended the throne, the balance of power in Europe began to change. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the process of formation of new political groupings began. Russia's further role in European politics was to be determined by the position it would take in this situation. The Austro-Russian-German alliance concluded under Alexander II, proclaimed as Union of Three Emperors, he almost completely lost confidence in himself after the Bosnian crisis of 1875 - 1878, during which Bismarck openly supported Austria-Hungary, concluding an alliance with it against Russia. Tension in Europe gradually grew, a new agreement was required to balance the policies of the Austro-German bloc.

1881 - 1886 Having ascended the throne in 1881, Alexander III for some time continued the Germanophile policy of his father. In the early 80s. Germany remained the most important market for agricultural products for Russia. In addition, an alliance with her could become a support in the fight against England - at that time Russia's main political rival, especially in connection with the clash of colonial interests of the two powers in Central Asia.

1882 At the same time, Germany willingly moves towards rapprochement with Italy, which is extremely dissatisfied with the colonial policy of France (in particular, Italy laid claim to Tunisia, over which France manages to establish its protectorate). The German-Italian political partnership will continue to be based entirely on mutual rivalry with France. Austria was also attracted to the alliance, hoping for allied help in the event of a fight with Russia. The result of negotiations between the three governments was a secret treaty signed on May 8 (20), 1882 in Vienna between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, known as the Triple Alliance. According to this treaty, the allied powers pledged not to participate in alliances directed against one of them.

Russia's role in European politics quite noticeably faded into the background. This is easy to see, at least in the attitude of the strongest powers, which until recently perceived her as their equal, are now, without much doubt, creating a military alliance without any of her participation (“benevolent neutrality”, in the context of aggravated relations with France, can well be considered military union). In such a situation, the Alliance of the Three Emperors for these powers was most likely an auxiliary and temporary measure designed to exclude the possibility of a Russian-French alliance (which could strengthen the main rival, France). It is clear that in this form the strength of this alliance could even then be called into question. The actual attitude of Germany and Austria-Hungary to their “obligations” becomes especially noticeable in the light of events in the Balkans.

The fact that Austria-Hungary and Germany opposed Russia in the Balkan conflict undoubtedly undermined the “Alliance of the Three Emperors,” which by the time it expired (1887) was effectively annulled. With the participation of German diplomacy in 1887. An Austro-Anglo-Italian alliance was concluded - the Mediterranean Entente. His main goal was to undermine Russian influence in Turkey. In essence, it was a new political group, directed not only against France, but also against Russia. As has already been said, which is very important, the founder of this bloc was Germany.

Obviously, Russia was limited in its choice of allies - such an ally had to be a state strong enough to resist members of the Mediterranean Entente. Due to the sharp increase in contradictions between Russia and Germany, even the Anglo-Russian colonial confrontation seemed less irreconcilable. Such a sharp change in interstate attitudes seems especially unexpected in light of the previous conflicts between England and the Russian Empire, especially in Central Asia. For a long time middle Asia will become an integral part of the Russian state (together with a number of difficult-to-assimilate nationalities, the management of which will continue to require constant attention).

The contradictions described above are a fairly clear reflection of the trends that prevailed in relations between England and Russia at that time - the division of their spheres of colonial influence (mainly in the east), and not the struggle for the independence of one of the states, made this conflict secondary to the general political situation in Europe.. So, the cooling in relations between Germany and Russia, and the agreement between Germany, Austria and Italy naturally prepared a rapprochement between Russia and France. The basis for this rapprochement, as already mentioned, was the presence of common opponents - England and Germany... So, from considering this very important period in the history of Russia and the world, several conclusions can be drawn. It is obvious that the military-political priorities of Russia, its economic condition, and some personality traits of Alexander III (his political myopia) found their manifestation in the Russian foreign policy he implemented, for example, the change in relations with Germany, which led to an alliance with France. This alliance represented a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe. In many ways, this predetermined the balance of power in the ensuing First World War, as, in my opinion, the very cause of the war - the formation of clear military-political groupings and the clash of their interests. This also shows the inevitability of the cataclysms that followed in Russia and in world history, economics and culture. Which indicates the continuity of historical and political periods and processes. The year 1894 turned out to be a turning point in the history of Russia. Its main event was the death of Emperor Alexander III and the accession of the last Russian autocrat. And by the beginning of the twentieth century, the Russian Empire was an absolute monarchy, in which all power belonged to Emperor Nicholas II. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the struggle of the peasantry for land has intensified significantly. Peasant uprisings increasingly developed into uprisings. For example, in the spring of 1902, peasant uprisings broke out in the Kharkov and Poltava provinces. A powerful peasant movement developed in the Caucasus. The year 1901 was marked by mass political demonstrations, with workers speaking alongside representatives of the democratic intelligentsia. Demonstrations in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Kyiv took place under the slogans of political freedoms. Thus, 1901-1903. marked a transition to a combination of economic and political methods of struggle of the working class.. And yet, as we see, the spiritual development of Russia during this period was quite diverse.

CONCLUSION

Conclusion

Culture is an integral part of human life. Culture organizes human life. In human life, culture largely performs the same function that genetically programmed behavior performs in animal life.

While studying this topic, I realized how important it is to study it. With full confidence, I can say that the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. was marked by the rapid flourishing of Russian culture. No wonder this time is called the Silver Age. Russian culture reflected all the contradictions of the socio-economic and socio-political life of Russia, had a profound impact on the moral state of the people, and contributed to the world treasury of culture.

Yes, all the innovations and discoveries were difficult for Russia. Many great people were never heard, but we cannot belittle the dignity of the Silver Age, we cannot help but talk about its greatness. It seems to me that on the threshold of the 21st century we should pay more attention to the culture of the past era. We must understand it, and then it will be easier for us to create our own new culture.

§ 75. Silver age of Russian culture

The concept of the Silver Age.

The turning point in Russia's life at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, associated with the transition to an industrial society, led to the destruction of many values ​​and age-old foundations of people's lives. It seemed that not only the world around us was changing, but also ideas about good and evil, beautiful and ugly, etc.

