Development of critical thinking skills in the process of working with text. What is critical thinking and is it possible to develop it?

Quite often, the term “critical thinking” is interpreted incorrectly and is replaced by such concepts as creative thinking, the ability to draw logical conclusions, making sound decisions, and the ability to analyze information. In fact, the listed designations are not synonyms, but (except for the first) components of the process of critical thinking. The creative can be considered the antagonist of the critical. Therefore, such a substitution of concepts is inappropriate.

What is critical thinking and does it need to be developed?

Origin of the term

The word criticism is derived from the Greek kritike and literally translates as “the ability to disassemble or judge” (to form an opinion based on facts).

Such a human ability as thinking has been studied for many years by various sciences (logic, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, pathopsychology, neuropsychology). In general, the thought process can be defined as the ability to achieve a goal in a motivated manner through a system of specific actions and planning with a predictable result. Naturally, depending on the science that considers or studies thinking, the definitions of this phenomenon will change. For a correct interpretation of the term “critical thinking”, the concept that this is a special human activity with a certain structure and types is sufficient.

From all of the above, we can derive a definition: what is critical thinking. proposed his own formulation, in which he described one of the types of intellectual activity with an objective approach to the surrounding reality and information flows. This human ability is based on a system of rules and actions.

Signs

Before listing the ways to develop critical thinking, you should describe the characteristics inherent in this type:

1. One of the key features is independence in drawing conclusions, assessing phenomena and objects, and beliefs. This is the ability to obtain and analyze information based on one’s personal experience and known problem-solving schemes. Hence, the more complete the information about the problem being solved and the more diverse the palette of ways to solve the problem, the more reliably the result will be predicted (bypassing established stereotypes of people).
2. Another distinctive feature can be considered the attitude to information: its discovery, analysis, selection and application. A person who knows how to isolate the necessary grains from any information and establish connections with an object of interest can cope with problems of any level.
3. Signs can also be considered asking the right questions, which, as you know, represent the solution to half the problem, and developing a strategy for solving the problem.
4. An important feature is exhaustive argumentation, rationalization and reasonable and justified arguments.
5. One head is good, but two are even better. Another sign is the consideration of social factors in solving a problem, because therefore, debates and discussions are an acceptable form of work to achieve a goal.

How to develop critical thinking using known techniques without outside help? It is enough to practice daily until this process becomes a way of life.

Skill Development Techniques

Due to the large number of techniques for developing critical thinking, it is not possible (and necessary) to list everything. Therefore, it is enough to list the most popular of them and dwell on the description of those that are effectively used.

How to develop critical thinking on your own? Popular techniques include:

1. "Clusters".
2. "Basket of Ideas"
3. "Reverse logic chains".
4. "True and False Statements."
5. "Six Hats"
6. Fishbone.
7. "Sinquain."
8. "Flight magazines".
9. "RAFT".
10. "Tree of Predictions".
11. "Notes in the margins."
12. "Question of the day."

"Clusters"

This technique is good to use when systematizing obtained information and establishing connections between phenomena.

The principle of constructing a cluster is based on a model of the structure of the solar system. The question or problem of interest takes the position of the Sun. All other information is located on the positions of the planets of the solar system with their satellites.

Fishbone

Another technique for systematizing information and finding the optimal solution to a problem is Fishbone.

His help on how to develop critical thinking is undeniable. The technique is displayed as a fish skeleton. The head and tail are designated as the problem and its solution, respectively. The reasons for the problem and the facts supporting them are located on the edges. This technique allows us to identify the interconnection of problems and the system of their interaction.

"RAFT"

This technique is good for working on oral speech, rhetoric development, and persuasion skills. The name is formed from the first letters of the words - Role, Audience, Form, Topic. This technique involves discussing a topic on behalf of a certain character(role), for an audience (of a certain level of needs), in a pre-selected form (dialogue, story, anecdote, etc.) of the narrative and a given number of topics.

"Six Hats"

How to develop critical thinking with hats? The technique is suitable for both independent work and for working with an audience (both large and small). The number of hats corresponds to certain views on the issue. Colors are assigned to certain elements:

• white - facts;
• yellow - opportunities;
• blue - meaning;
• green - creative;
• red - emotions;
• black - criticism.

It can be noted that the problem is considered comprehensively, from different positions, which allows the most acceptable and rational decision to be made.

"Tree of Predictions"

A technique for developing the ability to make reasoned and reasonable forecasts on a given topic.

The theme is represented by a tree trunk. Forecasts (possibly, probably) - branches on both sides. Arguments are leaves on branches. In this way, it is possible not only to create a probabilistic model of the development of the situation, but also to determine the decisive factors in the current situation.

in the education system

Modern education is too focused on the learning process itself, which is reflected in an excessive passion for (necessary and not so necessary) technologies. Fundamentally, the use of technology practically does not change anything (except for the names of the lesson parts, according to technology requirements, LUNs - competencies, etc.). As a result, the student must remember certain material. True, the use of educational puzzles in a certain dosage in lessons is encouraged. This type of activity brings variety to the student’s strictly regulated life. After all, in order to find the answer to the question of how to put together a puzzle, the mobilization of all knowledge, skills and abilities is required, as well as independence in achieving the goal.

To ensure that the technology for developing critical thinking does not look like a decorative addition to school life the education system itself needs to be changed. And this is almost impossible to do in the near future.

Many elements of critical thinking are often used in lessons (question of the day, etc.), but the basis remains a closely guarded secret.

Instead of a conclusion

The development of critical thinking is available to a person from about 5-6 years of age. Until this time, the nervous system is not yet sufficiently developed and certain parts of the brain are not formed. For an older preschooler, the solution to the question: “How to assemble a puzzle?” - and there is this development. For junior receptions it is expanded. And for middle and senior level students, the entire palette of techniques for developing critical thinking is available.

Adults can independently use the listed techniques as needed or for self-checking. Plus, applying critical thinking to everyday life helps keep your brain young for years to come. On the other hand, it is critical thinking that allows a person to remain a Personality, that is, not to succumb to the provocations of a well-developed system of managing public opinion.

In the first lesson of the course on critical thinking, we will talk about what skills and competencies you need to have for its successful development and use in everyday and professional life. In particular, we will talk about what critical thinking is and look at the skills and properties that form its basis. You will also learn about the benefits of using it in study and work and take a test, from which it will become clear what place it occupies in your life. this moment. This information will be extremely useful for you, and you should start your training in critical thinking with it.

What is critical thinking

Many people have difficulty reasoning logically and coherently. But it is very important to understand that reasoning skills, like any other, can and should be developed in yourself. Initially, to do this, it is worth understanding what critical thinking is in general and starting to put its techniques into practice.

If you turn to the book of Diana Halpern, an American psychologist and specialist in the field of psychology of thinking, you can see that critical thinking is a whole set of fundamental skills, such as the ability to evaluate, draw conclusions, interpret and analyze, observe, etc. In addition, critical thinking uses logic and is based on a number of criteria of intelligence: clarity, credibility, accuracy, depth, significance, perspective and fairness. The components here, albeit to a lesser extent, are also values and creative imagination.

To put it somewhat differently and more simply, critical thinking can be characterized as a cognitive activity associated with the use of reason and intellectual abilities. When a person thinks critically, evaluates and analyzes received data, he uses attention, categorization, selection, judgment and other similar mental operations. The use of critical thinking places a number of demands on a person.

