Exquisite Dutch still life - masterpieces of a quiet life. History of painting

Dutch still life of the 16th–17th centuries - a unique intellectual game, in which the viewer was asked to unravel certain signs. What was easily understood by contemporaries is not clear to everyone today and not always.

What do the objects depicted by the artists mean?

John Calvin (1509-1564, French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism) taught that everyday things have hidden meanings, and behind every image there should be a moral lesson. Objects depicted in still life have multiple meanings: they were endowed with edifying, religious or other connotations. For example, oysters were considered an erotic symbol, and this was obvious to contemporaries: oysters allegedly stimulated sexual potency, and Venus, the goddess of love, was born from a shell. On the one hand, oysters hinted at worldly temptations, on the other, an open shell meant a soul ready to leave the body, that is, it promised salvation. Of course, there were no strict rules on how to read a still life, and the viewer guessed exactly the symbols on the canvas that he wanted to see. In addition, we must not forget that each object was part of the composition and could be read in different ways - depending on the context and the overall message of the still life.Floral still life

Until the 18th century, a bouquet of flowers, as a rule, symbolized frailty, because earthly joys are as transitory as the beauty of a flower. The symbolism of plants is especially complex and ambiguous, and books of emblems, popular in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, helped to grasp the meaning, where allegorical illustrations and mottos were accompanied by explanatory texts. Floral arrangements were not easy to interpret: the same flower had many meanings, sometimes directly opposite. For example, the narcissus indicated narcissism and was at the same time considered a symbol of the Mother of God. In still lifes, as a rule, both meanings of the image were preserved, and the viewer was free to choose one of the two meanings or combine them.

Floral arrangements were often supplemented with fruits, small objects, and images of animals. These images expressed the main idea of ​​the work, emphasizing the motif of transience, decay, the sinfulness of everything earthly and the incorruptibility of virtue.

Jan Davids de Heem.
Flowers in a vase.

In the painting by Jan Davids de Heem, at the base of the vase, the artist depicted symbols of frailty: withered and broken flowers, crumbling petals and dried pea pods. Here is a snail - it is associated with the soul of a sinner. In the center of the bouquet we see symbols of modesty and purity: wildflowers, violets and forget-me-nots. They are surrounded by tulips, symbolizing fading beauty and senseless waste (growing tulips in Holland was considered one of the most vain activities and, moreover, expensive); lush roses and poppies, reminiscent of the fragility of life. The composition is crowned with two large flowers that have a positive meaning. The blue iris represents remission of sins and indicates the possibility of salvation through virtue. The red poppy, which was traditionally associated with sleep and death, changed its interpretation due to its location in the bouquet: here it signifies the atoning sacrifice of Christ.

Other symbols of salvation are ears of bread, and a butterfly sitting on a stalk represents the immortal soul.

Jan Bauman.
Flowers, fruits and a monkey. First half of the 17th century.

Jan Bauman's painting “Flowers, Fruits and a Monkey” is a good example of the multi-layered meaning and ambiguity of a still life and the objects on it. At first glance, the combination of plants and animals seems random. In fact, this still life also reminds us of the transience of life and the sinfulness of earthly existence. Each depicted object conveys a certain idea: the snail and lizard in this case indicate the mortality of all earthly things; a tulip lying near a bowl of fruit symbolizes rapid fading; shells scattered on the table hint at an unwise waste of money; and the monkey with the peach indicates original sin and depravity. On the other hand, a fluttering butterfly and fruits: bunches of grapes, apples, peaches and pears speak of the immortality of the soul and the atoning sacrifice of Christ. On another, allegorical level, the fruits, fruits, flowers and animals presented in the picture represent four elements: shells and snails - water; butterfly - air; fruits and flowers - earth; monkey - fire.