The understanding of these problems affected the sphere of culture. The flowering of culture during this period was unprecedented. It covered all types of creative activity and gave birth to a galaxy of brilliant names. This cultural phenomenon of the late XIX - early XX centuries. received the name of the Silver Age of Russian culture. It is also characterized by the greatest achievements, which again confirmed Russia's advanced positions in this field. But culture is becoming more complex, the results of creative activity are more contradictory.

Science and technology.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. The main headquarters of Russian science was the Academy of Sciences with a developed system of institutes. Universities with their scientific societies, as well as All-Russian congresses of scientists, played a significant role in the training of scientific personnel.

Research in the fields of mechanics and mathematics has achieved significant success, which has made it possible to develop new fields of science: aeronautics and electrical engineering. Research played a significant role in this N.E. Zhukovsky, the creator of hydro- and aerodynamics, works on the theory of aviation, which served as the basis for aviation science.

In 1913, the first domestic aircraft “Russian Knight” and “Ilya Muromets” were created at the Russian-Baltic Plant in St. Petersburg. In 1911 . G. E. Kotelnikov designed the first backpack parachute.

Proceedings V. I. Vernadsky formed the basis of biochemistry, biogeochemistry and radiogeology. He was distinguished by his breadth of interests, the formulation of deep scientific problems and the anticipation of discoveries in a wide variety of fields.

Great Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlov created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, in which he gave a materialistic explanation of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. In 1904, I. P. Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of digestive physiology. Four years later (1908) he was awarded this prize I. I. Metsnikov for research into problems of immunology and infectious diseases.

"Milestones".

Soon after the revolution of 1905 -1907. Several famous publicists (N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, P.B. Struve, A.S. Izgoev, S.L. Frank, B.A. Kistyakovsky, M.O. Gershenzon) published the book “Milestones. Collection of articles about the Russian intelligentsia."

The authors of Vekhi believed that the revolution should have ended after the publication of the Manifesto on October 17, as a result of which the intelligentsia received the political freedoms they had always dreamed of. The intelligentsia was accused of ignoring the national and religious interests of Russia, suppressing dissent, disrespecting the law, and inciting the darkest instincts among the masses. The Vekhi people argued that the Russian intelligentsia was alien to its people, who hated it, and would never understand it.

Many publicists, primarily supporters of the cadets, spoke out against the Vekhovites. Their works were published by the popular newspaper “Novoye Vremya”.

Literature.

Russian literature includes many names who have gained worldwide fame. Among them I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin and M. Gorky. Bunin continued the traditions and preached the ideals of Russian culture of the 19th century. For a long time, Bunin's prose was rated much lower than his poetry. And only “The Village” (1910) and “Sukhodol” (1911), one of the themes of which was the social conflict in the village, made people talk about him as a great writer. Bunin's stories and tales, such as “Antonov Apples” and “The Life of Arsenyev”, brought him world fame, confirmed by the Nobel Prize.

If Bunin's prose was distinguished by rigor, precision and perfection of form, and the author's outward dispassionateness, then Kuprin's prose revealed the spontaneity and passion characteristic of the writer's personality. His favorite heroes were people who were spiritually pure, dreamy, and at the same time weak-willed and impractical. Often love in Kuprin’s works ends in the death of the hero (“Garnet Bracelet”, “Duel”).

The work of Gorky, who went down in history as the “petrel of the revolution,” was different. He had the powerful temperament of a fighter. New, revolutionary themes and new, previously unknown literary heroes appeared in his works (“Mother”, “Foma Gordeev”, “The Artamonov Case”). In his early stories (“Makar Chudra”) Gorky acted as a romantic.

New directions in literature and art.

The most important and largest movement in literature and art of the 90s of the 19th and early 20th centuries. was symbolism, the recognized ideological leader of which was a poet and philosopher V. S. Soloviev. Scientific knowledge of the world

Symbolists opposed the construction of the world in the process of creativity. Symbolists believed that the higher spheres of life cannot be known in traditional ways; they are accessible only through knowledge of the secret meanings of symbols. Symbolist poets did not strive to be understood by everyone. In their poems they addressed selected readers, making them their co-authors.

Symbolism contributed to the emergence of new movements, one of which was Acmeism (from the Greek . Akme- blooming power). The recognized head of the direction was N. S. Gumilev. The Acmeists proclaimed a return from the polysemy of images and metaphor to the objective world and the exact meaning of the word. Members of the Acmeist circle were A.A.Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam. According to Gumilyov, Acmeism was supposed to reveal the value of human life. The world must be accepted in all its diversity. Acmeists used different cultural traditions in their creativity.

Futurism was also a kind of offshoot of symbolism, but it took the most extreme aesthetic form. For the first time, Russian futurism declared itself in 1910 with the release of the collection “The Fishing Tank of Judges” (D.D. Burlyuk, V.V. Khlebnikov and V.V. Kamensky). Soon the authors of the collection, together with V. Mayakovsky and A. Kruchenykh, formed a group of cubo-futurists. The futurists were poets of the street - they were supported by radical students and the lumpen proletariat. Most of the futurists, in addition to poetry, also engaged in painting (the Burliuk brothers, A. Kruchenykh, V.V. Mayakovsky). In turn, futurist artists K. S. Malevich and V. V. Kandinsky wrote poetry.

Futurism became the poetry of protest, seeking to destroy the existing order. At the same time, the Futurists, like the Symbolists, dreamed of creating art that could transform the world. Most of all they feared indifference to them and therefore took advantage of any occasion for a public scandal.

Painting.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Such prominent Russian painters of the second half of the last century, such as V. I. Surikov, the Vasnetsov brothers, and I. E. Repin, continued their creative activity.

At the end of the century, K. A Korovin and M. A Vrubel came to Russian painting. Korovin's landscapes were different bright colors and romantic elation, a sense of air in the picture. The brightest representative of symbolism in painting was M.A. Vrubel. His paintings are like a mosaic, molded from sparkling pieces. The color combinations in them had their own semantic meanings. Vrubel's plots amaze with fantasy.