Critical thinking: skills, abilities and competencies

When we look at critical thinking as a thinking process, we see that it requires a lot of skill. These include:

• The ability to determine the position of another person, his arguments and conclusions
• Ability to evaluate evidence for an alternative position
• Ability to impartially and objectively evaluate opposing arguments and evidence
• The ability to identify incorrect and false oppositions, see pitfalls, read between the lines
• The ability to recognize techniques used to make a particular position more attractive than others, for example, all sorts of tricks or false logic
• The ability to think in an organized manner and supplement the thinking process with logic and insight
• Ability to determine the reliability and validity of conclusions based on reasonable assumptions and solid evidence.
• Ability to summarize information and integrate judgments about evidence to form one's own opinion
• Ability to present one's point of view in a reasoned, organized and persuasive manner

In 1987, one of the best American educators, Robert Ennis, also managed to identify the abilities and attitudes associated with critical thinking. They are:

• The ability to view things skeptically
• Reasoning ability

A conversation about developing critical thinking would be incomplete without talking about skepticism. From the position of critical thinking, skepticism implies that a person questions absolutely everything that he encounters. This does not mean that he does not believe everything he hears or sees - he simply accepts the fact that his views may change if he receives any additional information.

Critical thinking suggests using doubt and skepticism constructively by evaluating all available information. Thanks to this, we can make more informed and objective judgments about what we consider productive, correct, true and vice versa. It also significantly improves the efficiency of our decisions.

There are people who seem more trusting than others, and there are those who are more skeptical. The reason lies both in personal qualities and in the person’s life experience. But critical thinking is neither an innate characteristic nor a character trait - it is a specific method that allows you to interpret events in a certain way. Skeptics can take a disciplined approach, while gullible people can simply question everything constructively.

As for reasoning, here we are talking more about rational thinking. Rationality involves the use of reasons to explain phenomena, events, and facts. And reasoning, as a rule, always starts from oneself. It looks something like this:

• Initially, a person finds reasons: why he believes in something or does something (at the same time, he realizes what exactly these reasons are)
• He then critically evaluates his actions and beliefs
• As a result, he can explain the reasons for his actions and beliefs to others

At first glance, all this is very simple, because it seems to us that we know why and what exactly we believe. But in some cases, doubts begin to overcome us, as a result of which our own beliefs no longer seem so true. The fact that in reality we have no idea about the completeness of the information that we possess begins to catch our eye, and we begin to think: perhaps everything we hear or see is just one of the variations?

There are also times when we are not sure whether we are explaining something correctly or whether we are acting correctly. Therefore, it is necessary to resort to the development of observation and study the basis of your own reasoning, beliefs and actions, because only they will help us carry out any critical analysis.

But we must not forget that critical thinking is basically a critical analysis of the reasoning of others. To conduct it, we must not only be able to find the main argument of another person, but also be able to analyze and evaluate its details.

Any reasoning, both one’s own and that of others, consists of an analysis of evidence and conclusions drawn from it. The evidence supports the conclusions. For example, you think it’s cool today. You tell someone about this, but he disagrees with you and wonders where you got it from. As proof, you can cite thermometer readings and your own observations of the weather outside. In this case, your evidence will be ice on the ground and the thermometer at a low level.

And when we critically analyze the judgments of other people, we can and should carry out the following mental operations:

• Identify reasoning and conclusions drawn from it
• Analyze how the interlocutor chose, combined and ordered judgments (this is how we determine the course of reasoning)
• Evaluate the extent to which reasoning supports conclusions
• Evaluate the validity and evidence of reasoning
• Identify inaccuracies in the reasoning process

We use reasoning similar to the example we discussed with the weather literally hourly in everyday life. But at school or at work, we need slightly different reasoning - one with a formal structure (for example, reports, reports). And to form such reasoning, additional skills are required, namely:

• Skill in selecting and structuring reasoning (needed to confirm the conclusion)
• Skill of consistent argumentation
• Skill in applying logical order
• Skill in effective use of speech (needed to represent the reasoning process)

Anyone interested in developing critical thinking should devote Special attention development of three basic competencies on which all others are based. Among these competencies:

• Ability to think. Critical thinking is the ability to order, categorize, select, differentiate, compare and contrast (we recommend that you read interesting material about this theme ).
• Control of emotions. Critical thinking is an impartial process, but emotions can take over at any time. This is normal, because often you have to make a choice between different positions and points of view. Sometimes evidence that is unacceptable to us or unexpected arguments can unsettle us. In most cases, emotional instability only makes the situation worse, and the ability to control your emotional state is a useful and effective skill, because... it allows you to calmly present logical arguments and convince your interlocutor (we advise you to study our materials on managing emotions - you will find them and).
• Research and knowledge. Even if you know how to think critically, it is not always possible to find good and convincing evidence without understanding the subject. Critical thinking is also the skill of conducting your own research. Remember that the ability to find data on any issue will make your life easier because you will be able to record important information and provide alternative evidence, evidence and explanations (in addition to this, be sure to read our article about - from it you will gain a lot of useful information that will certainly be useful to you in practice).

Critical thinking, among other things, requires a person to have accuracy and precision, as well as an insatiable desire to find the right answer. So this is what it means:

• Be objective, i.e. be able to give up your personal preferences, beliefs and interests during the conversation in order to better understand the topic and come to a more accurate result
• Consider the subject from different angles, i.e. explore information from different points of view
• Repeat, i.e. discuss the same issue several times to take into account as many details as possible
• Be attentive to details, i.e. develop observation skills and devote time to discovering even the smallest details that can lead to clarification of the issue as a whole
• Identify trends and patterns, i.e. analyze, organize information and identify repetitions and similarities
• Consider long-term prospects and possible results, i.e. keep in mind that what seems true now may come into question after some time

And another crucial competency that contributes to the development of effective critical thinking is none other than self-analysis. The ability to think critically, as we have said, means the ability to make accurate judgments. This process is influenced by many factors, and you should definitely be aware of them, because Without this knowledge, obtaining objective information about what is happening is very, very problematic.

These factors can be completely different. Thus, one can distinguish beliefs, preferences, prejudices, stereotypes, inclinations, assumptions; everything that is acceptable and normal for us, and all those concepts and personal qualities that we never doubt.

A person who knows how to think critically is extremely sensitive to his own strengths and weaknesses. He is able to reflect and evaluate his interests, knowledge, motivation, level of competence, etc. He does not neglect to question his views and examine the evidence that supports them.

It always takes courage to recognize your shortcomings. Learning something new about yourself (and not always pleasant) can be painful, because... Most people tend to think about themselves only in a positive way. The same applies to own system beliefs and values ​​- a person perceives what he believes in as part of his nature, and it is difficult to doubt it.

It would not be superfluous to note that as a result of critical thinking, a person risks finding himself on the other side of the barricades, which means there is a risk of disagreeing with family, friends, and colleagues. Defending your point of view is the prerogative of brave and courageous people, especially when there is a possibility that your point of view is wrong.

Based on all this, the ability to conduct high-quality and objective self-analysis, along with other skills and abilities discussed above, is one of the most important competencies in terms of critical thinking. And first of all, you need to be sober and impartial about your shortcomings and negative traits, and, if possible, if not eliminate them, then seriously work through them - do so that they do not interfere with your analysis of events, phenomena and facts.

Critical thinking, if developed correctly and to a sufficient extent, offers a person serious personal advantages over other people. Critically thinking person can make the right and deliberate choice much easier, always and everywhere has his own opinion and knows how to defend and justify it, is able not only to listen, but to hear the people around him. Such a person can draw conclusions based on an analysis of his own experience and the experience of others, but never draws conclusions based on unverified information, much from the outside.

