Realism as artistic method. Specifics of realism in the 19th century. Critical and psychological realism. Psychologism in literature.
A creative method in literature that determines the principles of the writer’s attitude to the depicted reality. Realism, according to popular opinion, is a concrete historical method in which the motives for the actions of heroes are determined by the circumstances in which this hero exists. Realism is based on the idea of determinism, the influence of the environment on a person. Realistic literature achieves artistic truth, that is, complete adequacy of the narrative to its object. The classification of the realistic method is based on what meaningful motifs are recreated in the work. There is social realism, where the dominant principle is real circumstances that determine the entire structure of the corresponding literary text, there is character realism, where characters “compete” with circumstances; there is psychological realism, where in the first place is the reproduction of the inner essence of the psychology of the character. In grotesque realism, grotesque or satirical convention determines the style of the work, without depriving the character of the logic of self-motion corresponding to the logic of life. In Russian realism, two main types developed over the course of 200 years: critical and social. These terms were not entirely successful, because objective difficulties arise during comparison. The basis of the terminological designation critical realism lies the pathos of the work, its critical orientation, that is, the subjective side of the content; in another case, the main substantive point of the method is a certain ideological system, where the word “socialist” dominates. These are quantities of different sizes, and if we keep in mind true theoretical aesthetics, then we should compare phenomena that are characterized by the originality of the creative principles of reflecting life, and not by the ideological or subjective-emotional introduction of the author into literary texts their likes and dislikes. Realism in literature is a direction whose main feature is a truthful depiction of reality and its typical features without any distortion or exaggeration. This literary movement originated in the 19th century, and its adherents sharply opposed sophisticated forms of poetry and the use of various mystical concepts in works.
Signs of direction
Realism in 19th-century literature can be distinguished by clear characteristics. The main one is artistic image reality in images familiar to the average person, which he regularly encounters in real life. Reality in the works is considered as a means of man’s knowledge of the world around him and himself, and the image of each literary character is worked out in such a way that the reader can recognize himself, a relative, a colleague or an acquaintance in it. In the novels and stories of realists, art remains life-affirming, even if the plot is characterized by tragic conflict. Another sign of this genre is the desire of writers to consider the surrounding reality in its development, and each writer tries to discover the emergence of new psychological, social and social relations.
Features of this literary movement
Realism in literature, which replaced romanticism, has the signs of art that seeks and finds truth, striving to transform reality.
Literary characters in the works of realist writers made discoveries after much thought and dreams, after analyzing subjective worldviews. This feature, which can be distinguished by the author’s perception of time, determined features realistic literature of the early twentieth century from traditional Russian classics.
Realism in the 19th century
Such representatives of realism in literature as Balzac and Stendhal, Thackeray and Dickens, George Sand and Victor Hugo, in their works most clearly reveal the themes of good and evil, and avoid abstract concepts and show real life of their contemporaries. These writers make it clear to readers that evil lies in the lifestyle of bourgeois society, capitalist reality, and people’s dependence on various material values. For example, in Dickens's novel Dombey and Son, the owner of the company was heartless and callous not by nature. It’s just that he developed such character traits due to the presence big money and the ambition of the owner, for whom profit becomes the main achievement in life. Realism in literature is devoid of humor and sarcasm, and the images of the characters are no longer the ideal of the writer himself and do not embody it cherished dreams. From the works of the 19th century, the hero practically disappears, in whose image the author’s ideas are visible. This situation is especially clearly visible in the works of Gogol and Chekhov.
However, this is most clearly literary direction manifests itself in the works of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, who describe the world as they see it. This was expressed in the image of the characters with their strengths and weaknesses, the description of mental torment literary heroes, a reminder to readers of the harsh reality that one person cannot change.
As a rule, realism in literature also affected the fate of representatives of the Russian nobility, as can be judged from the works of I. A. Goncharov. Thus, the characters of the heroes in his works remain contradictory. Oblomov is a sincere and gentle person, but due to his passivity he is not able to change his life for the better. Another character in Russian literature has similar qualities - the weak-willed but gifted Boris Raisky. Goncharov managed to create the image of an “anti-hero” typical of XIX century, which was noticed by critics. As a result, the concept of “Oblomovism” appeared, referring to all passive characters whose main features were laziness and lack of will.
