What can you wish for a person who wants to engage in literary work? Firstly, inspiration and dreams. Without this, any creativity is unthinkable. This is the only way craft becomes art! However, in order for a person to start writing, he should a priori read a lot. Initial techniques literary reading are still being studied in high school. It is important to understand the actual content of the work, its main ideas, motives and feelings that drive the characters. Based on this, it is made holistic analysis. In addition, your own life experience plays a significant role.
The role of literary devices
To the Adept literary activity You should carefully and moderately use standard techniques (epithets, comparisons, metaphors, irony, allusions, puns, etc.). The secret that is somehow rarely shared is that they are secondary. Indeed, mastering the ability to write works of art is often interpreted by criticism as the ability to use certain literary devices.
What will awareness and understanding of their essence give to a composing and writing person? Let’s answer figuratively: approximately the same as what fins will give to someone who is trying to swim. If a person does not know how to swim, flippers are useless to him. That is, stylistic linguistic tricks cannot serve as an end in themselves for the author. It is not enough to know what literary devices are called. You must be able to captivate people with your thoughts and imagination.
Metaphors
Let's define the main literary devices. Metaphors represent appropriate creative replacement of the properties of one subject or object with the properties of another. This trope achieves an unusual and fresh look at the details and episodes of the work. An example is the well-known metaphors of Pushkin (“fountain of love”, “along the mirror of rivers”) and Lermontov (“the sea of life”, “splashing tears”).
Indeed, poetry is the most creative path for lyrical natures. Perhaps this is why the literary devices in the poem are most noticeable. It is no coincidence that some artistic prose works called prose in verse. This is what Turgenev and Gogol wrote.
Epithets and comparisons
What are literary devices such as epithets? The writer V. Soloukhin called them “clothing of words.” If we talk about the essence of the epithet very briefly, it is the very word that characterizes the essence of an object or phenomenon. Let us give examples: “stately birch”, “golden hands”, “quick thoughts”.
Comparison as an artistic technique allows us to compare social actions with natural phenomena to increase expressiveness. It can be easily noticed in the text by the characteristic words “as”, “as if”, “as if”. Often comparison acts as a deep creative reflection. Let's remember the quote famous poet and the 19th century publicist Pyotr Vyazemsky: “Our life in old age is like a worn-out robe: it’s both ashamed to wear it and a pity to leave it.”
Pun
What is the name of the literary device that uses wordplay? It's about on the use of homonyms and polysemantic words in works of art. This is how jokes that are well known to everyone and loved by all people are created. Such words are often used by classics: A.P. Chekhov, Omar Khayyam, V. Mayakovsky. As an example, here is a quote from Andrei Knyshev: “Everything in the house was stolen, and even the air was somehow stale.” Isn't that a witty saying?
However, those who are interested in the name of the literary device with a play on words should not think that a pun is always comical. Let us illustrate this with the well-known thought of N. Glazkov: “Criminals are also attracted to good, but, unfortunately, to someone else’s.”
However, we admit that there are still more anecdotal situations. Another pun immediately comes to mind - the comparison of a criminal with a flower (the first is first grown and then planted, and the second - vice versa).
Be that as it may, the literary device of word play came from common speech. It is no coincidence that the Odessa humor of Mikhail Zhvanetsky is rich in puns. Isn’t it a wonderful phrase from the maestro of humor: “The car was collected... in a bag.”
Able to make puns. Go for it!
If you really have a strong sense of humor, then the literary device of wordplay is your know-how. Work on quality and originality! A master of creating unique puns is always in demand.
In this article we limited ourselves to the interpretation of only some of the tools of writers. In fact, there are many more of them. For example, a technique such as metaphor contains personification, metonymy (“he ate three plates”).
Literary device parabola
Writers and poets often use tools that sometimes have simply paradoxical names. For example, one of the literary devices is called “parabola”. But literature is not Euclidean geometry. The ancient Greek mathematician, the creator of two-dimensional geometry, would probably have been surprised to learn that the name of one of the curves also found literary application! Why does this phenomenon occur? The reason is probably the properties of the parabolic function. The array of its meanings, coming from infinity to the starting point and going to infinity, is similar to the figure of speech of the same name. That's why one of the literary devices is called "parabola".