By developing the above-mentioned skills and competencies, a person not only learns to think critically, he learns to weigh and clearly assess the consequences of his decisions, competently formulate tasks and methods for their implementation, becomes open to new information and becomes calmer when faced with something unknown. And, just as important, a critically thinking person knows how to admit his mistakes and the fallacy of his opinions, and respects the opinions of other people, even if they contradict his own.

The benefits of critical thinking manifest themselves not only in personal life, but also in the professional sphere of activity and study, affecting a person’s communication with others, understanding of things, personal effectiveness, and many other components. And, taking into account the importance of this issue, we want to offer you several recommendations for the development of critical thinking and its application in study and work (in fact, in the personal sphere, these tips will also be indispensable).

Learn to understand

Critical thinking is an excellent tool for gaining a deeper understanding of the things we encounter. For example, in school it could be a certain discipline, its main theories and arguments; in work - area of ​​research, area of ​​activity, etc. Quite often, such objects of attention are discussed at seminars, presentations, and other events with the goal of obtaining an assessment and interpreting the results.

One of the best methods for achieving understanding is to independently perform or repeat (reproduce) research. But, as you might expect, in schools and at work (as well as in everyday life) we do not always have time to study everything that we encounter. Therefore, an alternative to deep understanding, which comes through time and is achieved through experimentation and life experience, can be the use of critical analysis of the research and work of other people.

All that is required to implement this method is to learn to critically analyze what other people have done. But for some it is quite simple, but for others it is difficult, and without a doubt, without checking or analyzing, they accept any results on faith. Teaching critical thinking provides a simple way out of these situations and can be applied to any field. You just need to ask two questions: “How did I know this?” and “Why do I believe this is so?”

This approach is effective for a student, a manager, a businessman, and for any ordinary person who unconditionally trusts research that is based on outdated data, false reasoning, unreliable sampling, etc. Many data that have fallen out of context and become irrelevant are often taken as true for decades, but no longer have anything in common with the current state of affairs, and this must be taken into account (we will talk in more detail about working with data and sources in the sixth lesson).

Study the pros and cons

Criticism, no matter in what context we consider it (academic, professional, everyday), means analyzing both the positive and negative sides of something. You need to learn to find both disadvantages and advantages, as well as convincing arguments in favor of both. Only this will make it possible to adequately assess what is effective, correct and efficient, and what is not.

A competent critical assessment provides a person with a conclusion for what reason something is considered bad or good, why this something does not work or, on the contrary, is successful. Remember that a banal listing of pros and cons will not work here - all of them must be subjected to scrupulous study.

Don't miss anything and strive for comprehensiveness

Almost every area human activity it is necessary to strive for a critical assessment of everything seen, heard, read, etc. And this is true even in cases with generally accepted scientific theories, verified facts, and irrefutable evidence. This is what can be called professional critical thinking.

Try to question and critically evaluate absolutely everything: theories, facts, areas of research, opinions, data, methodology, tools, etc. But do not forget that there may be exceptions. For example, almost everything related to religion is never questioned or discussed. This is not typical, but it still happens. However, there are people who think critically even here.

Evaluate reasoning and actions, not the person

It must be understood that ideas, works, theories and actions should not be identified with the people associated with them. Critical analysis can never be free from people's personal attention, because people always take comments, criticism and praise for their creations personally.

When thinking critically about the product of someone around you, try to use tact and constructive approach. Any comments, especially those that may be unpleasant to the addressee, must be presented in such a way that he understands and accepts them.

Avoid extremes

Both in everyday life, and in school and at work, people often go to extremes and perceive everything only as right and wrong, good and bad, white and black. But in most situations, in everything related to the professional sphere, science or education, things should be accepted as a set of phenomena or probabilities.

For example, one of the tasks of higher education is to teach a person to ask complex questions that require a complex and detailed answer. This can be found in most specialties.

Based on this, remember that many things cannot be answered unambiguously, nor can they be assessed as the only good or bad. The more we study something, the more obvious it becomes that it is very difficult to give a definite answer to a question. Remember the words: “I only know that I know nothing.”

Deal with doubt and ambiguity

Today we can go online and within seconds get an answer to any question we ask. But in the same scientific disciplines there are questions (especially in new areas), the answers to which experts have been looking for for years and even decades (and there is no guarantee of receiving answers). So if you're a fan of ready-made answers, you may feel uncomfortable using critical thinking.

At the same time, one should not assume that ambiguous and vague answers are something unacceptable. For example, if you write articles for websites or magazines, you simply must look for verified information, based on all the nuances of the subject, studied in detail and in detail. The same is true in studies - if you are a student, you must learn to work with data obtained by scientists and specialists in order to be able to argue your reasoning.

In any academic activity and work (this also includes professional scientific research, including for industry and business), as a researcher, you must keep in mind that:

• There may not be an exact answer
• It may take years to find the answer
• The answer found may clarify only a small aspect of the whole question

In the case of learning, if you are a student, critical thinking will mean:

• Search for the most accurate and reliable evidence on the issue of interest
• Assessing the quality of evidence that can prove certain statements
• Drawing up intermediate conclusions based on facts
• Constructing a line of reasoning that can lead listeners, interlocutors or readers to conclusions through evidence
• Search and selection of the most effective examples
• Use of precise facts to illustrate evidence

Teaching critical thinking is, of course, not an easy process. Despite this, it is very fun and interesting, especially if you haven't done it before. There will be many interesting discoveries along the way as you begin to notice changes in your own thought processes, reactions to information coming to you, and interactions with people in everyday life.

And in order to understand how prepared you are for the development of critical thinking, and also to determine whether you are already using it now, we invite you to take a short questionnaire and familiarize yourself with the results.

Critical Thinking Questionnaire

So, the questionnaire consists of 25 statements relating to your self-esteem. All you have to do is give one of the proposed answers and rate it on a four-point scale:

• “Completely agree” - 4 points
• “Agree” - 3 points
• “Partially agree” - 2 points
• “I don’t agree” - 1 point
• “Completely disagree” - 0 points

Read the statements and write down your answers on the sheet:

1. I have no hesitation in identifying weaknesses in the work of professionals and experts
2. I find it easy to stay focused on the demands of the task at hand
3. I understand the difference in the interpretation of the word “argument” from the perspective of critical thinking
4. I am able to analyze the structure of an argument
5. I can criticize someone without feeling like a “bad” person
6. I understand the line of reasoning
7. I am aware that my true beliefs can influence the issue being discussed.
8. I am able to determine the course of reasoning in a discussion
9. I am able to recognize signs of any stage in a dispute
10. I have no problem highlighting key points in the material I’m studying.
11. I easily build my position, arrange facts in the right sequence
12. I can identify inappropriate methods used to persuade
13. I can read between the lines
14. I can easily evaluate facts that support an opinion
15. As a rule, I am always attentive to to the smallest details
16. I am able to competently consider different positions
17. If I lack information, I can contact additional materials
18. I am able to present my arguments correctly
19. I can recognize argument structure
20. It's easy for me to distinguish between descriptive and analytical material.
21. It's easy for me to see the inconsistency in the argument.
22. I see patterns and trends
23. It is very clear to me that my upbringing and internal attitudes can cause prejudice against any opinion
24. I am able to evaluate sources of materials
25. I understand why scientific works contain terms that can be interpreted differently

Now rate your answers on the indicated scale and count the number of points (the total amount should not exceed 100 points).

Interpretation of results

As you evaluate statements and assign points, you may encounter additional questions about what you know about critical thinking and what you don't know. Keep in mind that the lower your score, the more evidence that your critical thinking skills need training.