Critical realism is a designation in Marxist literary criticism for the artistic method that precedes socialist realism. It is considered as a literary movement that developed in the capitalist society of the 19th century.
It is generally accepted that critical realism reveals the conditioning of the circumstances of a person’s life and his psychology by the social environment (novels by O. Balzac, J. Eliot). IN Soviet time the materialist aesthetics of V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov was used to justify critical realism in Russia. Maxim Gorky recognized the last great representative of critical realism in A. P. Chekhov. From Gorky himself, according to official Soviet ideas, the countdown of a new artistic method began - socialist realism.
Psychologism in literature - a complete, detailed and deep depiction by means fiction the inner world of a literary hero: his feelings, emotions, desires, thoughts and experiences. According to A. B. Esin, psychologism is “a fairly complete, detailed and deep depiction of the feelings, thoughts, experiences of a fictional personality (literary character) using specific means of fiction.” Lit.- Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988. We can say that all the richest world literature consists of two large areas - the development of the psychologism of heroes in their relationship to the world and other people and the development internal psychologism, aimed at analyzing one’s own inner world, one’s soul. Thus, considering the works that we studied up to the tenth grade, representatives of the first direction include the works of I.S. Turgenev “Asya”, “Notes of a Hunter”, the second - “Hero of Our Time”, “Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov. Turgenev achieved the highest skill in depicting the characters of his heroes, revealing inner world heroes through actions and deeds. Even as a child, reading “Mumu”, you understand that only courageous man With strong character could have made such a terrible decision - to drown the closest and dearest creature, so that Mumu would not be torn to pieces by an evil and cruel crowd. In “A Hero of Our Time,” what is striking is Lermontov’s ability to reveal the secrets of a person’s (Pechorin’s) inner world, to express emotional experiences as accurately and vividly as a person cannot do in everyday, ordinary life.
In this regard, there are three main forms of psychological depiction, to which all specific techniques for reproducing the inner world of literary heroes are reduced: direct, indirect and summary-designating. The first two forms were theoretically identified by I.V. Strakhov: “The main forms of psychological analysis can be divided into the depiction of characters “from the inside” - that is, through artistic knowledge of the inner world characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination; to psychological analysis “from the outside,” expressed in the writer’s psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche.” The depiction of characters “from the inside” is called the direct form, and “from the outside” - indirect, since in it we learn about the inner world of the hero not directly, but through the external symptoms of his psychological state. About the third form of psychological depiction by A.B. Esin writes this: “But the writer has another opportunity, another way to inform the reader about the thoughts and feelings of the character - with the help of naming, an extremely brief designation of those processes that take place in the inner world. We will call this method summative designating. A.P. Skaftymov wrote about this technique, comparing the features of psychological depiction in Stendhal and Tolstoy: “Stendhal mainly follows the path of verbal designation of feelings. Feelings are named, but not shown.” So, one and the same psychological condition can be played using different forms psychological image. You can, for example, say: “I was offended by Karl Ivanovich because he woke me up” - this will be a summary form. You can depict external signs of resentment: tears, frowning eyebrows, stubborn silence, etc. - this is an indirect form. But it is possible, as Tolstoy did, to reveal the internal state using a direct form of psychological image: “Suppose,” I thought, “I am small, but why does he bother me? Why doesn’t he kill flies near Volodya’s bed? How many are there? No, Volodya is older than me, and I am smaller than everyone else: that’s why he torments me. “That’s all he thinks about all his life,” I whispered, “how I can make trouble.” He sees very well that he woke me up and scared me, but he acts as if he doesn’t notice... he’s a disgusting man! And the robe, and the cap, and the tassel - how disgusting!” Lit.- A.B. Yesin. Principles and techniques of analyzing a literary work. Tutorial for students and teachers of philological faculties, literature teachers. Most often, in the works of writers whom we habitually call psychologists - Lermontov, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Dostoevsky, Maupassant and others - for psychological depiction, as a rule, all forms are used, although the leading role In psychologism, the direct form still plays a role - the direct reconstruction of the processes of a person’s inner life. Techniques of psychological depiction include psychological analysis and introspection. Both of these techniques consist in the fact that complex states of mind characters are decomposed into their components and thereby explained and become clear to the reader. Psychological analysis is used in third-person narration, introspection is used in both first and third person. With introspection, first-person psychological narration takes on the character of a confession, which enhances the reader’s impression. This