Significant role in Russian art of the early twentieth century. the movement played World of Art", which arose as a peculiar reaction to the movement of the Itinerants. The ideological basis of the works of the “miriskusniks” was the depiction not of the harsh realities of modern life, but of the eternal themes of world painting. One of the ideological leaders of the “World of Art” was A. N. Benois, who had versatile talents. He was a painter, graphic artist, theater artist, and art historian.

The activities of the “World of Art” were contrasted with the creativity of young artists grouped in the organizations “Jack of Diamonds” and “Youth Union”. These societies did not have their own program; they included symbolists, futurists, and cubists, but each artist had his own creative personality.

Such artists were P. N. Filonov and V. V. Kandinsky.

Filonov gravitated towards futurism in his painting technique. Kandinsky - to the latest art, often depicting only the outlines of objects. He can be called the father of Russian abstract painting.

Not so were the paintings of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, who preserved the national traditions of painting in his canvases, but gave them a special form. Such are his paintings “Bathing the Red Horse,” reminiscent of the image of St. George the Victorious, and “Girls on the Volga,” where the connection with Russian realistic painting of the 19th century is clearly visible.

Music.

The largest Russian composers of the early twentieth century were A.I. Scriabin and S.V. Rachmaninov, whose work, excited and upbeat in nature, was especially close to wide public circles during the period of tense anticipation of the revolution of 1905-1907. At the same time, Scriabin evolved from romantic traditions to symbolism, anticipating many innovative trends of the revolutionary era . The structure of Rachmaninov's music was more traditional. It clearly shows the connection with the musical heritage of the past century. In his works, the state of mind was usually combined with pictures of the outside world, poetry of Russian nature, or images of the past.

On turn of XIX-XX century there was an unprecedented rise in Russian culture. Usually, when hearing the phrase “Silver Age,” one thinks of literature, in particular the poetry of Blok, Bryusov, Gumilyov, etc. However, this period is famous not only for literature.

It is truly comparable to the “golden age” - the age of Pushkin.

Borders of the Silver Age

The boundaries of this period are also defined differently.

• Actually, there is practically no discrepancy with the beginning of the “Silver Age” - this is 1892 (manifestos of the modernists and D. Merezhkovsky’s collection “Symbols”).
• But some consider the coup of 1917 to be the end of this period, others - 1922 (the year after the death of Gumilyov, the death of Blok, the wave of emigration).

Distinctive features and achievements of the Silver Age

So what is wonderful and interesting about this time?

This century in Russia was marked by vibrant diversity in all areas of the cultural life of society.

Russian philosophy

Philosophy of the Silver Age

Silver Age Theater

The Silver Age of Russian culture was also reflected in the development of theatrical art. First of all, this is the system of K. Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, but also Alexandrinsky and Chamber theaters, V. Komissarzhevskaya theater.

Painting

Painting and sculpture of the Silver Age

New directions are also characteristic of painting and sculpture (, “Union of Russian Artists”, “Blue Rose”, etc., works by P. Trubetskoy, A. Golubkina).

Gain world fame opera singers(F. Chaliapin, L. Sobinov, A. Nezhdanova), dancers ( ).

Russian music

Music of the Silver Age

Features of symbolism

The main features of this literary movement:

• two worlds(the real world and the other world),
• special role of the symbol as something that cannot be expressed in a concrete way,
• special significance of sound recording,
• mystical and religious motives and etc.

The names of V. Bryusov, A. Blok, A. Bely and others are well known.

b) Russian Acmeism

(from the Greek “acme” - peak, tip, flowering) - rejection and continuation of Russian symbolism.

Features of Acmeism

• philosophy of action,
• acceptance of the world
• experiencing the objectivity and materiality of this world, denial of mysticism,
• picturesque image,
• masculinity of perception of the world and life,
• the weight of the specific meaning of a word and etc.

The first among equals was, undoubtedly, N. Gumilyov. And also S. Gorodetsky, M. Zenkevich, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam.

c) Russian futurism

To some extent, it was a continuation of European futurism. At its inception, it did not have a single center (it was represented by four hostile factions in Moscow and St. Petersburg)
Features of this direction:

• looking to the future
• feeling of impending changes
• denial of the classical heritage,
• urbanism,
• search for new words, inflections, new language and etc.

V. Khlebnikov, D. Burlyuk, I. Severyanin and others.

Our presentation:

The specificity of this century lies in the fact that the work of Russian artists of this period combined not only the features of realism, but also:

• romanticism (M. Gorky),
• naturalism (P. Boborykin),
• symbolism (L. Andreeva)

It was a glorious century!!! The Silver Age of great Russian culture!

"SILVER AGE" OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

Education. The modernization process included not only fundamental changes in the socio-economic and political spheres, but also a significant increase in literacy and educational level of the population. To the credit of the government, they took this need into account. Government spending on public education increased more than 5-fold from 1900 to 1915.

The main focus was on primary schools. The government intended to introduce universal primary education in the country. However, school reform was carried out inconsistently. Several types of primary schools have survived, the most common being parish schools (in 1905 there were about 43 thousand of them). The number of zemstvo primary schools has increased. In 1904 there were 20.7 thousand, and in 1914 - 28.2 thousand. In 1900, more than 2.5 million students studied in the primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, and in 1914 - already about 6 million

The restructuring of the secondary education system began. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools grew. In gymnasiums, the number of hours allocated to the study of natural and mathematical subjects increased. Graduates of real schools were given the right to enter higher technical educational institutions, and after passing the Latin language exam - to the physics and mathematics faculties of universities.

On the initiative of entrepreneurs, commercial 7-8-year schools were created, which provided general education and special training. In them, unlike gymnasiums and real schools, joint education of boys and girls was introduced. In 1913, 55 thousand people, including 10 thousand girls, studied in 250 commercial schools, which were under the patronage of commercial and industrial capital. The number of secondary specialized educational institutions has increased: industrial, technical, railway, mining, land surveying, agricultural, etc.

