The main periods of development of the human body. The main stages of individual human development

The stages of personality development are one of the most interesting and mysterious topics. Everyone really wants to learn more about themselves, the possibilities of their development, improve their skills and bring themselves to a state of ideal. Philosophers and psychologists consider these issues from different points of view, so forming a consensus in this aspect is impossible.

In this article you will become acquainted with such concepts as the formation and stages of personality development, you will be able to develop your own point of view on the social issue of growing up and some methods of self-knowledge.

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Stages of personality development by age

Most often, age gradation is used - and personality development according to Erikson, which involves a change in a person’s consciousness as he grows up. There is also the concept of the evolution of a person according to his social and spiritual level of perception of life.

Let's begin to consider the stages of personality development according to age criteria, since this theory is most popular and widespread everywhere.

Infancy

This period is distinguished by Erikson and Freud (“Oral stage”). On at this stage the foundations of personality and attitude towards the world around us are laid - trust or distrust, confidence or lack thereof.

Of course, an important role in a child’s life is played by his mother, who represents for the baby the whole world. He needs maternal care, which allows him to feel consistency and recognition in his experiences. Further development of personality largely depends on the first days of life.

If there is trust, the child perceives the world in a positive way, as reliable, predictable, and calmly endures difficulties, even the temporary absence of the mother nearby. In the absence of adequate maternal care, feelings of mistrust, fear and suspicion arise. Thus, the basis of the first period is the relationship: “trust-distrust”.

Early childhood

The period from 1 to 3 years, corresponds to the “Anal stage” according to Freud, the child masters the ability to control his excretory functions. In addition, the baby becomes physically stronger and can perform more complex actions - walking, climbing, washing.

Very often there are calls for independence “I myself”, important point is to help parents act independently. It is necessary to provide an opportunity for the development of the child’s personality and the formation of autonomy. If he is constantly looked after and everything is done for him, then this is detrimental to development, along with unreasonable demands.

Such things cause further insecurity and weakness of will. With positive development, will and self-control develop.

Preschool age

Preschool age, 3-6 years, is also called the “Age of Play”; according to Freud, the “Phallic Stage”, the period of awareness of gender differences. This period is characterized by an increase social interactions- games, communication with peers and adults, interest in work matters.

Manifested in the ability to take responsibility for those who are smaller or weaker, caring for animals. The main slogan: “I am what I will be. The Super Ego is now being formed as a result of understanding social restrictions. It is possible to educate and raise a child; there are all the prerequisites for this.

Children experience joy from independent actions and begin to associate themselves with special, important people, begin to set goals for themselves. In addition, they show imagination in choosing games and creating their own entertainment. It is worth encouraging the child’s independent actions, which will be the basis for the development of initiative, independence and help in the development of creative abilities.

School age

School age (6-12 years), if we turn to Freud’s theory of personality development - “Latent period”. There is a calmness in the psyche, in the first place now is the development and study of the outside world, the creation of contacts. The basis of everything is the desire to master new knowledge, everything that is important within the society where the child grows up.
The main motto: “I am what I can learn.” Children are taught discipline and participation in solving various problems. There is a desire to express creativity. Children need adult support for personal development. In negative development, doubts about oneself and one’s own competence can be observed.

Youth

Youth (12-19 years old), personal identity and self-determination. An important period for the formation and development of personality. Stage of search and self-determination. The teenager tries to determine his place in this life and choose a role that is suitable for him. There is a rethinking of life and values.
At this stage, mistakes from past periods that were made earlier in upbringing often come to light. As a result, negative self-identification may arise - belonging to informal groups and, moreover, drug addiction, alcoholism, and breaking the law. There is also a tendency to create idols and strive to be like them.
With a positive development of events, self-development of such qualities as loyalty and the ability to make independent decisions and determine the path of life is observed.

Youth

Youth (20-25 years old), beginning adult life. This is the period of the emergence of love, affection, creation of a family and independent life. During this period, there is a need for intimate intimacy, and comprehensively, not only on the physical level.

It is important to have mutual feelings and respect in a relationship, to learn to merge with your loved one without losing your identity. Man learns to build interpersonal relationships. If you fail to find this balance in relationships with the opposite sex, then a feeling of loneliness appears.

In this period, a feeling is of great importance to a person - love, which is considered as trust in a partner, fidelity under any circumstances, care for one's neighbor. All stages of personality development must be completed on time - “Blessed is he who was young from a young age...” (A.S. Pushkin), although it happens that development occurs late, and this is quite normal.