Such genre form used to specifically organize the entire narrative. Let's remember Hemingway's famous story. It is written according to laws similar to the one of the same name geometric figure. The course of the narrative begins as if from afar - with a description of the difficult life of fishermen, then the author tells us the very essence - the greatness and invincibility of the spirit of a particular person - the Cuban fisherman Santiago, and then the story again goes into infinity, acquiring the pathos of a legend. I wrote in the same way Kobo Abe the parable novel “The Woman in the Sands”, and Gabriel García Márquez - “One Hundred Years of Solitude”.
It is obvious that the literary device of the parabola is more global than those previously described by us. To notice its use by a writer, it is not enough to read a certain paragraph or chapter. To do this, you should not only read the entire work, but also evaluate it from the point of view of the development of the plot, the images revealed by the author, general issues. It is these methods of analysis literary work will allow, in particular, to determine the fact that the writer used a parabola.
Creativity and artistic techniques
When it is useless for a person to undertake literary work? The answer is extremely specific: when he does not know how to express a thought in an interesting way. You shouldn’t start writing armed with knowledge if others don’t listen to your stories, if you don’t have inspiration. Even if you use effective literary devices, they will not help you.
Let's say it's found interesting topic, there are characters, there is an exciting (in the subjective opinion of the author) plot... Even in such a situation, we recommend taking a simple test. You must arrange it for yourself. See if you can interest a well-known person whose interests you perfectly represent with the idea of your work. After all, types of people repeat themselves. Once you get one person interested, you can get tens of thousands interested...
About creativity and composition
The author, of course, should stop and not continue writing if he subconsciously associates himself in relation to the readers with either a shepherd, or a manipulator, or a political strategist. You cannot humiliate your audience with subconscious superiority. Readers will notice this, and the author will not be forgiven for such “creativity”.
Talk to the audience simply and evenly, as equals to equals. You must interest the reader with every sentence, every paragraph. It is important that the text is exciting, carrying ideas that interest people.
But this is not enough for a person who wants to study literature. It's one thing to tell, another to write. Literary techniques require the author’s ability to build a composition. To do this, he should seriously practice composing a literary text and combining its three main elements: description, dialogue and action. The dynamics of the plot depend on their relationship. And this is very important.
Description
The description carries the function of linking the plot to specific place, time, season, set of characters. It is functionally similar theatrical scenery. Of course, the author initially, even at the conception stage, presents the circumstances of the story in sufficient detail, but they should be presented to the reader gradually, artistically, optimizing the literary techniques used. For example, artistic characterization The author usually gives the character of the work in separate strokes, strokes, presented in various episodes. In this case, epithets, metaphors, and comparisons are used in doses.
After all, in life, too, at first attention is paid to striking features (height, physique), and only then are eye color, nose shape, etc. considered.
Dialogue
Dialogue is good remedy to display the psychotype of the heroes of the work. The reader often sees in them a secondary description of personality, character, social status, an assessment of the actions of one character, reflected by the consciousness of another hero of the same work. Thus, the reader gets the opportunity to both in-depth perception of the character (in the narrow sense) and understanding the peculiarities of society in the work created by the writer (in the broad sense). The author's literary techniques in dialogues are top notch. It is in them (an example of this is the work of Viktor Pelevin) that the most vivid artistic discoveries and generalizations.
However, dialogue should be used with double caution. After all, if you overdo it, the work becomes unnatural and the plot becomes rough. Do not forget that the main function of dialogues is communication between the characters in the work.
Action
Action is an essential element for literary narratives. It acts as a powerful authorial element of the plot. In this case, the action is not only physical movement objects and characters, but also any dynamics of conflict, for example, when describing a trial.
A warning for beginners: without a clear idea of how to present the action to the reader, you should not start creating a work.
What literary devices are used to describe action? It's best when there are none at all. The action scene in a work, even a fantastic one, is the most consistent, logical, and tangible. It is thanks to this that the reader gets the impression of the documentary nature of the artistically described events. Only real masters of the pen can allow the use of literary techniques when describing an action (remember from Sholokhov’s “ Quiet Don"scene of the appearance of a dazzling black sun before the eyes of Grigory Melekhov, shocked by the death of his beloved).