narrative form is used mainly when there is one main character, whose consciousness and psyche is followed by the author and the reader, and the rest of the characters are secondary, and their inner world is practically not depicted (“Childhood”, “Adolescence” and “Youth” by L.N. Tolstoy, etc.). When psychological analysis Third-person narration has its advantages. This art form allows the author, without any restrictions, to introduce the reader into the inner world of the character and show it in the most detail and depth. For the author, there are no secrets in the hero’s soul - he knows everything about him, can trace internal processes, explain the connection between impressions, thoughts, experiences. At the same time, the author can psychologically interpret the hero’s external behavior, his facial expressions and movements, etc. “Fearing ridicule, I buried my best feelings in the depths of my heart. They died there,” Pechorin says about himself. But, thanks to the author, we understand that not all of Pechorin’s “best feelings” died. He suffers when Bela dies; at the moment of parting with Vera, his “heart clenches painfully.” “Psychology is one of the secrets of the long historical life of literature of the past: when speaking about the human soul, it speaks to each reader about himself.” Lit.-Esin A. B. Psychologism of Russian classical literature. M., 1988.
Realism is usually called a movement in art and literature, whose representatives strived for a realistic and truthful reproduction of reality. In other words, the world was portrayed as typical and simple, with all its advantages and disadvantages.
General features of realism
Realism in literature differs in a number of ways common features. Firstly, life was depicted in images that corresponded to reality. Secondly, reality for representatives of this movement has become a means of understanding themselves and the world around them. Thirdly, the images on the pages literary works were distinguished by the truthfulness of details, specificity and typification. It is interesting that the art of the realists, with their life-affirming principles, sought to consider reality in development. Realists discovered new social and psychological relationships.
The emergence of realism
Realism in literature as a form artistic creation arose during the Renaissance, developed during the Enlightenment and emerged as an independent movement only in the 30s of the 19th century. The first realists in Russia include the great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin (he is sometimes even called the founder of this movement) and no less outstanding writer N.V. Gogol with his novel " Dead Souls" Concerning literary criticism, then within its limits the term “realism” appeared thanks to D. Pisarev. It was he who introduced the term into journalism and criticism. Realism in the literature of the 19th century became a distinctive feature of that time, having its own characteristics and characteristic features.
Features of literary realism
Representatives of realism in literature are numerous. The most famous and outstanding writers include such writers as Stendhal, Charles Dickens, O. Balzac, L.N. Tolstoy, G. Flaubert, M. Twain, F.M. Dostoevsky, T. Mann, M. Twain, W. Faulkner and many others. They all worked on the development creative method realism and embodied in their works its most striking features in inextricable connection with their unique authorial characteristics.
REALISM (from Latin realis - material, real) - a method (creative attitude) or literary direction that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, aimed at artistic knowledge of man and the world. The term “realism” is often used in two meanings: 1) realism as a method; 2) realism as a direction formed in the 19th century. Both classicism, romanticism, and symbolism strive for knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by a rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, rather than display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, turning to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling within myself to portray him the way I would like to see him.” Thus, we can say that realists depict the real, and romantics depict the desired.
The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and poeticization human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is educational realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man “from the bottom” (for example, Figaro in the plays of Beaumarchais “ Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro"). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: “fantastic” (Gogol, Dostoevsky), “grotesque” (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and “critical” realism associated with the activities of the “natural school”.
The main requirements of realism: adherence to the principles of nationality, historicism, high artistry, psychologism, depiction of life in its development. Realist writers showed the direct dependence of the social, moral, and religious ideas of heroes on social conditions, and paid great attention to the social and everyday aspect. The central problem of realism is the relationship between verisimilitude and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible representation of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of the most important features of realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The persuasiveness of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.
Realist writers create new types of heroes: the “ little man"(Vyrin, Bashmachki n, Marmeladov, Devushkin), type " extra person"(Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), a type of “new” hero (Turgenev’s nihilist Bazarov, Chernyshevsky’s “new people”).