Maturity

Maturity (26-64 years old), personal development is manifested in caring for the younger generation. Moreover, even in the absence of children, under normal circumstances, they focus more on outside world and helping others. Otherwise, a “midlife crisis” arises and a feeling of the meaninglessness of life appears.

As a rule, by this time a person has already achieved certain results in life and has a need to pass on knowledge and skills to others, to help his children and grandchildren. It is observed to a sufficient extent.

Old age

Old age (from 65 years), the last stage of personality development. Another rethinking of life occurs, a person increasingly remembers the past years and realizes the correctness or error of his actions and decisions. They often say: old age is wisdom. For those who have been through a long time life path and analyzed my life - and so it is.

This stage of personality development comes when you have already managed to go through a lot in life and conquer the highest peaks. And it is very important to be satisfied, to find joyful moments in your life. Then old age will be calm and confident, and the approach of death will no longer be scary, because life continues in the descendants and creations of man.

If a person cannot find peace, then only sadness over missed opportunities and torment of conscience await him. Therefore, throughout your life you need to try to live in such a way that, years later, you can enjoy your achievements and accomplishments, write memoirs and tell your grandchildren about your life.

So we analyzed the development of personality throughout life. However, this is ideal, wisdom comes with old age, and in childhood we live by impulses and desires. It all depends on the person and his desire to develop, as well as the experience he has experienced and understanding the lessons of life and mistakes along the way.

In adulthood, there are also stages of personality development, which are based on the level of development of the mind and spiritual filling of the human essence. Of course, we can consciously influence these processes using self-development.

6 stages of adult personality development

The stages of growing up are described from a purely biological point of view, and if we take into account Freud’s opinion on this issue, we will come to the eternal question of sexuality, but is everything so clear? Many will agree that the theory of the famous scientist and psychotherapist is perfect and contains a structured presentation of information about a person. But in order to form your own opinion, knowledge of just one book on psychoanalysis is not enough.

Let us consider the stages of human personality development in a different gradation.

1. The stage of primitive man

Lowest level of development human personality— stage primitive man. Human behavior approaches the animal world - the basis is the satisfaction of animal instincts. Moreover, at this stage a person is of little interest in social issues and restrictions.

If a person gets stuck at this stage, then this can negatively affect loved ones and others, and the person himself cannot be happy if he lacks control over his desires and needs. All this leads to crime and violation of the laws of society. Moreover, “man” is restrained only by the criminal code and, to a lesser extent, moral principles.

A person at this stage may develop an interest in other stages. For self-development and the transition from this level to the next, it is necessary to realize the need and accept the idea that everything comes back, and a negative attitude towards life and people as well. It is necessary to eradicate violence at the level of thoughts and subconscious processes.

2. Layman level

The second level is the level of the average person who thinks little on his own about life and gets most of his information from television programs, magazines and the media. At the same time, it does not subject the information to critical analysis. There is already an understanding that we need to avoid violence in life. And this is associated with karmic experience or upbringing and a more highly developed human consciousness.

At the same time, a person behaves quite normally in society, according to existing rules, and on a more subtle level, in thoughts, it allows you to insult, accuse, and deceive. The basis of this stage is the need for pleasure; drinkers, smokers, or simply gluttony are often found.

If we remember the development of personality according to Freud, he spoke about the possibility of the development of such consequences, regression in self-development. A person can be quite adequate, and at the same time difficult situations or during periods of stress, slide down to this level - start consuming large quantities of sweets, drinking alcohol, etc. People are trying to find peace of mind by obtaining pleasure.
The origins lie in childhood; often people in this category did not receive enough love and attention at an early age, or their parents were too demanding, so they “pamper” themselves in adulthood. Regression occurs when a person cannot cope with the next stages of personal development.

For further growth, you need to make a deep analysis of the foundations of your behavior, understand and work out the psycho-emotional reasons for the early periods, or develop skills to overcome life’s difficulties in another way. In the second case, the consequence is treated, in the first, the causes of this phenomenon (regression).

3. “Boss” level

The next stage of personality development is the “boss” level. At the same time, they do not mean the boss in terms of career, although professional development of the individual can be observed. First of all, a person becomes the master of his feelings and demands order from the people around him. Physiological needs are no longer fundamental to behavior.

The basis of behavior is the desire to own, manage, subjugate. In relationships, this manifests itself in the desire to win the attention of a member of the opposite sex, after which interest often fades. Only meeting a person more high level can detain a person for a while. After all, learning something new is always interesting, and people of a subtle level are very sensitive and perceive life differently and react to it.

On a subconscious level, we are looking for a person one level higher than us for further development. It is interesting that a person of the third level can communicate with people of a lower level out of necessity, or, if he has not completed all the lessons of past periods, regression occurs, life sends us to re-study.