Literary reception of the classics
As the author’s skill increases, his own image, literary artistic techniques are becoming more and more refined. Even if the author does not write about himself directly, the reader feels him and unmistakably says: “This is Pasternak!” or “This is Dostoevsky!” What's the secret here?
When starting to create, the writer places his image into the work gradually, carefully, in the background. Over time, his pen becomes more skillful. And the author inevitably goes through in his works creative path from your imagined self to your real self. They are beginning to recognize him by his style. It is this metamorphosis that is the main literary device in the work of every writer and poet.
Artistic techniques in literature and poetry are called tropes. They are present in any work of a poet or prose writer. Without them, the text could not be called artistic. In art, words are an essential element.
Artistic techniques in literature, why are tropes needed?
Fiction is a reflection of reality, filtered through inner world author. A poet or prose writer does not simply describe what he sees around him, in himself, in people. He conveys his individual perception. Each writer will describe the same phenomenon, for example, a thunderstorm or tree blossoms in spring, love or grief, in his own way. Artistic techniques help him in this.
Tropes are usually understood as words or phrases that are used figuratively. With their help, the author creates a special atmosphere, vivid images, and achieves expressiveness in his work. They emphasize important details text, helping the reader to pay attention to them. Without this it is impossible to convey ideological meaning works.
Paths are, it would seem, ordinary words, consisting of letters used in a scientific article or simply colloquial speech. However, in work of art become magical. For example, the word “wooden” becomes not an adjective characterizing the material, but an epithet revealing the image of the character. Otherwise - impenetrable, indifferent, indifferent.
Such a change becomes possible thanks to the author’s ability to select meaningful associations, to find the exact words to convey his thoughts, emotions, and sensations. It takes a special talent to cope with such a task and create a work of art. Just cramming the text with tropes is not enough. It is necessary to be able to use them so that each carries a special meaning and plays a unique and inimitable role in the test.
Artistic techniques in the poem
The use of artistic techniques in poems is especially relevant. After all, a poet, unlike a prose writer, does not have the opportunity to devote, say, entire pages to describing the image of a hero.
Its “spread” is often limited to a few stanzas. At the same time, it is necessary to convey the immensity. In the poem, literally every word is worth its weight in gold. It shouldn't be redundant. The most common poetic devices:
1. Epithets - they can be parts of speech such as adjectives, participles and sometimes phrases consisting of nouns used in a figurative meaning. Examples of such artistic techniques are “ Golden autumn”, “extinguished feelings”, “king without retinue”, etc. Epithets do not express an objective, but rather an author’s characteristic of something: an object, a character, an action or a phenomenon. Some of them become persistent over time. They are most often found in folklore works. For example, “clear sun”, “red spring”, “good fellow”.
2. A metaphor is a word or phrase whose figurative meaning allows two objects to be compared to each other based on a common feature. Reception is considered a complex trope. Examples include the following constructions: “mock of hair” (hidden comparison of a hairstyle with a haystack), “lake of the soul” (comparison of a person’s soul with a lake according to common feature– depth).
3. Personification is an artistic technique that allows you to “revive” inanimate objects. In poetry it is used mainly in relation to nature. For example, “the wind speaks with a cloud,” “the sun gives its warmth,” “winter looked at me harshly with its white eyes.”
4. Comparison has much in common with metaphor, but is not stable and hidden. The phrase usually contains the words “as”, “as if”, “like”. For example - “And like the Lord God, I love everyone in the world,” “Her hair is like a cloud.”
5. Hyperbole – artistic exaggeration. Allows you to draw attention to certain features that the author wants to highlight and considers them characteristic of something. And therefore he deliberately exaggerates. For example, “a man of giant stature”, “she cried an ocean of tears.”
6. Litotes is the antonym of hyperbole. Its purpose is to downplay, soften something. For example, “an elephant is the size of a dog,” “our life is just a moment.”
7. Metonymy is a trope that is used to create an image based on one of its characteristics or elements. For example, “hundreds of legs ran along the pavement, and hooves hurried nearby,” “the city smokes under the autumn sky.” Metonymy is considered one of the varieties of metaphor, and, in turn, has its own subtype - synecdoche.
When we talk about art, literary creativity, we are focused on the impressions that are created when reading. They are largely determined by the imagery of the work. IN fiction and poetry highlight special techniques for enhancing expressiveness. A competent presentation, public speaking - they also need ways to construct expressive speech.