The network of higher educational institutions has expanded: new technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk. A university was opened in Saratov. To ensure the reform of primary schools, pedagogical institutes were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as over 30 higher courses for women, which laid the foundation for mass access of women to higher education. By 1914, there were about 100 institutions of higher education, with approximately 130 thousand students. Moreover, over 60% of students did not belong to the nobility.

However, despite advances in education, 3/4 of the country's population remained illiterate. Due to high tuition fees, secondary and higher schools were inaccessible to a significant part of the Russian population. 43 kopecks were spent on education. per capita, while in England and Germany - about 4 rubles, in the USA - 7 rubles. (in terms of our money).

The science. Russia's entry into the era of industrialization was marked by successes in the development of science. At the beginning of the 20th century. the country made a significant contribution to world scientific and technological progress, which was called the “revolution in natural science,” since the discoveries made during this period led to a revision of established ideas about the world around us.

Physicist P. N. Lebedev was the first in the world to establish the general laws inherent in wave processes of various natures (sound, electromagnetic, hydraulic, etc.)" and made other discoveries in the field of wave physics. He created the first physics school in Russia.

A number of outstanding discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction were made by N. E. Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky's student and colleague was the outstanding mechanic and mathematician S. A. Chaplygin.

At the origins of modern cosmonautics stood a nugget, a teacher at the Kaluga gymnasium, K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903, he published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal.

The outstanding scientist V.I. Vernadsky gained worldwide fame thanks to his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, and radiology. His teachings on the biosphere and noosphere laid the foundation for modern ecology. The innovation of the ideas he expressed is fully realized only now, when the world finds itself on the brink of an environmental catastrophe.

Research in the field of biology, psychology, and human physiology was characterized by an unprecedented surge. I. P. Pavlov created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his research in the physiology of digestion. In 1908, the Nobel Prize was awarded to biologist I. I. Mechnikov for his work on immunology and infectious diseases.

The beginning of the 20th century was the heyday of Russian historical science. The largest specialists in the field of Russian history were V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Kornilov, N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky, S. F. Platonov. Problems of general history were dealt with by P. G. Vinogradov, R. Yu. Vipper, E. V. Tarle. The Russian school of Oriental studies gained worldwide fame.

The beginning of the century was marked by the appearance of works by representatives of original Russian religious and philosophical thought (N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, V. S. Solovyov, P. A. Florensky, etc.). A large place in the works of philosophers was occupied by the so-called Russian idea - the problem of the originality of Russia's historical path, the uniqueness of its spiritual life, and the special purpose of Russia in the world.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Scientific and technical societies were popular. They united scientists, practitioners, amateur enthusiasts and existed on contributions from their members and private donations. Some received small government subsidies. The most famous were: the Free Economic Society (it was founded back in 1765), the Society of History and Antiquities (1804), the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature (1811), Geographical, Technical, Physico-chemical, Botanical, Metallurgical, several medical, agricultural, etc. These societies not only served as centers of scientific research, but also widely disseminated scientific and technical knowledge among the population. A characteristic feature of the scientific life of that time were congresses of naturalists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, archaeologists, etc.

Literature. First decade of the 20th century. entered the history of Russian culture under the name of the “Silver Age”. It was a time of unprecedented flourishing of all types of creative activity, the birth of new trends in art, the emergence of a galaxy of brilliant names that became the pride of not only Russian but world culture. The most revealing image of the “Silver Age” appeared in literature.

On the one hand, the writers’ works maintained strong traditions of critical realism. Tolstoy in his last works of art raised the problem of individual resistance to ossified norms of life ("The Living Corpse", "Father Sergius", "After the Ball"). His appeal letters to Nicholas II and journalistic articles are imbued with pain and anxiety for the fate of the country, the desire to influence the authorities, block the road to evil and protect all the oppressed. The main idea of ​​Tolstoy's journalism is the impossibility of eliminating evil through violence.

During these years A.P. Chekhov created the plays "Three Sisters" and " The Cherry Orchard", which reflected the important changes taking place in society.

Socially sensitive subjects were also favored by young writers. I. A. Bunin studied not only the external side of the processes taking place in the village (stratification of the peasantry, the gradual withering away of the nobility), but also the psychological consequences of these phenomena, how they influenced the souls of the Russian people ("Village", "Sukhodol", cycle of "peasant" stories). A.I. Kuprin showed the unsightly side of army life: the lack of rights of soldiers, the emptiness and lack of spirituality of the “gentlemen officers” (“The Duel”). One of the new phenomena in literature was the reflection in it of the life and struggle of the proletariat. The initiator of this topic was A. M. Gorky (“Enemies”, “Mother”).

In the first decade of the 20th century. A whole galaxy of talented “peasant” poets came to Russian poetry - S. A. Yesenin, N. A. Klyuev, S. A. Klychkov.

At the same time, the voice of the representatives of realism of the new generation began to sound, protesting against the main principle of realistic art - the direct image of the surrounding world. According to the ideologists of this generation, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, is capable of not only “displaying”, but also “transforming” the existing world, creating a new reality.

The founders of a new direction in art were symbolist poets who declared war on the materialistic worldview, arguing that faith and religion are the cornerstone of human existence and art. They believed that poets are endowed with the ability to connect with the transcendental world through artistic symbols. Initially, symbolism took the form of decadence. This term meant a mood of decadence, melancholy and hopelessness, and pronounced individualism. These features were characteristic of the early poetry of K. D. Balmont, A. A. Blok, V. Ya. Bryusov.