Conventionally, the first three periods are the development of personality in social terms, and the next three stages are spiritual improvement and self-development.

4. The period of “blessed”

The stage of real growing up is what I call the “blessed” period. A person no longer concentrates all his attention on his Ego, ceases to be a child and is ready to take responsibility and take care of other people. Not all people move to this stage; many prefer to remain children and want to be the center of the Universe, to subjugate the world. People of the first three stages do not show interest in this topic; they are satisfied with the existing state of affairs.

Let's think, can such a person really be happy? Even if all your wishes come true, there will be a feeling of loneliness. This period is characterized by changes in the perception of life, a depth of feelings and emotions appears, and an understanding comes that negative emotions and feelings - hatred, anger, deception cannot make a person happy.

If the third level allows you to gain social position and stability, then now knowledge appears to manage one’s power. An understanding comes that life is not worth wasting on experiences, reflection, it is beautiful and it is worth enjoying every day you live, creating beautiful world and helping loved ones.

In age gradation, this is a period of maturity, but not everyone comes to understand the necessary criteria for personal maturation and the need for self-development.

5. Sage stage

The next period is called the “sage stage.” A person gains knowledge of managing his own consciousness, and his understanding of the way the world works and cause-and-effect relationships increases. The realization comes that all life events have their root causes, they are lessons that need to be worked through in order to transform the picture of your life.

A person learns to see the deep meaning of all processes; the transition to the fifth stage is associated with disappointment in the ideals of the world and knowledge of the spiritual essence of man. It is important to go through the stages of personality development gradually, because if you miss the fourth period - overcoming pride, then a feeling of the meaninglessness of life and deep disappointment arises.

With the correct course of development, real wisdom and understanding of the evolution of life and personality development arise. A person of this period finds balance in all manifestations of life and reacts to events calmly, always finding solutions. This balance is maintained at a deep level.

It is usually believed that wisdom comes in old age, however, first of all, its formation depends on the development of self-awareness and life processes, lived experience. There is an expression - “wise beyond his years.”

6. Personal enlightenment

At the last stage, the enlightenment of the individual occurs. The transition to this period is perceived as a revelation or illumination of consciousness. A person suddenly understands where the real truth is, a real revolution is taking place in consciousness. At the same time, a person can live an ordinary life, and understand everything at a more subtle level.

Enlightenment is the awareness of the existence of life at a specific moment in time, the past and future are just an illusion. Manifestations - calmness, contemplation of life, “everything is going as it should and what needs to happen will happen.” A person perceives himself as a phenomenon that spontaneously arises in the river of existence.

I remember Buddhists and monks who have experienced life and are in no hurry. Life is a thought. It is determined by our idea of it. There are such people in our lives - they are incredibly calm and surprise with their resistance to any life situations.

Conclusion

So, we looked at the stages of personality development according to different criteria and touched on the origins of personality formation. It is important to understand: regardless of our position on this moment, there is always the opportunity to move forward and not waste time, which can easily be used for good deeds. Whether it’s self-knowledge or developing your own business, building a career or creativity, use everything necessary tools and achieve success together with the Self-Development and Self-Knowledge project.