For the first time, the concept of rhetorical figures, figures of speech, appeared among speakers ancient Greece. In particular, Aristotle and his followers were engaged in their study and classification. Delving into the details, scientists have identified up to 200 varieties that enrich the language.
Means of expressive speech are divided according to language level into:
- phonetic;
- lexical;
- syntactic.
The use of phonetics is traditional for poetry. The poem is often dominated by musical sounds, giving poetic speech a special melodious quality. In the drawing of a verse, stress, rhythm and rhyme, and combinations of sounds are used for emphasis.
Anaphora– repetition of sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. “The golden stars dozed off...” - repetition of the initial sounds, Yesenin used phonetic anaphora.
And here is an example of lexical anaphora in Pushkin’s poems:
Alone you rush across the clear azure,
You alone cast a dull shadow,
You alone sadden the jubilant day.
Epiphora- a similar technique, but much less common, in which words or phrases are repeated at the end of lines or sentences.
The use of lexical devices associated with a word, lexeme, as well as phrases and sentences, syntax, is considered as a tradition of literary creativity, although it is also widely found in poetry.
Conventionally, all means of expressiveness of the Russian language can be divided into tropes and stylistic figures.
Trails
Tropes are the use of words and phrases in a figurative sense. Paths make speech more figurative, enliven and enrich it. Some tropes and their examples in literary work are listed below.
Epithet – artistic definition. Using it, the author gives the word additional emotional overtones and his own assessment. To understand how an epithet differs from an ordinary definition, you need to understand when reading whether the definition gives a new connotation to the word? Here's a simple test. Compare: late fall- Golden autumn, early spring- young spring, quiet breeze - gentle breeze.
Personification- transferring the signs of living beings to inanimate objects, nature: “The gloomy rocks looked sternly...”.
Comparison– direct comparison of one object or phenomenon with another. “The night is gloomy, like a beast...” (Tyutchev).
Metaphor– transferring the meaning of one word, object, phenomenon to another. Identifying similarities, implicit comparison.
“There is a red rowan fire burning in the garden...” (Yesenin). The rowan brushes remind the poet of the flame of a fire.
Metonymy– renaming. Transferring a property or meaning from one object to another according to the principle of contiguity. “The one in felt, let’s argue” (Vysotsky). In felt (material) - in a felt hat.
Synecdoche- a type of metonymy. Transferring the meaning of one word to another based on a quantitative connection: singular - plural, part - whole. “We all look at Napoleons” (Pushkin).
Irony- the use of a word or expression in an inverted, mocking sense. For example, the appeal to the Donkey in Krylov’s fable: “Are you crazy, smart one?”
Hyperbola- a figurative expression containing exorbitant exaggeration. It may concern size, meaning, strength, and other qualities. Litota is, on the contrary, an exorbitant understatement. Hyperbole is often used by writers and journalists, and litotes is much less common. Examples. Hyperbole: “The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns” (V.V. Mayakovsky). Litota: “a little man with a fingernail.”
Allegory- a specific image, scene, image, object that visually represents an abstract idea. The role of allegory is to suggest subtext, to force one to search hidden meaning when reading. Widely used in fable.
Alogism– deliberate violation of logical connections for the purpose of irony. “That landowner was stupid, he read the newspaper “Vest” and his body was soft, white and crumbly.” (Saltykov-Shchedrin). The author deliberately mixes logically heterogeneous concepts in the enumeration.
Grotesque – special welcome, a combination of hyperbole and metaphor, fantastic surreal description. Outstanding master Russian grotesque was N. Gogol. His story “The Nose” is based on the use of this technique. A special impression when reading this work is made by the combination of the absurd with the ordinary.