In the 30s XIX century V European art Romanticism is being replaced by an artistic style completely different from it - realism, paradoxically, he not only adopted many of the ideas of romanticism, but also developed and deepened them.
In an approximate way, realism can be defined as an artistic method of reflecting the specific historical uniqueness of reality, the social determinism of the individual and the nature of his relationship with society.
Realism, for its pronounced critical orientation, almost immediately began to be called critical realism. The focus of critical realism is analysis artistic means class structure, social essence and the socio-political contradictions of a capitalist society that has already reached its peak. The main specificity of critical realism as a special creative method is the artistic understanding of reality as a social factor, and therefore the disclosure of the social determinism of the depicted events and characters.
If romanticism emphasized individuality endowed with ideal aspirations, then distinctive feature realism was the turning of art to direct depiction Everyday life people, devoid of any mystery, mystery, religious or mythological motivation.
About so-called realism in the broad sense
Sometimes they talk about realism in a broad sense And realism in the narrow sense. According to a narrow understanding of realism, only a work that reflects the essence of the depicted socio-historical phenomenon can be considered truly realistic. The characters in the work should bear the typical, collective features of a particular social stratum or class, and the conditions in which they act should not be a random figment of the writer’s imagination, but a reflection of the laws of socio-economic and political life era. By realism in a broad sense we mean the property of art to reproduce the truth of reality by recreating the sensory forms in which an idea exists in reality.
It should immediately be noted that the broad understanding of realism, characteristic of traditional, but not modern aesthetics, makes the concept of realism completely unclear. It turns out that it is quite possible to talk about realism ancient literature, about the realism of the Renaissance, about the “realism of romanticism”, etc. When realism is defined as a movement in art that depicts social, psychological, economic and other phenomena as most consistent with reality (“corresponding to the truth of life,” as they sometimes say), realism becomes, in essence, the only full-fledged style of art. Baroque, classicism, romanticism, etc. turn out to be just modifications of realism. Dante, Shakespeare, and even Homer can be classified as realists, although, of course, with certain reservations regarding the Cyclops, Neptunes, etc. he invented. Widely understood realism becomes not even a style, i.e. manner of depiction, but the very essence of art, and the essence expressed abstractly and unclearly.
Characteristics of realism
The main features of critical realism as a special artistic style can be briefly summarized as follows:
- – faith in the cognitive and transformative power of the human mind, especially the artist’s mind;
- – highlighting the task of objective artistic reproduction of reality, an attempt to establish artistic discoveries on a deep, scientific-like study of the facts and phenomena of life;
- – the dominance of socio-political issues, which was proclaimed by the art of the Enlightenment and which was not interrupted in romanticism, although, as a rule, it played a peripheral role in it;
- – approval of the educational, civic mission of art;
- – high, one might say without exaggeration – exceptional, assessment of capabilities artistic creativity in eradicating social evil;
- – the desire to depict reality in the forms of reality itself;
- – accuracy of details in the artistic reproduction of reality;
- – deepening the possibilities of character typification; the connection of psychologism as one of the means of typification with the disclosure of generalizing social content of a particular nature; realists adopted and significantly deepened the psychologism characteristic of the romantics;
- – the use of the romantic theory of contrasts in describing the contradictions of social reality;
- – highlighting the theme of lost illusions that arose in connection with ideological consequences French Revolution late XVIII V.;
- – showing the hero in development during creation artistic images, depiction of the evolution of the depicted characters, determined by the complex interaction of the individual and society;
- – the desire to combine a socially critical orientation, a harsh exposure of modern social system with high extension moral and ethical an ideal, a model of a fair social structure;
- - creation associated with positive aspirations extensive gallery bright goodies; Most of these heroes belonged to the lower social classes of society.
Although realism replaced romanticism, many characteristics realism was first felt by the romantics. In particular, they absolutized spiritual world individual personality, but this exaltation of the individual, the fundamental attitude to lead the path of knowledge of all things through her inner “I” led to the most significant ideological and aesthetic achievements. The Romantics took that important step forward in artistic knowledge reality, which put forward romanticism to replace the art of the Enlightenment. Appeal to a chosen individual, towering above the “crowd,” did not at all interfere with their deep democracy. In the works of the romantics one should look for the origins of the image of the “superfluous man” who went through all literature of the 19th century centuries.
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