Infancy (1st year of life). The first month of life is called the newborn period. The child sleeps most of the day, and his position resembles the position of the fetus in the uterus. Caring for a newborn requires special cleanliness, maintaining an air temperature of at least 20 ° C and strict adherence to feeding times. Failure to comply with the feeding regime disrupts sleep and leads to digestive upset. Harmonious development is ensured by feeding breast milk. From the age of two months, vegetable and fruit juices and feeding with easily digestible food are necessary.
Changes in the motor sphere. At the end of the first month of life, the child begins to straighten his legs, at the 6th week he lifts and holds his head, at 6 months he sits, and at the end of the 1st year he makes an attempt to walk.
Mental changes. At the 2nd month, the child begins to smile, by the 4th month he begins to put toys in his mouth and distinguish between adults. After 6 months, the child reacts with complex behavior to the presence of the mother and begins to understand her speech.
In infancy, children are especially susceptible to the effects external environment. During this period, they need active movements. They promote the development of muscles and bones, improve blood circulation, provide the body with oxygen and nutrients, and normalize and train the activity of the nervous system. An effective remedy hardening is Fresh air and water treatments. They enhance metabolism, the protective functions of the blood, and regulate the functions of the nervous system. Good physical and mental development is ensured by a rational lifestyle.
Early childhood is the period from 1 year to 3 years. At this time, the child grows quickly, switches to eating regular food, and has a desire to independently understand the world around him. The child begins to walk, talk, manipulate various items. He develops many motor skills.
Preschool period - from 3 to 7 years. This is the period of maximum curiosity of the child, when he becomes a “why”. At this time, the child’s brain continues to grow rapidly and speech is finally formed. His mental development occurs during games. They are able to
contribute to the development of imagination, fantasy, and encourage creativity. Outdoor games improve the muscular system. 5-6 years is the age limit after which, if you start from scratch, you cannot achieve mastery of speech.
The school period - from 7 to 17 years - is a time of restructuring of all organs and systems of the developing organism. Entering school, the need to maintain school discipline, the process of acquiring knowledge is a serious and hard labour. At school, the child is faced with the influence of the team. All this contributes to his harmonious mental and physical development.
From the age of 11, a child is called a teenager. At this age, the production of sex hormones increases, which causes the process of restructuring. In boys, the muscles of the back and chest develop, body weight increases, the thickness of subcutaneous fat decreases, abdominal breathing is formed due to contraction of the muscles of the diaphragm, secondary sexual characteristics develop and nocturnal emissions occur - eruptions of semen from the urethra.
In girls during this period, along with the development of the muscular system, the subcutaneous fat layer increases, a thoracic type of breathing is formed due to the contraction of the intercostal muscles, secondary sexual characteristics develop and menstrual cycles begin - bleeding from the uterus, occurring at regular intervals. They are related to the fact that female body One egg at a time periodically matures and, if it is not fertilized, menstruation occurs.
During adolescence, the adrenal cortex secretes especially many hormones, which maintains a state of high activity. The resulting tension is reduced sports games and other types of active activities. At this time, the formation of character and moral formation of the individual occurs.
At the age of 17, the development of the body does not end. They distinguish between physiological, psychological and social maturity. Physiological maturity is the stage of puberty in the body. The time it takes to achieve it depends on hereditary factors, climate and characteristics of the body.

The process of individual development of any organism is called ontogenesis. The concept of ontogeny was introduced into biology by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. According to modern ideas, ontogenesis (Greek ontos - being, individual, genesis - development) is full cycle individual development of each individual, which is based on the implementation of hereditary information at all stages of existence in certain environmental conditions; it starts with education zygotes(during sexual reproduction) and ends in death. The biological species Homo sapiens is characterized by direct intrauterine development.

Depending on the environment in which the human body develops, ontogenesis is divided into two large periods, separated from each other by the moment of birth:

Intrauterine(prenatal, or antenatal), when the newly born organism develops in the womb; this period lasts from conception to birth.
Extrauterine (postnatal), when a new individual continues its development outside the mother’s body; this period lasts from birth to death.

IN Lately it is also proposed to highlight prezygotic the period preceding the formation of the zygote.

Prezygotic period

Prezygotic period development is associated with the formation of gametes (gametogenesis). The formation of eggs begins in women even before their birth and is completed for each given egg only after its fertilization. By the time of birth, a female fetus in the ovaries contains about two million first-order oocytes (these are still diploid cells), and only 350 - 450 of them will reach the stage of second-order oocytes (haploid cells), turning into eggs (one at a time during one menstrual cycle ). Unlike women, sex cells in the testes (testes) in men begin to form only with the onset of puberty. The duration of sperm formation is approximately 70 days; per gram of testicle weight, the number of sperm is about 100 million per day.

Fertilization is the process of fusion of an egg and a sperm, leading to the formation of a zygote. Fertilization of the egg occurs in the initial section of the fallopian tube, where only about a hundred sperm penetrate. The ability of sperm to fertilize in the female genital tract persists for two days. The sperm has an acrosome in its head, which contains an enzyme to dissolve the membrane of the egg. When the sperm and egg come together, the acrosome ruptures, and the released enzymes dissolve the shell of the female gamete. The sperm penetrates the egg, after which it is covered with a dense membrane that prevents the penetration of other male gametes. As a result of fertilization, the diploid set of chromosomes is restored. The resulting single-celled embryo is a zygote. In it, complex movements of individual sections of the cytoplasm and its organelles occur throughout the day.

Prenatal period Human development lasts 280 days and is divided into:

initial period(the first week after fertilization, during which the zygote fragments, the formation of a blastula and its implantation into the uterine wall);
embryonic period(first two months) when it happens initial development embryo (embryo) and when the main formation of tissues and organs occurs;
fertile period(3-9 months), when the growth of parts formed in the embryonic stage and the further formation of organs and systems continues. From the third month, the human embryo is called a fetus.