Figures of speech
Stylistic figures are also used in literature. Their main types are shown in the table:
| Repeat | At the beginning, end, at the junction of sentences | This cry and strings, These flocks, these birds |
| Antithesis | Opposition. Antonyms are often used. | Long hair, short mind |
| Gradation | Arrangement of synonyms in increasing or decreasing order | Smolder, burn, glow, explode |
| Oxymoron | Connecting contradictions | A living corpse, an honest thief. |
| Inversion | Word order changes | He came late (He came late). |
| Parallelism | Comparison in the form of juxtaposition | The wind stirred the dark branches. Fear stirred in him again. |
| Ellipsis | Omitting an implied word | By the hat and out the door (he grabbed it and went out). |
| Parcellation | Dividing a single sentence into separate ones | And I think again. About you. |
| Multi-Union | Connecting through repeating conjunctions | And me, and you, and all of us together |
| Asyndeton | Elimination of unions | You, me, he, she – together the whole country. |
| Rhetorical exclamation, question, appeal. | Used to enhance feelings | What a summer! Who if not us? Listen, country! |
| Default | Interruption of speech based on a guess, to reproduce strong excitement | My poor brother...execution...Tomorrow at dawn! |
| Emotional-evaluative vocabulary | Words expressing attitude, as well as direct assessment of the author | Henchman, dove, dunce, sycophant. |
Test "Means of Artistic Expression"
To test your understanding of the material, take a short test.
Read the following passage:
“There the war smelled of gasoline and soot, burnt iron and gunpowder, it scraped with caterpillar tracks, screeched from machine guns and fell into the snow, and rose again under fire...”
What means artistic expression used in an excerpt from the novel by K. Simonov?
Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts.
Drumming, clicks, grinding,
The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,
And death and hell on all sides.
A. Pushkin
The answer to the test is given at the end of the article.
Expressive language is, first of all, an internal image that arises when reading a book, listening to an oral presentation, or a presentation. To manipulate images, visual techniques are needed. There are enough of them in the great and mighty Russian. Use them, and the listener or reader will find their own image in your speech pattern.
Study expressive language and its laws. Determine for yourself what is missing in your performances, in your drawing. Think, write, experiment, and your language will become an obedient tool and your weapon.
Answer to the test
K. Simonov. The personification of war in the passage. Metonymy: howling soldiers, equipment, battlefield - the author ideologically connects them into a generalized image of war. The techniques of expressive language used are polyunion, syntactic repetition, parallelism. Through this combination stylistic devices When reading, a revived, rich image of war is created.
A. Pushkin. The poem lacks conjunctions in the first lines. In this way the tension and richness of the battle are conveyed. In the phonetic drawing of the scene special role plays the sound “r” in different combinations. When reading, a rumbling, growling background appears, ideologically conveying the noise of battle.
If you were unable to give the correct answers while answering the test, do not be upset. Just re-read the article.
Literary techniques have been widely used at all times, not only by classics or authors but also by marketers, poets and even ordinary people for a more vivid recreation of the story being told. Without them, it will not be possible to add liveliness to prose, poetry or an ordinary sentence; they decorate and allow us to feel as accurately as possible what the narrator wanted to convey to us.
Any work, regardless of its size or artistic direction, is based not only on the features of the language, but also directly on the poetic sound. This does not mean that certain information should be conveyed in rhyme. It is necessary that it be soft and beautiful, flow like poetry.
Of course, literary ones are quite different from those that people use in everyday life. A common person, as a rule, will not select words; he will give out a comparison, metaphor or, for example, an epithet that will help him explain something faster. As for the authors, they do it more beautifully, sometimes even too pretentiously, but only when this is required by the work as a whole or by its individual character in particular.