MORE THAN 75 POINTS: Most likely, you already use critical thinking confidently. This quality is very valuable, and it helps you in your life and the activities that you engage in. However, if your score is less than 100 points, you still have some work to do. Our course will help you!

FROM 45 TO 74 POINTS: Critical thinking is undoubtedly inherent in you, but you need to systematically hone your skills and master new skills. Conduct self-analysis regularly, look for your weaknesses and work on yourself. Be sure to continue taking our course.

LESS THAN 45 POINTS: Your ability to think critically is very weak, and you need to collect as much information as possible on this topic and spend as much time studying as possible. Read materials on the topic, study the intricacies and features of critical thinking, instill in yourself the missing skills, and master new competencies. Follow this course as carefully as possible.

You now have an estimate of how strong you are as a critical thinker, as well as knowledge of the basic skills and competencies needed to become a critical thinker. For starters, this is quite enough. Next, we will continue the course with a conversation about the scientific method: in the second lesson you will learn what it is, how it relates to critical thinking, why it is useful to use it in life, and how to learn it.

Want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how suitable it is for you, you can take our test. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question.

The ability to think outside the box is competitive advantage any freelancer. Critical thinking is a way to get ahead and create something truly new. Of course, in many cases you can get by with template solutions by simply following fashion trends, but sometimes that's not enough. In the world information technologies everything changes so quickly that sometimes there are simply no templates to complete a task, and then you have to “turn on” your brain. The fourth industrial revolution is raging around us, but many people, including freelancers, do not feel it, they are simply rushing along in the rapid information flow along with everyone else.

Meanwhile, last year the World Economic Forum published a very interesting report on the skills that will be in demand in the coming years. The ability to solve complex problems ranked first among the most important skills. Critical thinking skill took fourth place in the ranking. But that was last year. According to experts, by 2020 critical thinking will become the second most important skill for specialists working in the field of information technology. And this is already serious.

What is critical thinking? The Department of Philosophy of the University of Hong Kong defines it as follows: a person with critical thinking should have the following skills, abilities or abilities:

• See logical connections between different ideas
• Be able to evaluate and systematize arguments
• Find inconsistencies and common errors in reasoning
• Determine the importance and relevance of ideas
• Evaluate yours correctly own views and beliefs

These six points clearly show how important critical thinking is. These skills help in solving complex problems, promote communication, force you to think logically and increase Creative skills. And this is exactly what a successful freelancer needs.

Information Management

We live in an information world and are constantly exposed to new ideas, data or opinions. Constant access to the Internet, a huge number of information flows and the continuous generation of new ideas mean only one thing: you have a large amount of information to analyze, and you need to do something to make sense of it all. This is where critical thinking comes in handy.

Perhaps critical thinking should be seen not as a set of useful skills, but as a way of life. The idea is not new. Siddhartha Gautama, better known as Buddha, spoke about this:

“Don't trust what you've heard; do not trust traditions, as they have been passed on from generation to generation; do not trust anything if it is rumor or majority opinion; do not trust if it is only a record of the saying of some old sage; don't trust guesses; do not trust what you consider to be true, what you are accustomed to; do not trust only the naked authority of your teachers and elders. After observation and analysis, when it agrees with reason and promotes the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live according to it.”

At its core, critical thinking is the path to truth. Following this path, you will have to solve complex problems, come up with unusual ideas and build new connections between different concepts. Critical thinking is a part of our lives, but this skill can be developed and strengthened to become a true expert in our field.

Ask: "Why?"

In critical thinking main question sounds like this: “Why?” And this question is not as simple as it seems at first glance. Many people tend to accept different opinions, especially if they are supported by at least some authority, as immutable facts. However, a critical thinker does not rely on faith. He is asking. Why, for example, is this presidential candidate better than his opponent? Why is this view mainstream? Where did this information come from? Why is it believed that a certain interpretation of events is correct? On what grounds can such a conclusion be made? Questions, questions and more questions. "Why?" can take many different forms, so don’t deny yourself the pleasure of asking. Sometimes even the most innocent question can completely change the picture of the world, which is certainly useful, especially for creative people.

Everyone had questions about why in childhood, but an adult should not ask this question with the same naivety. However, when communicating with other people or simply in a mental debate, you cannot do without correctly posed questions. This helps in conducting your own research, which is how you can gain a deeper understanding of the issues being discussed. They may not look very complicated when first approached.

Let's take games for example. As a child, everyone played games. But today everyone plays, from young to old. Of course, this is no longer hide and seek, but various video games, if we talk about adults. But the question is: why do people start playing? And not only on the computer, because now, right before our eyes, the popularity of board games is rapidly growing. The history of many board games dates back centuries, so what do people find in them? Questions like these make you see different aspects of a problem and help you find the most effective solutions. You just need to not be afraid to think critically. The answer “board games are popular because they always have been” is the wrong answer. This is formulaic thinking, not critical thinking.

Reading

One of the best ways to develop critical thinking skills is to learn about the lives of other peoples, their habitats, their cultures and their history. It is quite possible to obtain this knowledge; all you need to do is start traveling around the world, but not everyone can afford it. But you can start reading. And the more, the better.

Today on the Internet you can find almost any information on any topic of interest. Not all content presented will be useful, so it is important to be able to work with facts and not trust their interpretation. You need to read a lot and not only what you like. We need to be familiar with other points of view, even if they contradict our philosophical, political or religious beliefs. And it doesn’t matter who said what, the philosopher or the a common person– the truth always remains the truth.

How more people reads, the more he learns. And the larger the body of knowledge, the easier it is to develop critical thinking skills. There is no need to focus on scientific articles and similar content, fiction is also important: novels, stories, plays also help to understand how other people think and live.

But don't forget about critical thinking while reading. If someone has formalized his thoughts in the form of a book or a policy article on an Internet forum, this does not mean at all that everything that is said there is true.

Forget about multitasking

Modern culture and technology make it easy to multitask. Conventional wisdom says that multitasking allows us to get more done, but science has proven this to be true over and over again. Multitasking distracts a person from the main thing and prevents him from thinking truly seriously. This is the exact opposite of what is needed for critical thinking.

In order to solve a complex problem, you need to fully focus on it, which cannot be achieved by multitasking. Reading, creativity, collaboration, discussion of various issues - all this requires extreme concentration, especially when it comes to achieving a real goal.

If you really need to think about a problem, it's best to get rid of anything that might enable multitasking. Don't check your email. Turn off your cell phone. Close unnecessary tabs in the browser, especially if they are tabs social networks. All this makes it difficult to think. Not only does this prevent you from thinking critically, it prevents you from thinking at all productively.

Many freelancers may not agree with this point of view, well, perhaps someone can manage to think about a complex problem while doing several things at the same time. People are all different, this is quite real. But for most, juggling tasks and thoughtful thinking are incompatible.

Time to Observe

When faced with a problem or the need to come up with a new idea, it is better not to rush off the bat, but to take time to observe. Some things take time to process, especially if past beliefs and experiences conflict with some events or statements. Today, everything changes so quickly that it is easy to get confused by all the diversity of ideas and points of view.

Most people at such moments prefer to retreat “to previously occupied positions”; they do not want to part with their usual way of thinking. But to learn to think critically, you need to be able to observe in order to correctly assess the situation. Sometimes it’s useful to follow the development of a discussion on Facebook for several days in order to form your own opinion on an issue of interest. It is tempting to insist on your point of view, but observation can provide a clearer picture of what is happening.

The modern way of life greatly interferes with reflection. It even seems a little wild: how can you just think without doing anything else? However, focused thinking is one of the best ways to develop critical thinking. In order for your own sound to sound in your head own voice, it is important to drown out all other voices. And this is difficult because there are so many distractions around.