Initial period

Initial period. Splitting up- This is the initial stage of development of a fertilized egg (zygote). In humans, it lasts 3-4 days (the zygote is fragmented through a series of successive mitoses, but without the growth of daughter cells to the size of the zygote). In humans, the fragmentation of the zygote is full and uneven. Cells formed as a result of fragmentation are called blastomeres. The result of the fragmentation stage is the formation of a multicellular embryo - morulas. Crushing and formation of the morula occurs as the embryo moves along the fallopian tube. The morula enters the uterus, where the process takes place blastulation. The blastomeres in the morula repel each other, shift to the periphery and line up in one layer, and by the 6th day a single-layer embryo in the form of a vesicle is formed. Different blastomeres divide at different rates. Some of them (lighter) are located on the periphery, others (darker) are located in the center.

The surrounding embryo is formed from light cells trophoblast, the cells of which play an auxiliary role and do not directly participate in the formation of the embryo body. Trophoblast cells are able to dissolve tissue, due to which the embryo is implanted ( implanted) into the wall of the uterus. Next, the trophoblast cells peel off from the cells of the embryo, forming a vesicle around it. The trophoblast cavity is filled with fluid diffusing into it from the uterine tissue. Formed from dark cells embryoblast, having the appearance of a nodule. As a result of further fragmentation of the embryoblast, the embryo takes the form of a disk, spread out on the inner surface of the trophoblast. This stage of embryonic development, when the trophoblast and embryoblast are distinguished, is called blastocyst. The blastocyst, once in the uterine cavity, implanted, receiving nutrients from the uterine wall. Trophoblast cells differentiate into two layers. From the cells of the outer layer of trophoblast are formed trophoblast villi, which grow into the epithelium of the uterus. This layer with villi forms the outermost membrane of the embryo - chorion. The chorion plays an important role in the nutrition of the developing embryo and the removal of its final metabolic products. At later stages this function is performed by placenta. Two cavities form in the inner layer of trophoblast cells; the walls of these cavities give rise to two more embryonic membranes - amnion and yolk sac. Amnion is a thin shell that covers the embryo and performs protective functions; its cells secrete amniotic fluid, filling the amniotic cavity located between the amnion and the embryo. As the embryo grows, the amnion expands so that it is always pressed against the wall of the uterus. Amniotic fluid supports the embryo and protects it from mechanical damage. The yolk sac in the human embryo does not play a significant role; it is a kind of rudiment (the yolk sac is especially developed in reptiles and birds; it absorbs the nutrients stored in the yolk and transfers them to the midgut of the embryo). In humans, the yolk sac contains practically no yolk; its main function is hematopoiesis. In addition, primary germ cells are formed in its wall, then migrating into the rudiments of the gonads.

Embryonic period

Embryonic period lies in the flow gastrulation and education three germ layers, histogenesis (tissue formation) and organogenesis (organ formation).

Gastrulation is the process of formation of germ layers. The disc-shaped embryoblast is called germinal disc. An embryo develops from it. The cells of this disc at an early stage, when its diameter does not reach 2 mm, differentiate into two germ layers (leaves) - ectoderm and endoderm. At a later stage it is formed mesoderm. These three germ layers give rise to all the tissues of the developing embryo. At the end of gastrulation in the 4th week, primordia are formed neural plate And chords.

In the early stages of development, the exchange between the embryo and the maternal organism occurs due to the trophoblast villi, and then the fourth shell develops - allantois. The allantois grows outward until it comes into contact with the chorion, forming a structure rich in blood vessels that participates in the formation of the placenta.

Placenta has the form of a disc fixed in the uterine mucosa, and from the 12th week of development it completely ensures the exchange between the fetus and the mother. By the end of the eighth week, all internal organs are formed. In the placenta, the blood of mother and fetus does not mix. Between the body of the fetus and the placenta is formed umbilical cord, in which two umbilical arteries, carrying venous blood from the embryo, and one umbilical vein, carrying arterial blood from the placenta to the embryo. Tissues are formed and differentiated from the cellular material of embryonic rudiments. This ends the embryonic period. An eight-week embryo is 3-3.5 cm long and weighs about 4 grams. His neck is separated, facial features are outlined, limbs and external genitalia are formed.

Fetal period begins from the 9th week of intrauterine life with a predominance of growth processes and final tissue differentiation. By the end of 3 months, the fruit weighs about 40 grams, its length reaches 8-9 cm. Ossification nuclei appear in almost all bones. In the 4th month, individual facial features are formed. At the 5th month, the skin becomes covered with fluff, and the movements of the fetus are felt by the mother. The fetal heartbeat is heard, which is faster than that of the mother. At 6 months, the embryo is 30 cm long and weighs 650-700 g. In the case of premature birth at 7 - 8 months, the fetus is viable, but needs the conditions of intrauterine life. By the end of the 9th month, the fuzz on the skin is lost, but a layer of cheese-like lubricant remains, the nails protrude above the fingertips, the arms are longer than the legs, and in boys the testicles descend into the scrotum. The weight of the fruit is about 3.5 kg and the length is 50 cm.