Still life in a butcher shop

Peter Aartsen.
The Butcher Shop, or the Kitchen with the Flight to Egypt Scene. 1551

The image of a butcher shop has traditionally been associated with the idea of ​​physical life, the personification of the element of earth, as well as gluttony. Painted by Peter Aertsen

Almost the entire space is occupied by a table laden with food. We see many types of meat: killed poultry and dressed carcasses, liver and ham, hams and sausages. These images symbolize excess, gluttony and attachment to carnal pleasures. Now let's turn our attention to the background. On the left side of the picture, in the window opening, there is a gospel scene of the flight to Egypt, which contrasts sharply with the still life in the foreground. The Virgin Mary hands the last loaf of bread to a beggar girl. Note that the window is located above the dish, where two fish lie crosswise (symbol of the crucifixion) - a symbol of Christianity and Christ. On the right in the background is a tavern. A cheerful group sits at a table by the fire, drinks and eats oysters, which, as we remember, are associated with lust. A butchered carcass hangs next to the table, indicating the inevitability of death and the fleeting nature of earthly joys. A butcher in a red shirt dilutes wine with water. This scene echoes the main idea of ​​the still life and refers to the Parable of the Prodigal Son. The scene in the tavern, as well as the butcher shop full of dishes, speaks of an idle, dissolute life, attachment to earthly pleasures, pleasant for the body, but destructive for the soul. In the scene of the flight to Egypt, the characters practically turn their backs to the viewer: they move deeper into the picture, away from the butcher shop. This is a metaphor for escape from a dissolute life full of sensual pleasures. Giving up them is one of the ways to save the soul.

Still life in a fish shop

The fish still life is an allegory of the water element. Works of this kind, like butchers' shops, were often part of the so-called elemental cycle and, as a rule, were created to decorate palace dining rooms. In the foreground of Frans Snyders's painting "The Fish Shop" there are many fish depicted. There are perches and sturgeons, crucian carp, catfish, salmon and other seafood here. Some have already been cut up, some are waiting for their turn. These images of fish do not carry any subtext - they glorify the wealth of Flanders.

Frans Snyders.
Fish shop. 1616

Next to the boy we see a basket with gifts that he received for St. Nicholas Day. This is indicated by the wooden red shoes tied to the basket. In addition to sweets, fruits and nuts, the basket contains rods - as a hint at education with “carrot and stick”. The contents of the basket speak of the joys and sorrows of human life, which constantly replace each other. The woman explains to the child that obedient children receive gifts, and bad children receive punishment. The boy recoiled in horror: he thought that instead of sweets he would receive blows with rods. On the right we see a window opening through which we can see the city square. A group of children stands under the windows and joyfully greets the puppet jester on the balcony. The jester is an integral attribute of folk holiday festivities.

Still life with a set table

In numerous variations of table settings on the canvases of Dutch masters we see bread and pies, nuts and lemons, sausages and hams, lobsters and crayfish, dishes with oysters, fish or empty shells. These still lifes can be understood depending on the set of objects.

Gerrit Willems Heda.
Ham and silverware. 1649

In Gerrit Willems Heda's painting we see a dish, a jug, a tall glass goblet and an overturned vase, a mustard pot, a ham, a crumpled napkin and a lemon. This is Heda's traditional and favorite set. The arrangement of objects and their choice are not random. Silverware symbolizes earthly riches and their futility, ham symbolizes carnal pleasures, and an attractive-looking but sour inside lemon represents betrayal. An extinguished candle indicates the frailty and fleetingness of human existence, a mess on the table indicates destruction. A tall glass “flute” glass (in the 17th century such glasses were used as a measuring container with marks) is as fragile as human life, and at the same time symbolizes moderation and a person’s ability to control his impulses. In general, in this still life, as in many other “breakfasts,” the theme of vanity and the meaninglessness of earthly pleasures is played out with the help of objects.