Everyone has their own way of thinking. Some people go for a walk, while others find it easier to concentrate while working with pencil and paper. Any convenient solution will do. The main thing to remember is that for critical thinking it is important to establish connections between ideas. Decide on the direction of thought. Outline the range of issues and identify problems relevant to the task at hand.

This is especially difficult if you imagine that right at the same time thousands of people around the world are thinking about similar ideas. Information flows are seething and there is a desire to simply find a ready-made solution on the Internet. If you want to develop critical thinking skills, you will have to think for yourself. Yes, it's not like that at all productive use time. But this is the only way great ideas emerge. Some people are so lucky that they can generate amazing ideas while working hard on a project. However, many people need silence and solitude. And time. Just to think.

Instead of a conclusion

Everyone can think critically and live effectively. It is not difficult at all and does not require much intelligence at all. Critical thinking is simply a way to think with your own head, questioning any, even the most interesting ideas. Of course, critical thinking won't solve all of a freelancer's problems, but it's a good habit to get into. And the more he thinks, the more effectively he will work, learn, communicate and generate creative ideas.

Although the ability to think critically has been important throughout time, those who will live in the 21st century simply cannot do without it. For the first time in human history, there is a danger that we are capable of destroying all life on our planet. The decisions we make as individuals and as members of society, whether those decisions concern economics, conservation natural resources, or the development of nuclear weapons, will affect future generations of peoples around the globe. In addition, we have to make decisions on a number of important issues that are local or private in nature. For example, in recent elections, voters had to decide whether they were for or against increasing property taxes, building a canal that would divert water from one part of the state to another, mandatory AIDS testing for criminals, and a rent control ordinance.

In addition, they had to choose from among candidates for the positions of governor, state treasurer, county judge, and trustee of a network of local libraries. Consumers must decide whether the nitrates in the hot dogs they eat are carcinogenic, whether the public school system provides adequate educational opportunities, and whether a health care improvement program that allows you to choose your doctor is preferable to other programs. which do not provide such an opportunity. Since every citizen is required to make so many important decisions, it seems natural that society should be concerned with how these decisions are made. Oddly enough, educators, politicians and the general public have only begun to pay serious attention to this issue in the last 10-15 years.

More recently, the National Committee on Educational Objectives has recognized the need to ensure that college graduates have the knowledge and skills that enable them to contribute to the growth of the global economy and participate in democratic processes. This would allow us all to enjoy a peaceful and prosperous life. One of the goals that the Committee sets for graduates in the next decade is: “The proportion of college graduates who are able to think critically, work productively in a team and solve problems should increase significantly.”

Numerous data from the United States show that forms of education that would enable people to think more productively are urgently needed. America has been called the "Endangered Nation" because we are depriving students of the most important component education - we do not cultivate in them the ability to think. Steen summarized the results of a multi-country study of student math ability with this chilling warning: “While the back-to-basics approach has flourished in the United States over the past 15 years, the ability of American students to think (rather than just remember) has declined markedly.” The American Board of Education came to a similar dismal conclusion in its 1982 report: “The trend is clear: the percentage of high-achieving students is declining.”

Research conducted in many countries over and over again paints the same sad picture of neglect of critical thinking. Izawa and Hayden summarized the results of a comparative study of the abilities of students in different countries. In math problem solving, the best American students performed lower than the weakest Japanese students; just as much disastrous results were obtained as a result of testing knowledge of history and reading skills. Neubert and Binko, guided by data from similar studies, came to the conclusion that only 39% of 17-year-olds are able to find the necessary information, organize it and interpret it correctly. Let's add to this that, perhaps, the most terrible horror story of science fiction writer Isaac Asimov was his statement about true state American scientific knowledge. He noted that a telephone poll conducted by Northern Illinois University's Public Opinion Lab found that 20 percent of more than 200 adult respondents believed the sun revolved around the Earth. How could it be, Asimov asks, that 400 years after scientists came to the consensus that the Earth revolves around the Sun, a huge number of adults are still unknown to this elementary fact, which is reported in every high school?

A depressingly long list of such evidence appears in the reports of many reputable organizations. Based on these data, we can conclude that many adults do not have satisfactory thinking and learning skills. It's time to stop writing reports and start taking steps to develop these skills.

It's not just the United States that has problems with critical thinking. Representatives from a number of countries recognized that global community is developing at a rapid pace and the need for citizens who are able to think critically is urgent for all states. This was the conclusion reached by a group of leading higher education experts who met in Mexico City. They expressed a unanimous opinion: “The task of the university today is to graduate students who can think in a rapidly changing world.”

If these findings from national and international research organizations do not convince you of the need for teaching critical thinking, then consider the following. Most people complete their formal education between the ages of 18 and 22. The average life expectancy of those who are young today is expected to be the longest in human history; most will live over 70 years, and many will live over 80 and 90 years. We can only guess what life will be like in 2050 or 2060 and beyond - which is the time in which many of you readers of this book will be living. But we can say with a considerable degree of confidence that many of those who are still young today will have to do work that is still difficult to imagine, and deal with technologies that have never been dreamed of by modern people. science fiction writers. What knowledge do you need to acquire in the first two decades of your life in order to feel calm for the remaining 50-plus years?

Education designed for the future should be built on the basis of two inseparable principles: the ability to quickly navigate the rapidly growing flow of information and find what you need, and the ability to comprehend and apply the information received. I have an inexpensive modem connected to my home computer. With it, I can access all the scientific articles available in the main university library, dozens of daily newspapers, airline schedules, several encyclopedic Internet services, the Dow Jones index, information on new pharmaceutical drugs, thousands of yearbooks of various colleges, government publications, reviews of new films and many other information sources. I can get all this information without leaving home, and it only takes a few minutes for the computer to find it. Another problem arises: what to do with this avalanche of information? Information needs to be selected, organized, interpreted and applied, otherwise it will not be on my desktop. more benefit than on the library shelf where it was located before. If we are unable to make sense of the vast number of questions with which we have to deal, then there is a danger that we will receive answers to all these questions without understanding what they mean.

Using the same modem, I can almost instantly establish a connection with any point on our planet and simultaneously communicate on the Internet with people from around the world. Information arrives in a matter of seconds, but whether the latest technologies will be a blessing or a heavy burden for humanity depends entirely on the presence of people capable of critical thinking at the entrance and exit of these superhigh-speed communication highways.

Despite the obvious need for higher education for many, only last years teachers began developing curricula aimed at improving students' thinking abilities. It is difficult to imagine an area of ​​life where the ability to think clearly would not be needed. However, few of us have ever been taught exactly how we can learn to think more productively. Our educational institutions have traditionally required students to learn, memorize, analyze facts, and solve problems, but these institutions have never really shown students how to do this. It was assumed that adult students already “know how to think.” Research has shown, however, that this assumption does not hold true in practice. Psychologists have found that only 25% of first-year students have the skills necessary for logical and abstract thinking- the type of thinking that is required, for example, to answer the question: “What will happen if ...” and to evaluate abstract ideas. This situation was succinctly summed up by Brock, former head Republican Party, and in currently renowned consultant on international affairs. After reading a recent report on the low level of cognitive and thinking abilities of college graduates, he exclaimed: “Everyone should be horrified by this!”