After 1909, a new stage began in the development of symbolism. It is painted in Slavophile tones, demonstrates contempt for the “rationalistic” West, and foreshadows the death of Western civilization, including official Russia. At the same time, he turns to spontaneous popular forces, to Slavic paganism, tries to penetrate the depths of the Russian soul and sees in Russian folk life the roots of the “rebirth” of the country. These motifs sounded especially vividly in the works of Blok (the poetic cycles “On the Kulikovo Field”, “Motherland”) and A. Bely (“Silver Dove”, “Petersburg”). Russian symbolism has become a global phenomenon. It is with him that the concept of the “Silver Age” is primarily associated.

The opponents of the Symbolists were the Acmeists (from the Greek "acme" - highest degree something, blooming power). They denied the mystical aspirations of the symbolists, proclaimed the intrinsic value of real life, and called for returning words to their original meaning, freeing them from symbolic interpretations. The main criterion for assessing creativity for acmeists (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam) was impeccable aesthetic taste, beauty and refinement of the artistic word.

Russian artistic culture of the early 20th century. experienced the influence of avant-gardeism that originated in the West and embraced all types of art. This movement absorbed various artistic movements that announced their break with traditional cultural values ​​and proclaimed the idea of ​​​​creating a “new art.” Prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde were the futurists (from the Latin “futurum” - future). Their poetry was distinguished by increased attention not to the content, but to the form of poetic construction. The futurists' programmatic settings were oriented towards defiant anti-aestheticism. In their works they used vulgar vocabulary, professional jargon, the language of documents, posters and posters. Collections of Futurist poems bore characteristic titles: “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc. Russian futurism was represented by several poetic groups. The most prominent names were gathered by the St. Petersburg group "Gilea" - V. Khlebnikov, D. D. Burlyuk, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. E. Kruchenykh, V. V. Kamensky. Collections of poems and public speeches by I. Severyanin enjoyed stunning success.

Painting. Similar processes took place in Russian painting. Representatives of the realistic school held strong positions, and the Society of Itinerants was active. I. E. Repin completed the grandiose canvas “Meeting of the State Council” in 1906. In revealing the events of the past, V.I. Surikov was primarily interested in the people as a historical force, the creative principle in man. The realistic foundations of creativity were also preserved by M. V. Nesterov.

However, the trendsetter was the style called “modern”. Modernist quests affected the work of such major realist artists as K. A. Korovin, V. A. Serov. Supporters of this trend united in the World of Art society. "Miriskusniki" took a critical position towards the Peredvizhniki, believing that the latter, performing a function uncharacteristic of art, harmed Russian painting. Art, in their opinion, is an independent sphere of human activity, and it should not depend on political and social influences. Over a long period (the association arose in 1898 and existed intermittently until 1924), the “World of Art” included almost all the major Russian artists - A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, B. M. Kustodiev, E. E. Lansere, F. A. Malyavin, N. K. Roerich, K. A. Somov. “The World of Art” left a deep mark on the development of not only painting, but also opera, ballet, decorative art, art criticism, and exhibitions.

In 1907, an exhibition called “Blue Rose” was opened in Moscow, in which 16 artists took part (P.V. Kuznetsov, N.N. Sapunov, M.S. Saryan, etc.). These were searching youth who sought to find their individuality in the synthesis of Western experience and national traditions. Representatives of the Blue Rose were closely associated with symbolist poets, whose performances were an indispensable attribute of the opening days. But symbolism in Russian painting has never been a single stylistic direction. It included, for example, such different artists in their style as M. A. Vrubel, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin and others.

Row greatest masters- V.V. Kandinsky, A.V. Lentulov, M. Z. Chagall, P.N. Filonov and others - entered the history of world culture as representatives of unique styles that combined avant-garde trends with Russian national traditions.

Sculpture. Sculpture also experienced a creative upsurge during this period. Her awakening was largely due to the tendencies of impressionism. P. P. Trubetskoy achieved significant success on this path of renewal. His sculptural portraits of L. N. Tolstoy, S. Yu. Witte, F. I. Chaliapin and others became widely known. An important milestone in the history of Russian monumental sculpture was the monument to Alexander III, opened in St. Petersburg in October 1909. It was conceived as a kind of antipode to another great monument - “The Bronze Horseman” by E. Falcone.

The combination of impressionism and modernist tendencies characterizes the work of A. S. Golubkina. At the same time, the main feature of her works is not the display of a specific image or fact of life, but the creation of a generalized phenomenon: “Old Age” (1898), “Walking Man” (1903), “Soldier” (1907), “Sleeping” (1912), etc. .

S. T. Konenkov left a significant mark on Russian art of the “Silver Age”. His sculpture embodied the continuity of the traditions of realism in new directions. He went through a passion for the work of Michelangelo ("Samson Breaking the Chains"), Russian folk wooden sculpture ("Lesovik", "The Beggar Brethren"), the Wandering traditions ("Stonebreaker"), traditional realistic portraits ("A.P. Chekhov") . And with all this, Konenkov remained a master of bright creative individuality.

In general, the Russian sculptural school was little affected by avant-garde trends and did not develop such a complex range of innovative aspirations characteristic of painting.

Architecture. In the second half of the 19th century. new opportunities opened up for architecture. This was due to technological progress. The rapid growth of cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, changes in public life required new architectural solutions; Not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, train stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and bank buildings were built. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions, and estates continued. The main problem of architecture was the search for a new style. And just like in painting, the new direction in architecture was called “modern”. One of the features of this direction was the stylization of Russian architectural motifs - the so-called neo-Russian style.

The most famous architect, whose work largely determined the development of Russian, especially Moscow Art Nouveau, was F. O. Shekhtel. At the beginning of his work, he relied not on Russian, but on medieval Gothic models. The mansion of manufacturer S.P. Ryabushinsky (1900-1902) was built in this style. Subsequently, Shekhtel more than once turned to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. In this regard, the building of the Yaroslavl Station in Moscow (1902-1904) is very indicative. In his subsequent activities, the architect moved ever closer to the direction called “rationalistic modernism,” which is characterized by a significant simplification of architectural forms and structures. The most significant buildings reflecting this trend were the Ryabushinsky Bank (1903) and the printing house of the newspaper "Morning of Russia" (1907).