| Techniques | Explanation | Examples |
| Epithet | A word that defines an object or action, while emphasizing its characteristic property. | “A convincingly deceitful story” (A.K. Tolstoy) |
| Comparison | which connect the two various subjects any common features. | “It’s not the grass that bends to the ground—it’s the mother who yearns for her dead son.” |
| Metaphor | An expression that is transferred from one object to another based on the principle of similarity. Moreover, the second object does not have a specific action or adjective. | "The Snow Lies", "The Moon Is Shedding Light" |
| Personification | Attributing certain human feelings, emotions, or actions to an object to which they are not characteristic. | "The sky is crying", "It's raining" |
| Irony | Ridicule, which usually reveals a meaning that contradicts the real one. | An ideal example is " Dead Souls"(Gogol) |
| Allusion | The use of elements in a work that indicate other text, action or historical facts. Most often used in foreign literature. | Of the Russian writers, Akunin uses allusion most successfully. For example, in his novel "All the World's a Stage" a reference is made to theatrical production "Poor Lisa"(Karamzin) |
| Repeat | A word or phrase that is repeated several times in the same sentence. | "Fight, my boy, Fight, and become a man" (Lawrence) |
| Pun | Several words in one sentence that sound similar. | “He is an apostle, and I am a dunce” (Vysotsky) |
| Aphorism | A short saying that contains a generalizing philosophical conclusion. | On this moment phrases from many works became aphorisms classical literature. “A rose smells like a rose, call it a rose or not” (Shakespeare) |
| Parallel designs | A cumbersome sentence that allows readers to construct | Most often used when composing advertising slogans. "Mars. Everything will be in chocolate" |
| Streamlines | Universal epigraphs that are used by schoolchildren when writing essays. | Most often used when composing advertising slogans. "We will change lives for the better" |
| Contamination | Composing one word from two different ones. | Most often used when composing advertising slogans. "FANTASTIC bottle" |
Let's sum it up
Thus, literary techniques are so diverse that authors have a wide scope for using them. It should be noted that excessive enthusiasm for these elements will not make beautiful piece. It is necessary to be restrained in their use in order to make the reading smooth and soft.
It should be said about one more function that literary devices have. It lies in the fact that only with the help of them is it often possible to revive a character and create the necessary atmosphere, which is quite difficult without visual effects. However, in this case, you should not be zealous, because when the intrigue grows, but the denouement does not approach, the reader will certainly begin to run his eyes ahead in order to calm himself down. In order to learn how to skillfully use literary techniques, you need to familiarize yourself with the works of authors who already know how to do this.
Everyone knows well that art is the self-expression of an individual, and literature, therefore, is the self-expression of the writer’s personality. "Baggage" writing person consists of vocabulary, speech techniques, and skills in using these techniques. The richer the artist’s palette, the greater the possibilities he has when creating a canvas. It’s the same with a writer: the more expressive his speech, the brighter his images, the deeper and more interesting statements, the stronger the emotional impact his works can have on the reader.
Among the means of verbal expressiveness, more often called “artistic devices” (or otherwise figures, tropes), in literary creativity metaphor is in first place in terms of frequency of use.
Metaphor is used when we use a word or expression in a figurative sense. This transfer is carried out by the similarity of individual features of a phenomenon or object. Most often, it is metaphor that creates an artistic image.
There are quite a few varieties of metaphor, among them:
metonymy - a trope that mixes meanings by contiguity, sometimes suggesting the imposition of one meaning on another
(examples: “Let me eat another plate!”; “Van Gogh is hanging on the third floor”);
(examples: “nice guy”; “pathetic little man”; “bitter bread”);
comparison is a figure of speech that characterizes an object by comparing one thing with another
(examples: “like the flesh of a child is fresh, like the call of a pipe is tender”);
personification - “revitalization” of objects or phenomena of inanimate nature
(examples: “ominous darkness”; “autumn cried”; “blizzard howled”);
hyperbole and litotes - a figure in the meaning of exaggeration or understatement of the described object
(examples: “he always argues”; “a sea of tears”; “there wasn’t a drop of poppy dew in his mouth”);
sarcasm is an evil, caustic mockery, sometimes outright verbal mockery (for example, in popular Lately rap battles);
irony - a mocking statement when the speaker means something completely different (for example, the works of I. Ilf and E. Petrov);
humor is a trope that expresses a cheerful and most often good-natured mood (for example, the fables of I.A. Krylov are written in this vein);
grotesque is a figure of speech that deliberately violates the proportions and true dimensions of objects and phenomena (often used in fairy tales, another example is “Gulliver’s Travels” by J. Swift, the work of N.V. Gogol);
pun - deliberate ambiguity, a play on words based on their ambiguity
(examples can be found in jokes, as well as in the works of V. Mayakovsky, O. Khayyam, K. Prutkov, etc.);
oxymoron - a combination in one expression of the incongruous, two contradictory concepts
(examples: “terribly handsome”, “original copy”, “pack of comrades”).
However, verbal expressiveness is not limited to stylistic figures. In particular, we can also mention sound painting, which is an artistic technique that implies a certain order in the construction of sounds, syllables, words to create some kind of image or mood, imitation of sounds real world. The reader will often encounter sound writing in poetic works, but this technique is also found in prose.
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