Thinking and knowledge

... Everything that is known to us, and everything that is known to all people - that is, all existing knowledge - was created by someone. When we study Euclidean geometry, we use the knowledge created by the great mathematician Euclid. Likewise, all other great discoveries and inventions, such as the wheel, shoes, video games, toilet paper, the E = mc^2 formula, and the “discovery of America,” are knowledge created by people. Knowledge is not static. It cannot be transferred from person to person, just as we pour water from vessel to vessel. It's dynamic. Of course, it is naive to think that we all have to start from scratch and reinvent the wheel. We rely on knowledge created by someone else to create new knowledge.

Although experts in psychology and related sciences have proposed several definitions of the term critical thinking, all of these definitions are quite similar in meaning. Here's one of the simplest that captures the essence of the idea: Critical thinking is the use of cognitive techniques or strategies that increase the likelihood of obtaining a desired end result. This definition characterizes thinking as something characterized by controllability, validity and purposefulness - the type of thinking that is used when solving problems, formulating conclusions, probabilistic assessment and decision making. At the same time, the thinker uses skills that are reasonable and effective for a specific situation and the type of problem being solved. Other definitions additionally indicate that critical thinking is characterized by the construction of logical conclusions, the creation of mutually consistent logical models and making informed decisions regarding whether to reject a judgment, agree with it, or temporarily postpone its consideration. All these definitions imply mental activity, which should be aimed at solving a specific cognitive task.

The word critical, as used in the definition, implies an evaluative component. Sometimes this word is used to convey a negative attitude towards something, for example when they say: “She was very critical of the film.” But evaluation can and should be a constructive expression of both positive and negative attitudes. When we think critically, we evaluate the results of our thought processes - how correct the decision we made or how successfully we completed the task. Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thought process itself—the reasoning that led to our conclusions or the factors we considered when making a decision. Critical thinking is sometimes also called directed thinking because it aims to achieve a desired result. Dreams, dreams and other types of mental activity, in which we do not pursue a specific goal, do not belong to the category of critical thinking. Likewise, the thinking behind our daily habits is not critical. For example, when we get out of bed in the morning, brush our teeth, and take a familiar route to school or work, our thinking is goal-oriented, but there is little conscious evaluation of the actions we take. These are all examples of undirected, or automatic, thinking.

Although psychology has been studying the process of thinking for almost its entire more than century of existence as an academic discipline, cognitive psychology, that is, the branch of psychology that studies the nature of thinking and knowledge, has played a truly dominant role in scientific psychology in the last 20 years. Cognitive psychologists aim to study the techniques and strategies used in problem solving, reasoning and decision making. They are also interested in how these abilities depend on intelligence. This keen interest in mental processes gave birth to a new field of psychology called cognitive learning. Its task is to use the knowledge we have accumulated about the processes and mechanisms of human thinking to help people improve their thinking abilities. For example, by studying correct and incorrect human actions in various situations, psychologists have discovered that many people's spontaneous and intuitive approach to solving various problems is often erroneous. Moreover, scientists can often predict when an incorrect decision will be made due to the very nature of the problem, and when it will be due to an incorrect understanding of the problem by the person solving it. The knowledge accumulated in this area is already being used in practice in solving many practical problems - from training military personnel to read maps to developing computer programs with a convenient and intuitive interface.

Is it possible to change your thinking?

The intention of influencing human thinking can seem somewhat daunting. Words such as thought control, propaganda, or the image of Big Brother knowing all your thoughts from Orwell's novel 1984 immediately come to mind. In reality, critical thinking is the antidote to the very thought control that worried Orwell so much. Teaching clear thinking skills can help anyone recognize propaganda so that they don't fall prey to it, analyze the fallacies in an argument, spot obvious deception, determine the reliability of a source of information, and think through each task or decision in the right way.

When I talk about critical thinking with students or other people with whom I interact, I am sometimes told that there is no such thing as critical thinking because there can be different different opinions, and everyone has the right to their point of view. They prove to me that there is no “best way to think.” I, of course, agree that we all have the right to our own opinion, but at the same time, some opinions still turn out to be better than others. If, for example, you are convinced that it is beneficial for pregnant women to drink large quantities of alcohol, you will have to support this belief with compelling arguments (such arguments do not exist in this case). (More strict definitions The terms opinion and belief are introduced in Chapter 5.) The opposite assumption - that pregnant women should drink very little, if at all, can be supported by carefully conducted laboratory studies that indicate the harmful effects of alcohol on the developing fetus. Likewise, everyone has the right to believe in astrological predictions and extrasensory perception, but there is currently no hard evidence to support such beliefs. Not all beliefs are equally valid.

Let's look at some examples of the need for critical thinking in the most different areas life. The most convenient way to start is with advertising. Advertisers pay huge sums of money to convince consumers to buy their products. An advertising campaign is considered successful if, after its implementation, the demand for the advertised product increased and the amount from its additional sales turned out to be more than the advertising costs. One of my favorite examples is cigarette advertising. As you probably know, every tobacco advertisement must carry the following warning: “Smoking is harmful to your health.” One would expect that these words would be associated with dry coughs, yellow plaque on teeth and lung cancer, thereby reducing the effectiveness of any cigarette advertising. In contrast to this warning, cigarette advertisements often depict smokers surrounded by pristine nature with clear lakes, blue sky and tall green pine trees. On one of the advertising posters you can read: “Come where there is cleanliness.” Another classic cigarette ad says, “Live for your pleasure,” an attempt to appeal to those who associate smoking with premature death.

Have you ever wondered what smoking has to do with beauty? surrounding nature? Maybe when smoking is associated with beautiful people and beautiful backgrounds, it seems healthier. One of the brands of cigarettes is called "Malibu". Their advertising posters depict the soft white sand and frothy blue ocean off Malibu Beach in California - the perfect setting for a vacation." beautiful people". This luxurious picture that comes to mind when seeing the mentioned brand of cigarettes should overshadow the image of a patient greedily leaning towards an oxygen pillow - an image that has a much closer relationship with smoking.

Another example of how critical thinking is necessary is a conversation I once had with a taxi driver about a detergent commercial. My interlocutor said that he does not pay any attention to advertising and that it does not influence his choice when purchasing goods. He then added that he always buys blue washing powder, which washes out the “dirty circle on the collar” well. Do you see any contradiction in his words? Although he insisted that advertising did not influence him, in fact it determined what he bought. I'm sure many didn't show any concern about "collar circles," "yellow greasy residue" on the sink, "dandruff," or "lean elbows" until advertisers told us that we would occupy an unenviable position in society if Let's ignore these details. Such advertising tacitly implies that the "problems" it refers to (dark streaks on a shirt collar or a less-than-clean sink) are very serious but can be corrected if you purchase the advertised product. For example, a taxi driver, having taken the problem of the “circle on the collar” to heart, consequently bought the advertised product, without even suspecting that someone had influenced his thoughts and actions.

During the recent election campaign, one candidate told voters he was against corruption, pollution, crime and overpaid bureaucrats. His speech was met with loud applause. Why do I pay attention to his words? Because he said absolutely nothing. I have never heard of any of the candidates being in favor of corruption, pollution, crime or high salaries for officials. Voters would need to ask him to name more specific goals and explain how he plans to achieve them and where he will get the money to fund his projects.

Nine-year-old American children were asked to solve the following problem: "Jason bought three boxes of pencils. What else do you need to know to determine how many pencils he bought?" Only 35% of respondents realized that information was needed about how many pencils were in each box. Here is another problem proposed large group 13-year-olds: “An army bus can accommodate 36 soldiers. If 1,128 soldiers need to be taken to the training ground, how many buses will be needed?” Most students easily made the necessary calculations. The difficulty was to make the answer make sense. Many rounded the result to the nearest whole number and decided that 31 buses would be needed. Others gave the answer as a decimal (31.33) or indicated the remainder of the department. The task did not come down to demonstrating basic calculation skills, but to finding an answer that could be considered acceptable in this case, and to using a method that differed from the one taught at school - the answer had to be rounded to the nearest larger integer, not just to the nearest whole number. Maybe, simple examples, like this one, provide the most compelling answer to the question of whether critical thinking should be taught. The most valuable commodity in America is thinking and educated adults. The goal of the education system should be to have as many of them as possible.