Fetal development ends childbirth(expulsion of the fetus and placenta from the uterus). The onset of labor is associated with the release of a hormone from the pituitary gland oxytocin, causing strong contractions of the muscles of the uterus and abdominal muscles. The baby is pushed into the pelvis and is born. The first sign of pulmonary respiration is a cry. After 15-20 minutes, the placenta and amniotic membrane are separated from the uterine wall and pushed out.

During the process of embryogenesis, various factors (poisons, radiation, vitamin deficiencies, oxygen starvation, etc.) can affect the developing organism and cause developmental deviations in the form of anomalies and deformities. Violation of living conditions is especially dangerous if it coincides with periods of increased sensitivity of the embryo, the so-called critical periods of embryogenesis.

In humans, the 7th day, 7th week and childbirth are considered critical periods. Therefore, a pregnant woman must be protected from any adverse effects from the very first days of pregnancy.

Extrauterine (postembryonic) period.

Lasts from birth to death extrauterine (postembryonic, postnatal) development.

Its following periods are distinguished (the periodization of ages was adopted at the VII International Symposium on Problems of Age-Related Morphology, Physiology and Biochemistry in 1965):

newborn(first 1 - 10 days after birth),
chest(from 10 days to 12 months),
early childhood(from 1 to 3 years),
first childhood(from 4 to 7 years old),
second childhood(from 8 to 12 years old),
adolescence (from 13 to 16 years old),
adolescence(from 17 years old to 21 years old),
period of maturity(from 22 years to 55 -60 years),
elderly age(from 56-61 years to 74 years),
old age(75 – 90 years)
centenarians ( over 90 years).

Most intensive growth and child development are noted in the first year of life and during puberty. During the process of growth and development, the proportions of the body change. For example, the ratio of head to body size in a newborn is 1:4, while in an adult it is 1:8.

The main features of humans in comparison with animals are the presence of thinking, speech and motor activity, which is closely related to work activity. For the development of these functions, proper upbringing of children aged 2 to 4 years is very important. The period from 7 to 18 years of age is a crucial period for physical, mental and moral development person.

Return to Human Development

Development of the human body. Individual human development (ontogenesis) begins from the moment of fertilization, when the fusion of female (egg) and male (sperm) germ cells occurs. Initial stages development occurs in the woman’s genital tract, so all ontogenesis is usually divided into prenatal and postnatal (from the Latin natus - childbirth) periods, i.e. prenatal and postnatal.

In the prenatal (intrauterine) period of ontogenesis, in turn, the germinal (embryonic) and fetal (fetal) periods are distinguished. The first lasts 2 months, the second - from the 3rd to the 9th inclusive.

From the moment of birth, the process of independent life of the individual begins and his adaptation to environment. Newly acquired characteristics are layered on those inherited, as a result of which complex transformations occur in the body.

Physical development an individual is characterized by weight, height and size individual parts bodies.

These indicators change unevenly throughout life.

Accelerated growth is observed during the period early childhood(from 1 year to 3 years), at the age of 5 to 7 years and during puberty (from 11-12 to 15-16 years), while the basic proportions of the body also change. In parallel with growth, there are observed age-related changes in all organs and systems. Around the age of 20-25, human growth stops and a relatively stable period of existence begins - mature age. After 55-60 years, a person begins to gradually age, and sclerotic changes occur in a number of organs. This in turn causes a decrease in various body functions.

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In everyday language, the word “science” is used in several senses and means: - a system of special knowledge; - type of specialized activity - public institution(a set of specialized institutions...

What is natural science and how it differs from other cycles of science

2.
Main stages in the development of natural science

The main stages in the development of natural science can be distinguished based on various considerations. In my opinion, the dominant approach among natural scientists to the construction of their theories should be considered as the main criterion...

Embryonic development

2. Stages of development

Once the egg meets the sperm in the fallopian tube, they unite and fertilization occurs. The fertilized egg moves through the fallopian tube and then attaches to the wall of the uterus. This takes 7-10 days...

Stages of ontogenesis of higher plants

I. Stages of ontogenesis of higher plants

Stages of development of natural science and society

1.1 Main stages in the development of natural science and society

At all stages of the development of human cognition, there is a complex interrelation between the results of research in society and the natural sciences. Primary knowledge about the world, accumulated over many centuries of primitive tribal society...