Peter Claes.
Still life with a brazier, herring, oysters and a smoking pipe. 1624

Most of the objects depicted in Peter Claes's still life are erotic symbols. Oysters, pipe, wine refer to brief and dubious carnal pleasures. But this is just one option for reading a still life. Let's look at these images from a different angle. Thus, shells are symbols of the frailty of the flesh; a pipe, with which they not only smoked, but also blew soap bubbles, is a symbol of the suddenness of death. Claes's contemporary, the Dutch poet Willem Godschalk van Fockenborch, wrote in the poem “My Hope is Smoke”:

As you can see, being is akin to smoking a pipe,
And I really don’t know what the difference is:
One is just a breeze, the other is just a smoke.

The theme of the transience of human existence is contrasted with the immortality of the soul, and signs of frailty suddenly turn out to be symbols of salvation. The bread and glass of wine in the background are associated with the body and blood of Jesus and indicate the sacrament of the sacrament. Herring - another symbol of Christ - reminds us of fasting and Lenten food. And open shells with oysters can change their negative meaning to the exact opposite, denoting the human soul, separated from the body and ready to enter into eternal life.

Different levels of interpretation of objects subtly tell the viewer that a person is always free to choose between the spiritual and eternal and the earthly transitory.

Vanitas, or "Scientist" still life

The genre of the so-called “scientific” still life was called vanitas - translated from Latin it means “vanity of vanities”, in other words - “memento mori” (“remember death”). This is the most intellectual type of still life, an allegory of the eternity of art, the frailty of earthly glory and human life

Jurian van Streck.
Vanity. 1670

The sword and helmet with a luxurious plume in the painting by Jurian van Streck indicate the fleeting nature of earthly glory. The hunting horn symbolizes wealth that cannot be taken with you into another life. In “scientific” still lifes there are often images of open books or carelessly lying papers with inscriptions. They not only invite you to think about the objects depicted, but also allow you to use them for their intended purpose: read open pages or perform the one recorded in music notebook music. Van Streck depicted a sketch of a boy's head and an open book: this is Sophocles' tragedy Electra, translated into Dutch. These images indicate that art is eternal. But the pages of the book are curled and the drawing is wrinkled. These are signs of the beginning of corruption, hinting that after death even art will not be useful. The skull also speaks of the inevitability of death, but the ear of bread entwined around it symbolizes the hope of resurrection and eternal life. By the middle of the 17th century, a skull entwined with an ear of grain or evergreen ivy would become a mandatory subject for depiction in still lifes in the vanitas style.

A unique cultural phenomenon XVII century is called the Dutch floral still life, which had a significant influence on the entire further development of painting in Europe.

Lovingly and carefully, artists discovered the beauty of nature and the world of things, showing their richness and diversity. Bouquets of roses, forget-me-nots and tulips by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder, who became the founder of floral still life painting as an independent movement, enchant and attract the eye.

ABROSIUS BOSCHART THE ELDER 1573-1621

Bosschaert began his career in Antwerp in 1588. From 1593 to 1613 he worked in Middelburg, then in Utrecht (from 1616) and in Breda.

On Bosshart's canvases, butterflies or shells are often depicted next to bouquets of flowers. In many cases, flowers are touched by withering, which introduces an allegorical motif of the frailty of existence into Bosshart’s paintings ( vanitas)

Tulips, roses, white and pink carnations, forget-me-nots and other flowers in a vase.

At first glance, the bouquets seem to be painted from nature, but upon closer look it becomes obvious that they are made up of plants blooming in different time.The impression of naturalness and verisimilitude arises due to the fact that the images of individual colors are based on individual natural “studies”

An enlarged fragment of a sketch by Jan Van Huysum, which is kept at the Met.

Jan Baptiste von Fornenbruch. Sered. 17th century

This was the usual working method for flower still life painters. The artists performed careful drawings in watercolor and gouache, drawing flowers from life, in different angles and under different lighting, and these drawings then served them repeatedly - they repeated them in paintings.

Jacob Morrel. "Two Tulips"

Drawings by other artists, engravings from printed collections and botanical atlases were also used as working material.