EVIDENCE THAT THINKING CAN BE IMPROVED

Everyone agrees that college students learn, but whether they learn to think is a controversial issue. Wilbert J. McKeachie

If you've wondered whether you can learn to think more effectively, then you've probably wondered whether there is evidence that thinking can be improved. …We now have a lot of evidence that thinking skills training courses have positive effects that can be used in a wide variety of situations. A number of evaluation studies of the results of such courses, which differed fundamentally in their form, were conducted. A generalization of their results gives every reason to believe that with the help of training it is quite possible to develop a person’s ability to think critically, especially if this training is aimed at applying the acquired skills in various situations and various fields of knowledge. Indeed, it is difficult to name an aspect of critical thinking that cannot be taught or mastered. We study mathematics with the expectation that we will be able to use mathematical knowledge in everyday life, where it is often needed. In the same way, we teach children oral and written language skills with the expectation that they will be able to use these skills when they speak or write about any topic.

Here is a short list of some evidence that supports the argument that critical thinking skills can be learned through training sessions and use them subsequently in various situations:

1. An analysis of a national thinking skills program in Venezuela found that students who attended a thinking skills class performed better in oral discussions and written essays on a given topic than students in a comparison group. This study is especially notable because the essays and oral responses were scored “blind,” meaning that the raters did not know whether the students they were assessing had received training in thinking skills or were in a control group. The results of this program indicate that acquired thinking skills were put to good use when students were presented with topics that were unexpected for them.

2. According to self-reports from college students, most of them believe that their ability to think critically has increased markedly after taking a course in thinking skills. Students rated themselves higher on a range of self-assessment scales, including the ability to take time to make judgments, the ability to evaluate contradictory statements, the ability to use probabilistic assessments, and the ability to take into account uncertainty. They also note that they have learned to use various heuristic techniques when solving problems, such as the “by contradiction” method, eliminating unnecessary data and assessing the reliability of the information source. Of course, believing that one’s own ability to think critically has increased is far from the same thing as actually demonstrating an improvement in this ability, but it must be said that own assessments students are consistent with other data.

3. There was also a study that showed that college students who took a critical thinking course scored significantly higher on standardized intelligence tests. While one may be skeptical of any claim that a person's intelligence has increased after just a few sessions, these data provide further evidence of that. that courses in teaching critical thinking produce positive results.

4. Other researchers have found that a college-level course in critical thinking increased the cognitive abilities of adults. Cognitive development was assessed using a method developed by the famous psychologist Jean Piaget and considered the standard for analyzing cognitive growth. This is an impressive result considering the following fact: when assessed using the indicators proposed by Piaget, it turned out that only 25-50% of first-year students have the skills necessary for abstract and logical thinking.

5. A fruitful approach to studying changes in thinking is to study how knowledge is represented in the human mind. Although the theoretical basis for this technique is beyond the scope of this book, the results of this type of research are not difficult to evaluate. Schoenfeld and Herrmann, for example, found that when college students were taught general thinking skills, they performed various tasks much better than students enrolled in the traditional program. In addition, these students, unlike students in the control group, organized a mental representation of the material presented to them in the same way as experts usually do.

6. Using a similar technique, Facione found that college students who took a course in critical thinking performed better on a multiple-choice test than students who did not receive such training. Success in similar tests was also noted by Lehman, Lempert and Nisbett among final-year college students. They came to the conclusion that the knowledge gained through training, during which general “rules” of thinking are given, can be transferred to other areas of activity. Similar conclusions were reached by Fong, Kranz and Nisbett, who summarized their research as follows: "A number of experiments have shown that thinking ability can be improved through formal training."

7. To test the ability of adult students to learn and apply thinking skills, Lehman and Nisbett examined how well students could use their knowledge outside the classroom. They called students at home a few months after they completed their courses and asked questions under the guise of a public opinion poll. For example, students might be asked to comment on a successful series of matches played by a particular rising star baseball league. Those trained in critical thinking might recognize that a general statistical principle is important in this case. The results confirmed the assumption that students have learned and can quickly apply the thinking skills taught to them in class. Moreover, this ability is preserved even when questions are asked in a familiar everyday setting - at home - several months after the end of classes and relate to other topics.

8. Nisbett's recent book, edited by 16 chapters, provides a wealth of evidence to show conclusively that the skills of logic, statistics, deduction and evaluative analysis can be taught in such a way that they will be used by students in a wide variety of situations. Another series of studies that noted positive results from teaching critical thinking is described by Brewer. An independent review of the literature reached a similar conclusion.

All these various materials lead us to the same conclusion: college students can be taught to think more critically by teaching them lessons that are geared to this task. We must strive to ensure that learning various methods Critical thinking was emphasized in every college class and students learned to apply the skills they learned in any setting. An evaluation of studies that have compared multiple groups of students suggests, however, that the results are most noticeable when the curriculum focuses exclusively on developing critical thinking. Critical thinking does not automatically emerge as a by-product of regular training in a field. To achieve the expected effect, systematic efforts to improve thinking are required. In order for students to fully and consciously focus on improving their thinking abilities and broadening the scope of their acquired skills, instruction in critical thinking must include a wide range of examples from various areas of life.

Application of acquired skills in practice

All of the studies noted above that supported the effectiveness of critical thinking training examined the generalizability of critical thinking skills. The real goal of any training to improve thinking is to put the skills learned into practice. By practice, I mean using critical thinking skills in a wide variety of situations. This book will be of little use if these skills are used only in the classroom or in solving problems similar to those covered in the classroom. Ideally, critical thinking skills should be used to recognize unfulfilled campaign promises, arguments that themselves require evidence, incorrect probability estimates, weak arguments, or purely rhetorical constructs. People who think critically should be better problem solvers real life, be it a threat nuclear war or setting up a newly purchased VCR. These skills must also be long-lasting and useful during the decades of critical thinking that lie ahead for most of us. These tasks are not abstract at all. They are very specific and relevant. The best way to ensure the application I'm talking about is to do so through conscious and thoughtful use of the skills you learn in a variety of situations. Students can expand this application by identifying and using examples that require critical thinking.

The problems and exercises presented in the companion volume to this book are intended to demonstrate the versatility of this application in practice. The collection contains a large number of types of problems on various topics. By solving these problems, you are more likely to remember and, if necessary, use the thinking skills presented in the book in everyday situations. There are many factors that determine how likely you are to apply the thinking skills learned in one area of ​​knowledge to another, but we know for sure that it is possible and doable. Find other times to use these thinking skills and use them!

Evaluate objective reality. Our thinking can only be effective if it is based on reality. Reality is objective and exists independently of your desires, whims and goals. Your thinking will be productive as long as you are able to accurately perceive and interpret this reality. This requires objectivity - the ability to separate the concept of "what is" at the moment from what you believe or want to believe.

Be prepared to receive information. A mind that is not ready to perceive information is cut off from reality. A person who thinks this way is very easy to recognize. He/she has a rigid set of opinions and attitudes that cannot be discussed. It is difficult to understand such a thinker, since this requires certain refutations. If you feel like you're talking to a wall, then you may have encountered just such a person. However, being open to receiving information does not mean that you should not defend the truth that you know, as well as support any point of view. Truth will be able to withstand doubt; only illusion poses a threat to the exchange of thoughts.