Stages of individual human development

Development of the human body. Individual human development (ontogenesis) begins from the moment of fertilization, when the fusion of female (egg) and male (sperm) germ cells occurs. The initial stages of development occur in the woman’s genital tract, so all ontogenesis is usually divided into prenatal and postnatal (from the Latin natus - childbirth) periods, i.e. prenatal and postnatal.

In the embryonic period, there is an increase in the number of cells, which gradually differentiate into the rudiments of all types of tissues (histogenesis). During the second month of intrauterine development, organs are formed (organogenesis); The main parts of the body are formed: head, neck, torso and limbs. From the 3rd month, intensive growth and development of the fetal body begins, which continues after the birth of the child.

From the moment of birth, the process of independent life of the individual and his adaptation to the environment begins. Newly acquired characteristics are layered on those inherited, as a result of which complex transformations occur in the body. The physical development of an individual is characterized by weight, height and size of individual parts of the body.

These indicators change unevenly throughout life.

Accelerated growth is observed during early childhood (from 1 to 3 years), at the ages of 5 to 7 years and during puberty (from 11-12 to 15-16 years), while the basic proportions of the body also change. In parallel with growth, age-related changes are observed in all organs and systems. Around the age of 20-25, a person’s growth stops and a relatively stable period of existence begins - adulthood. After 55-60 years, a person begins to gradually age, and sclerotic changes occur in a number of organs. This in turn causes a decrease in various body functions.

In the process of development and growth of the body and the formation of its nervous system, the nature and level of human needs changes. A newborn is dominated by vital needs associated with the implementation of vital functions: nutrition, breathing, sleep, etc. Various physiological needs are gradually formed and intensively developed associated with movement in space, with the absorption of various nutrients, growth and development, as well as independent performance and voluntary regulation of physiological functions. Relatively early, already in the first year of life, cognitive needs begin to form, especially during early childhood (1-3 years) and later during the preschool and school periods of the child’s development. The formation of social and communicative needs takes quite a lot a long period ontogeny, including mature life individual.

During puberty, social and communicative needs dominate in the development of a subject’s personality. The pinnacle of personal development is creative needs associated with the accumulation of new knowledge and cultural values. The beginning of the formation of these needs should be attributed to the end of early childhood and the transition to the preschool period of development. However, they can become the dominant motivational basis later, when a person’s personality has already been formed and a period of mature existence begins.

The following periods of post-embryonic development of a child are distinguished: the neonatal period, the infancy period, early childhood (nursery period), preschool and school periods. The formation of the body ends by the age of 22–25.
- Neonatal period (first 4 weeks of life). The position of the newborn resembles the position of the fetus in the uterus. He sleeps most of the day, waking up only at feeding time. The child develops most harmoniously with natural breastfeeding.
- Breast period (from the 5th week to the end of the 1st year of life). Many changes occur in the child’s motor system: at the end of the 1st month of life he tries to straighten his legs, at the 6th week he lifts and holds his head, at the 6th month he sits, at the end of the 1st year of life he tries to take his first steps. The child’s psyche also develops intensively. At the 2nd month, he smiles at the sight of bright objects, when his mother appears, by the 4th month he takes toys into his mouth, examining them, begins to distinguish between adults. By the end of the 1st year of life, the child begins to understand many of the parents' phrases.
- Early childhood period (from 1 to 3 years). The child is actively developing motor skills. He begins to walk, takes possession different ways manipulation of objects. During this period, the child develops a desire to understand the world and a desire for self-affirmation.
- Preschool period (from 3 to 6 years). Children show great interest in the world around them - this is the stage of questions, or the “why” age. The period from 2 to 4 years is especially important for the development of thinking, speech and work activity. If it is missed, then a lag in mental and physical development occurs.
- School period (from 6 to 17–18 years), including puberty. There is a qualitative change in all human activities. Pupils junior classes perform complex and precise movements slowly and with difficulty. The final formation of motor activity ends by the age of 18. A physiological feature of the adolescent’s cardiovascular system is a lag in the growth of blood vessels (their cross section) from the growth of the heart, which often leads to circulatory disorders, dizziness, high blood pressure, and cardiac dysfunction. This is especially pronounced during puberty: in adolescents, excitability increases, increased irritability occurs, and sleep disturbances occur. The increased release of hormones keeps the body in a state of high activity. Major changes occur in the structure and functioning of the body. By the age of 18, most of the physiological functions of a young person approach those of an adult.