At the same time, along with the architects of the “new wave,” significant positions were held by fans of neoclassicism (I. V. Zholtovsky), as well as masters who used the technique of mixing different architectural styles(eclecticism). The most indicative in this regard was the architectural design of the Metropol Hotel building in Moscow (1900), built according to the design of V. F. Walcott.

Music, ballet, theater, cinema. Beginning of the 20th century - this is the time of the creative takeoff of the great Russian composers-innovators A. N. Scriabin, I. F. Stravinsky, S. I. Taneyev, S. V. Rachmaninov. In their work they tried to go beyond traditional classical music and create new musical forms and images. Musical performing culture has also achieved significant flourishing. The Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding opera singers F. I. Chaliapin, A. V. Nezhdanova, L. V. Sobinov, I. V. Ershov.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian ballet has taken leading positions in world choreographic art. The Russian school of ballet relied on the academic traditions of the late 19th century and the stage productions of the outstanding choreographer M. I. Petipa, which became classics. At the same time, Russian ballet has not escaped new trends. Young directors A. A. Gorsky and M. I. Fokin, in contrast to the aesthetics of academicism, put forward the principle of picturesqueness, according to which not only the choreographer and composer, but also the artist became full authors of the performance. The ballets of Gorsky and Fokine were staged in the scenery of K. A. Korovin, A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, N. K. Roerich. The Russian ballet school of the “Silver Age” gave the world a galaxy of brilliant dancers - A. T. Pavlov, T. T. Karsavin, V. F. Nijinsky and others.

A notable feature of the culture of the early 20th century. became the works of outstanding theater directors. K. S. Stanislavsky, the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving the most important tasks of acting transformation. V. E. Meyerhold conducted searches in the field of theatrical convention, generalization, and the use of elements of folk farce and mask theater. E. B. Vakhtangov preferred expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The tendency towards combining various types of creative activity became more and more clearly evident. At the head of this process was the “World of Art,” which united not only artists, but also poets, philosophers, and musicians. In 1908-1913. S. P. Diaghilev organized “Russian Seasons” in Paris, London, Rome and other capitals of Western Europe, presented by ballet and opera performances, theatrical painting, music, etc.

In the first decade of the 20th century. In Russia, following France, a new art form appeared - cinema. In 1903, the first “electric theaters” and “illusions” appeared, and by 1914 about 4 thousand cinemas had already been built. In 1908, the first Russian feature film, “Stenka Razin and the Princess,” was shot, and in 1911, the first full-length film, “The Defense of Sevastopol.” Cinematography developed rapidly and became very popular. In 1914, there were about 30 domestic film companies in Russia. And although the bulk of film production consisted of films with primitive melodramatic plots, world-famous filmmakers appeared: director Ya. A. Protazanov, actors I. I. Mozzhukhin, V. V. Kholodnaya, A. G. Koonen. The undoubted merit of cinema was its accessibility to all segments of the population. Russian films, created mainly as film adaptations of classical works, became the first sign in the formation of “mass culture” - an indispensable attribute of bourgeois society.

• Impressionism- a direction in art, whose representatives strive to capture real world in its mobility and variability, to convey your fleeting impressions.
• Nobel Prize- a prize for outstanding achievements in the field of science, technology, literature, awarded annually by the Swedish Academy of Sciences at the expense of funds left by the inventor and industrialist A. Nobel.
• Noosphere- a new, evolutionary state of the biosphere, in which intelligent human activity becomes a decisive factor in development.
• Futurism- a direction in art that denies the artistic and moral heritage, preaches a break with traditional culture and the creation of a new one.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic and political development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Nicholas II.

Domestic policy tsarism. Nicholas II. Increased repression. "Police Socialism"

Russo-Japanese War. Reasons, progress, results.

Revolution 1905 - 1907 Character, driving forces and features of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. stages of the revolution. The reasons for the defeat and the significance of the revolution.

Elections to the State Duma. I State Duma. The agrarian question in the Duma. Dispersal of the Duma. II State Duma. Coup d'etat of June 3, 1907

Third June political system. Electoral law June 3, 1907 III State Duma. The alignment of political forces in the Duma. Activities of the Duma. Government terror. Decline of the labor movement in 1907-1910.

Stolypin agrarian reform.

IV State Duma. Party composition and Duma factions. Activities of the Duma.

Political crisis in Russia on the eve of the war. Labor movement in the summer of 1914. Crisis at the top.

International position of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

The beginning of the First World War. Origin and nature of the war. Russia's entry into the war. Attitude to the war of parties and classes.

Progress of military operations. Strategic forces and plans of the parties. Results of the war. The role of the Eastern Front in the First World War.

The Russian economy during the First World War.

Worker and peasant movement in 1915-1916. Revolutionary movement in the army and navy. The growth of anti-war sentiment. Formation of the bourgeois opposition.

Russian culture XIX- beginning of the 20th century

The aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country in January-February 1917. The beginning, prerequisites and nature of the revolution. Uprising in Petrograd. Formation of the Petrograd Soviet. Temporary Committee of the State Duma. Order N I. Formation of the Provisional Government. Abdication of Nicholas II. The reasons for the emergence of dual power and its essence. The February revolution in Moscow, at the front, in the provinces.

From February to October. The policy of the Provisional Government regarding war and peace, on agrarian, national, and labor issues. Relations between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. Arrival of V.I. Lenin in Petrograd.

Political parties(Cadets, Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks): political programs, influence among the masses.

Crises of the Provisional Government. Attempted military coup in the country. The growth of revolutionary sentiment among the masses. Bolshevization of the capital's Soviets.

Preparation and conduct of an armed uprising in Petrograd.

II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Decisions about power, peace, land. Formation of government and management bodies. Composition of the first Soviet government.

Victory of the armed uprising in Moscow. Government agreement with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. Elections in constituent Assembly, its convening and dispersal.

The first socio-economic transformations in the fields of industry, agriculture, finance, labor and women's issues. Church and State.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, its terms and significance.