You should not tolerate constant and unproductive ambiguity. Most decisions you deal with contain a certain amount of ambiguity, a gray area between the obvious black and white alternatives. This is not an argument in defense of uncertainty. This is a recommendation to train the power of thought to achieve clarity. Ambiguity is often a symptom of careless, incomplete or irrational thinking. When you experience such a state, you should carefully examine your surroundings, your principles, knowledge and the effectiveness of your thinking. Knowledge is a progressive search for clarity rather than uncertainty and confusion.

Avoid mass hobbies. When a certain concept becomes popular, many people adopt it, thereby becoming part of the "crowd". This tends to indicate consistency rather than critical thinking. Look (and think) before you join the crowd.

Draw a line between observation and inference, established facts and hypotheses.

Withhold judgment until you are sure you have reliable information. You may jump to conclusions and fall into a trap. On the other hand, when you have reliable information, you should not be afraid to reason. Reasoning is part of the thinking process, the application of your ability to make inferences about reality.

Keep your sense of humor. You will not be able to think clearly if it seems to you that it is a matter of life or death. The ability to laugh at yourself and see humor in other situations often helps maintain clarity of thought and perspective. However, be wary of laughter being used as a weapon to denigrate your values, or used as a form of psychological defense. Such methods require a serious response.

Develop curiosity. The world is full of things you don't know about yet. Curiosity is a sign of a mind that is free and open to perceive the wonders of reality, and is not afraid to face the unknown to gain new knowledge. A curious thinker will explore new ways to see and act differently. Learning can be an adventure of constant and exciting discovery if you embrace curiosity.

Challenge conventional wisdom. Every culture is based on certain assumptions that are quite questionable. Galileo Galilei, the Italian astronomer and mathematician, was brought before the Inquisition because he dared to question the “truth” that the Earth is the center of the Universe. Even today, members of the Flat Earth Society believe that the world is flat as a pancake! You cannot assume that what is generally accepted as truth actually is. The truth is established through rational thinking, and not through polling public opinion or taking into account previous experience.

Resist your emotions. Emotions can cloud reason. When you are angry or elated, your thought processes will not work the same way as when you are in a calmer mood. Beware of situations in which your emotions are deliberately provoked by flattery, fear or admiration at a time when you need to make a decision. This may be a special strategy aimed at falsifying the result.

You shouldn't please others. Flattery is one of the most effective methods of persuasion. If someone starts to flatter you, then you know that they want to convince you or pocket your money. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish a sincere compliment from a carefully thought out manipulation.

Don't overestimate your self-esteem. Very often our decisions can be influenced by the desire to look in a special way in front of yourself or in front of other people. If you are overly concerned with appearing in a certain light, then you may say and do things that are not really in your best interests. Once you understand your importance, playing to the public will no longer seem so tempting to you.

Don't forget about perspective. When you're in the midst of deciding an issue that's important to you, it's easy to lose your balanced view of the situation. It would be nice to consider the issue in a broader spectrum. Here's one way to determine perspective: On a scale of one to ten, how critical is the situation if one is a dead plant and ten is a nuclear explosion? Is the situation as critical as it seems at first glance?

Be aware of the unspoken rules. Sometimes the way we behave is dictated by unspoken rules. If you don't know about them, then you won't have enough knowledge to make a wise decision. If you are familiar with the situation, then most likely you know the rules (for example: don't rock the boat, don't question the boss's opinion, don't argue with the professor). If you are in an unfamiliar situation (or a foreign culture), you should be very observant or ask those who are more familiar with it. This does not mean that you should be limited by these rules, it is recommended that you simply know them.

Be aware of nonverbal communication cues. Verbal communication is only half of the message they are trying to convey to you. The other part of the message is conveyed through non-verbal signs. You must learn to accept both. If someone acts friendly but squeezes your hand painfully when shaking hands, you may have reason to doubt what that person is saying! The same thing happens if someone stretches back in their chair and yawns while telling you how interested they are in your ideas. The clearer your perception of the facts of a situation, the clearer your thinking will be.

If you are under pressure, you should stop and think. Impulsive decisions are often wrong. When pressure is placed on making a decision, the temptation to make it as quickly as possible increases. You can justify this by saying that it is better to make at least some decision than not make a decision at all, but this rarely happens. Indecisiveness is a sign that you lack decision-making skills. Impulsiveness, in turn, suggests that very soon you will reap the fruits of a wrong decision!

Be above labels and stereotypes. Labels and stereotypes are types of mental shorthand that can make thinking and communication easier. If you need furniture with four legs for sitting, the easiest thing to do is ask for a chair and ignore the numerous possible options design and materials. However, if you are looking for a job, you should not be satisfied with stereotypical descriptions of a particular occupation. You need to know exactly what it's really like to be a police officer, a neurosurgeon, or a financial analyst. Likewise, communicating with people from different backgrounds and cultures can be complicated by stereotypes that make it difficult to see the truth.

Avoid negative self-talk. Much of what goes through your thinking is your internal monologue. This self-talk often takes the form of critical judgments and views about oneself. Your thinking skills can be destroyed by self-talk that conveys negative messages over and over again, reinforcing negative self-esteem (“I can’t do anything well,” “I’m just not as smart as everyone else”) or attitude (“No one can trust”, “School is a waste of time”). Unless you replace that negative thinking with more positive self-talk. This will unwittingly influence your decisions. A fundamental element in this change is increased self-esteem. Consultation is good decision for this kind of problem.

Look for consistency. Ralph W. Emerson once wrote, “Foolish consistency is the superstition of small minds.” Thoughtful consistency, however, is the hallmark of careful and comprehensive thinking. Consistency and logic are criteria that should always be applied, no matter what you decide. Inconsistency is often used to hide the truth.

Practice empathy. There is an Indian proverb that says that before you judge, you must walk a mile in another person's shoes. In other words, you should not judge anyone before you fully understand the situation. By practicing this type of empathy, you will reduce the likelihood of making snap judgments that you may later regret. You may also find that a little understanding makes it easier to gain a deeper understanding of people's thoughts and behavior. The more deeply you understand yourself and others, the wiser your decisions will be.

Take the time to check the facts. If you don't have good facts, your decisions are likely to be skewed. IN important issues, you should try to get information first hand. If you're trying to make a career decision and want to learn about your job skills, taking an aptitude test is a better option than asking your friends what you're good at. Likewise, it is best to learn about the intricacies of a particular profession based on generally accepted norms, as well as the opinions of workers, rather than on stereotypes, which may only convey part of the truth. Does this information come from a reliable source? Can you find another source that confirms this information? If you can answer yes to these questions, you can have more confidence in the facts you use as the basis for your decisions.

Check the accuracy of your information. Information may be reliable but not valid. Validity is related to the relevance of the information to the context in which it is applied. True information It may be that if you light a match, it will light up unless you are underwater or in a vacuum outer space! Context is very important!

Develop your listening skills. When it comes to conversation, we hear what we listen to. Listening is another skill that we take for granted, but is rarely used as effectively as we think. How often have you, in the middle of a conversation, suddenly realized that the other person asked you a question, but you didn’t hear it? How often are you so preoccupied with your own thoughts while sitting in class that you don't even hear what the teacher is saying? This happens to all of us, which once again confirms the fact that this seemingly simple skill is very difficult to develop. The better you listen, the more correct information you will receive. The more correct information you have, the better the decisions you make.