As a result of the embryonic stage of ontogenesis, an organism is formed that undergoes further growth and development after birth. There are two types of postembryonic development: INDIRECT(with transformation) and DIRECT, which are presented in the diagram of the main stages of ontogenesis:

Elementary ideas about the features of direct and indirect development can be obtained by reading the textbook.

The material on individual human development is sufficiently presented. Special attention it is necessary to pay attention to the influence of nicotine and alcohol on the processes of ontogenesis.

Remember:

1. under the influence of alcohol, disturbances may occur in the chromosomal apparatus of germ cells, which leads to the birth of inferior offspring (Sunday children);

2. maternal drunkenness can lead to the birth of babies with damage to both internal organs and the nervous system.

The problem of age periodization can be proposed for discussion. When studying the periods of post-embryonic development of a person, look at what is the basis for age periodization. Pay attention to the phenomenon of acceleration in adolescents in the second half of the 20th century. What hypotheses exist to explain this phenomenon?

From the moment the zygote is formed, ontogeny begins (from the Greek on (ontos) - existing and genesis - birth), or the individual development of the organism, which ends in death. In the ontogenesis of multicellular animals, two periods are distinguished: embryonic and postembryonic.

The embryonic period begins with the formation of the zygote and ends with the birth or exit of the embryo from the egg. How does a multicellular organism form from one cell - a zygote? Let's get acquainted with this process using the example of embryo formation in chordates.

The embryonic period of development includes zygote fragmentation, gastrula, and organ formation. In the first stage, the zygote divides through mitosis. In this case, first two identical cells appear, then four, etc. Cells quickly divide but do not grow. Their number is increasing, and their sizes are decreasing. This process is called crushing. Crushing ends with the formation of a small hollow vesicle - blastula (from the Greek blast - sprout), which consists of a single layer of cells.

At the next stage, a two-layer embryo is formed - gastrula (from the Greek gaster - stomach). The inner layer is formed due to the migration of some cells or the invagination of the wall into the cavity of the vesicle. The outer and inner layers of cells are called germ layers. The outer leaf is ectoderm (from the Greek ectos - outside, outside and derma - skin), the inner leaf is endotherm (from the Greek entos - inside and derma).

At the next stage, between the ectoderm and endoderm, the third germ layer is formed - the mesoderm (from the Greek mesos - middle and derma). From each germ layer certain organs and organ systems develop: from the ectoderm - the nervous system, sensory organs, skin; from the mesoderm - notochord, skeleton, muscles, circulatory, excretory, reproductive systems; from the endoderm - intestinal epithelium, digestive glands, lungs.

The embryo of a multicellular organism in its development seems to repeat the stages of development of its species. This is clearly visible in the embryo of a mammal, which, during embryonic development, seems to go through the stages of development of its ancestors: single-celled, two-layered, coelenterate, etc. These data indicate the relationship between highly organized and simply organized animals and allow us to trace the course of evolution.

The embryo of mammals, including humans, is very sensitive to the effects of unfavorable environmental factors. The development of the embryo is influenced by the substances it receives from the mother’s blood. For example, each cigarette smoked by the mother reduces the oxygen supply to the fetus by 10%. The fetal liver, which has not yet matured, cannot cope with the toxic substances entering the body, and they accumulate in its tissues. Alcohol consumed by the mother is concentrated in the blood of the fetus and reaches 70% of its content in the blood of the mother. Alcohol has a particularly bad effect on the central nervous system(CNS) of the unborn child. What explains this? Scientists believe that the central nervous system arose relatively recently in the course of evolution and its cells are very sensitive to a lack of oxygen. Alcohol inhibits the development of cells in the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. This is why when parents drink alcohol, about 80% of newborns end up with mental development defects. The narcotic substances entering its blood have a strong effect on the fetus. Unborn children of drug addicts become addicted to drugs. After birth, they develop poorly and require special medical supervision and care.

Postembryonic development. Occurs after the birth or release of the embryo from the egg and ends with the death of the organism. The types of postembryonic development are diverse and occur in several stages. In fish, the eggs give rise to fry, which grow and turn into an adult. The following periods are distinguished in human development: childhood, adolescence, adolescence, youth, maturity, old age. Each period is characterized by a number of changes in the body.

There are direct and indirect postembryonic development. In direct development, the newly emerged organism is similar in structure to the parent and differs from it only in size and incomplete development of organs. Direct development is characteristic of humans and other mammals, birds, reptiles, and some insects.

During indirect development, the animal goes through a series of transformations. Thus, in insects, a larva appears from an egg, the structure of which differs from the structure of an adult animal. The larva then develops into a pupa and the pupa into an adult form. Indirect development is also typical for amphibians.