Economic tasks of the Soviet government in the spring of 1918. Aggravation of the food issue. Introduction of food dictatorship. Working food detachments. Combeds.

The revolt of the left Socialist Revolutionaries and the collapse of the two-party system in Russia.

The first Soviet Constitution.

Causes of intervention and civil war. Progress of military operations. Human and material losses during the civil war and military intervention.

Domestic policy of the Soviet leadership during the war. "War communism". GOELRO plan.

The policy of the new government regarding culture.

Foreign policy. Treaties with border countries. Russia's participation in the Genoa, Hague, Moscow and Lausanne conferences. Diplomatic recognition of the USSR by the main capitalist countries.

Domestic policy. Socio-economic and political crisis of the early 20s. Famine 1921-1922 Transition to a new economic policy. The essence of NEP. NEP in the field of agriculture, trade, industry. Financial reform. Economic recovery. Crises during the NEP period and its collapse.

Projects for the creation of the USSR. I Congress of Soviets of the USSR. The first government and the Constitution of the USSR.

Illness and death of V.I. Lenin. Intra-party struggle. The beginning of the formation of Stalin's regime.

Industrialization and collectivization. Development and implementation of the first five-year plans. Socialist competition - goal, forms, leaders.

Formation and strengthening of the state system of economic management.

The course towards complete collectivization. Dispossession.

Results of industrialization and collectivization.

Political, national-state development in the 30s. Intra-party struggle. Political repression. Formation of the nomenklatura as a layer of managers. Stalin's regime and the USSR Constitution of 1936

Soviet culture in the 20-30s.

Foreign policy of the second half of the 20s - mid-30s.

Domestic policy. Growth of military production. Emergency measures in the field of labor legislation. Measures to solve the grain problem. Armed forces. The growth of the Red Army. Military reform. Repressions against the command cadres of the Red Army and the Red Army.

Foreign policy. Non-aggression pact and treaty of friendship and borders between the USSR and Germany. Entry of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus into the USSR. Soviet-Finnish war. Inclusion of the Baltic republics and other territories into the USSR.

Periodization of the Great Patriotic War. The initial stage of the war. Turning the country into a military camp. Military defeats 1941-1942 and their reasons. Major military events. Surrender of Nazi Germany. Participation of the USSR in the war with Japan.

Soviet rear during the war.

Deportation of peoples.

Guerrilla warfare.

Human and material losses during the war.

Creation of an anti-Hitler coalition. Declaration of the United Nations. The problem of the second front. "Big Three" conferences. Problems of post-war peace settlement and comprehensive cooperation. USSR and UN.

Start " cold war". The USSR's contribution to the creation of the "socialist camp". Formation of the CMEA.

Domestic policy of the USSR in the mid-40s - early 50s. Restoration of the national economy.

Social and political life. Policy in the field of science and culture. Continued repression. "Leningrad case". Campaign against cosmopolitanism. "The Doctors' Case"

Socio-economic development of Soviet society in the mid-50s - the first half of the 60s.

Socio-political development: XX Congress of the CPSU and condemnation of Stalin’s personality cult. Rehabilitation of victims of repression and deportation. Internal party struggle in the second half of the 50s.

Foreign policy: creation of the Department of Internal Affairs. Entry of Soviet troops into Hungary. Exacerbation of Soviet-Chinese relations. Split of the "socialist camp". Soviet-American relations and the Cuban missile crisis. USSR and "third world" countries. Reduction in the size of the armed forces of the USSR. Moscow Treaty on the Limitation of Nuclear Tests.

USSR in the mid-60s - first half of the 80s.

Socio-economic development: economic reform of 1965

Increasing difficulties in economic development. Declining rates of socio-economic growth.

Constitution of the USSR 1977

Social and political life of the USSR in the 1970s - early 1980s.

Foreign policy: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Consolidation of post-war borders in Europe. Moscow Treaty with Germany. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Soviet-American treaties of the 70s. Soviet-Chinese relations. Entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan. Exacerbation of international tension and the USSR. Strengthening Soviet-American confrontation in the early 80s.

USSR in 1985-1991

Domestic policy: an attempt to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. An attempt to reform the political system of Soviet society. Congresses of People's Deputies. Election of the President of the USSR. Multi-party system. Exacerbation of the political crisis.

Exacerbation of the national question. Attempts to reform the national-state structure of the USSR. Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR. "Novoogaryovsky trial". Collapse of the USSR.

Foreign policy: Soviet-American relations and the problem of disarmament. Agreements with leading capitalist countries. Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Changing relations with the countries of the socialist community. Collapse of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact Organization.

Russian Federation in 1992-2000.

Domestic policy: “Shock therapy” in the economy: price liberalization, stages of privatization of commercial and industrial enterprises. Fall in production. Increased social tension. Growth and slowdown in financial inflation. Intensification of the struggle between the executive and legislative branches. Dissolution of the Supreme Council and the Congress of People's Deputies. October events of 1993. Abolition of local bodies of Soviet power. Elections to the Federal Assembly. Constitution of the Russian Federation 1993 Formation of a presidential republic. Exacerbation and overcoming national conflicts in the North Caucasus.

Parliamentary elections of 1995. Presidential elections of 1996. Power and opposition. An attempt to return to the course of liberal reforms (spring 1997) and its failure. Financial crisis of August 1998: causes, economic and political consequences. "Second Chechen War". Parliamentary elections of 1999 and early presidential elections of 2000. Foreign policy: Russia in the CIS. Participation of Russian troops in “hot spots” of the neighboring countries: Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan. Relations between Russia and foreign countries. Withdrawal of Russian troops from Europe and neighboring countries. Russian-American agreements. Russia and NATO. Russia and the Council of Europe. Yugoslav crises (1999-2000) and Russia’s position.

• Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XX century.

Time period of the late XIX - early XX centuries. represents a turning point in all spheres of social and spiritual life. Russia was heading towards revolution. Chronologically, the period under consideration lies between the early 90s. XIX century and 1917. This period is usually called the Silver Age or “spiritual and cultural renaissance.” The definition of “Silver Age” was one of the first to be coined by S.K. Makovsky, the founder and editor of the popular Apollo magazine at that time. The terms “Russian spiritual and cultural renaissance”, or “spiritual renaissance”, were widely used by N. A. Berdyaev and other outstanding philosophers of this era.

Of course, these concepts are arbitrary, but they aptly define the special status of the artistic culture of Russia at the turn of the century, in which there is a “silver reflection” of previous “golden” times, and the revival of spiritual and religious principles lost by realistic art. This was the time when:

The Russian economy was rapidly approaching the achievements of the most developed countries;
- the development of science was marked by outstanding achievements;
- a unique cosmic direction of scientific and philosophical thought arose;
- the domestic intelligentsia increasingly became the moral barometer of society.

The Russian poet Konstantin Balmont sensitively captured the worldview of his contemporaries: “... people who think and feel at the turn of two periods, one completed, the other not yet born... debunk everything old, because it has lost its soul and has become a lifeless scheme. But, preceding the new, they themselves, having grown up on the old, are unable to see this new with their own eyes - that is why in their mood, next to the most enthusiastic outbursts, there is so much sick melancholy.”

The Silver Age is full of mysteries and contradictions, the interweaving of numerous artistic movements, creative schools, and fundamentally unconventional styles. And most importantly, in the culture of the Silver Age there was a revaluation of the values ​​that once fueled the work of the masters of Russian classics. This revaluation was based on the social upheavals of pre-revolutionary Russia, striking with the intensity of passions, the thirst for spiritual renewal, which led to a change in views on art and the artist-creator. This is how N. A. Berdyaev characterized these changes in his work “The Russian Idea”: “At the beginning of the century, a difficult, often painful struggle of the people of the Renaissance was waged against the narrowed consciousness of the traditional intelligentsia - a struggle in the name of freedom of creativity and in the name of the spirit... Speech was about the liberation of spiritual culture from the oppression of social utilitarianism.”

The creators of art, who today belong to the Silver Age, are connected by invisible threads with a renewed worldview in the name of freedom of creativity. The development of social conflicts at the turn of the century imperiously demanded a reassessment of values, a change in the foundations of creativity and means of artistic expression. Against this background, artistic styles were born in which the usual meaning of concepts and ideals shifted.

It is worth noting that the “liberation of spiritual culture” and the formation of new artistic directions did not cancel the previous domestic traditions, especially realism. Suffice it to remember that at the turn of the century the immortal works of L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, canvases by V.I. Surikov and I.E. Repin, and the brilliant operas of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov were created.

However, realism no longer corresponded to the worldview of the creators of works of art. It was clear that the accusatory approach to reality could not fully correspond artistic tasks art, therefore the art of the turn of the century is filled with an active search for new forms and ways of expressing their views on the world of the most artists different directions. Never in Russian art have there been so many movements and groups as at the beginning of the 20th century. They put forward their “platforms”, their theoretical programs, organized exhibitions, prefacing them with intricate declarations and manifestos, which led to clashes with representatives of opposing views.

The overall picture of the state of Russian fine art was complex, internally contradictory, motley, in it much developed synchronously, mutually influencing or opposing. At the same time, certain lines of aesthetic development are outlined, the contours of two main schools - Moscow and St. Petersburg, and at the same time, pan-European trends are clearly evident throughout.

Artists began to look for new forms of understanding the world. They believed that they could gain a direct, uncomplicated view of nature. For many, the premonition was embodied in symbols that gave rise to complex associations. These were different ways of comprehending the world: to recognize the essence behind the phenomenon, to see the universal behind the small. Refusing realism, the artists of the beginning of the century rose to a new level of generalization, making another turn in the spiral of the eternal search for artistic perfection.

Symbolism and futurism, acmeism and “world of art”, the works of A. Scriabin and A. Bely, V. Kandinsky and Blok, S. Rachmaninov and V. Serov, V. Meyerhold and Mayakovsky, I. Stravinsky and M. Chagall... Contrasting , sometimes there were much more mutually exclusive phenomena and fashionable artistic trends in those years than in all previous centuries of the development of Russian culture.

However, Heraclitus also said that the most beautiful harmony is born from contrasts. It is only important to understand its origins. The unity of the art of the Silver Age lies in the combination of old and new, passing and emerging. It was a harmony of opposites, born of a special kind of culture, the culture of the turn of the century.

The unifying beginning of the new artistic movements of the Silver Age should be considered super-problems that were simultaneously put forward in different types of art. Their complexity still amazes today.

The most important figurative sphere of poetry, music, and painting was determined by the leitmotif of the freedom of the human Spirit in the face of eternity. The image of the Universe - immense, calling, frightening - entered Russian art. Many people wanted to touch the secrets of the Cosmos, life, and death. For some, this theme was a reflection of religious feelings, for others - the embodiment of delight and awe before the eternal beauty of what God created. Many inspired pages of Russian art were devoted to other principles of the “cosmic theme” - the cosmos of the Soul.

At the same time, with all the “cosmic” universal significance and European orientation of many new movements (symbolism, neoclassicism, futurism, etc.), they begin to develop the Russian theme with particular depth as a symbol of national original beauty.

The social status of art has changed. It seems that never before have Russian artists created so many interest groups. Serious circles united many outstanding cultural figures. For example, in the “Religious and Philosophical Society” the tone was set by D. S. Merezhkovsky, V. V. Rozanov, D. V. Filosofov. Talented artists, musicians, and choreographers have gathered under the wing of the “World of Art” to create the unfading glory of Russian art.

The so-called “Mammoth circle” played a major role in the development of fine art of this period. He had his residence on the estate of the industrialist and philanthropist S.I. Mamontov - Abramtsevo. The circle became a kind of distributor of visual ideas and forms of new Russian art. An arts and crafts workshop was organized in Abramtsevo.