Customers, nobles and burghers, appreciated in still lifes that the depicted flowers were “as if they were alive.” But these images were not naturalistic. They are romantic and poetic. Nature in them is transformed by painting.

Still life with flowers in a vase 1619

“Portraits” of flowers, painted on parchment in watercolor and gouache, were created for floristic albums in which gardeners sought to immortalize strange plants. Images of tulips are especially numerous. Almost every Dutch still life contains tulips.

Ambrosius Bosshart "Flowers in a Vase". 1619.Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

In the 17th century There was a real tulip boom in Holland; sometimes a house was mortgaged for a rare tulip bulb.
Tulips came to Europe in 1554. They were sent to Augsburg by the German ambassador to the Turkish court, Busbeck. During his travels around the country, he was fascinated by the sight of these delicate flowers.

Soon tulips spread to France and England, Germany and Holland. The owners of tulip bulbs in those days were truly rich people - people of royal blood or those close to them. In Versailles, special celebrations were held in honor of the development of new varieties.

Still life with flowers.
Not only Dutch nobles, but also ordinary burghers could afford to own beautiful still lifes.

The number of Dutch flower still lifes is huge, but this does not detract from their artistic value. After the auctions, when the economic situation of Holland became less than brilliant, picturesque collections from the houses of burghers ended up in the palaces of European nobles and kings.

Bouquet of flowers 1920

In the center of this bouquet we see a crocus, but it is huge. A little information about this flower that is familiar to us.

Crocus is a medicinal plant, aphrodisiac and dye. Its stamens are used to make an excellent spice - saffron, which is added to oriental sweets. The birthplace of the crocus is Greece and Asia Minor. Just like hyacinths and lilies, the crocus became a hero of the myths of the ancient Greeks and was depicted in the subjects of palace paintings.

According to ancient legend, the earth was covered with hyacinths and crocuses for the wedding and first wedding night of Hera and Zeus.

Another legend describes the story of a young man named Crocus, who with his beauty attracted the attention of a nymph, but remained indifferent to her beauty. Then the goddess Aphrodite turned the young man into a flower and the nymph into a bindweed, thereby creating an inseparable union.

Flowers in a glass vase.

The desire of artists to diversify the composition of their bouquets forced them to travel to different cities and make full-scale drawings in the gardens of flower lovers in Amsterdam, Utrecht, Brussels, Haarlem, and Leiden. Artists also had to wait for the changing seasons to capture the desired flower.

Flowers. 1619

Flowers in a Chinese vase.

Flowers in a basket.

Still life with flowers in a niche.

Flowers in a niche.

In fruit and flower still lifes, a seemingly random combination of apparently unrelated representatives of flora and fauna indirectly embodied ideas about the perishable sinfulness of all earthly things and, on the contrary, the incorruptibility of true Christian virtue.

Almost every “character” of the still life in a complex language of symbols denoted a certain idea: the mortality of everything earthly (for example, a lizard or a snail), the stupid sinfulness and frailty of human life, which a tulip, in particular, could symbolize.

Flowers in a glass vase.1606

According to the ideas of the Flemings and Dutch, this delicate flower was not only a visible embodiment of quickly fading beauty, but its cultivation was also perceived by many as one of the most vain and selfish professions);

Exotic overseas shells, once a fashionable collectible, hinted at unwise spending of money; a monkey with a peach has traditionally been considered a symbol of Original Sin.

Still life with flowers in a green glass bottle.

On the other hand, a fly on the same peach or rose usually evoked associations with the symbolism of death, evil and sin; grapes and broken walnuts - hinted at the Fall and, at the same time, the atoning sacrifice of Christ on the cross, Red berries of ripe cherries - a symbol of Divine love, while a fluttering butterfly personifies the saved soul of the righteous.

Basket.

The artistic direction of Ambrosius Bosschaert was continued to be developed by his three sons - Ambrosius Bosschaert the Younger, Abraham Bosschaert and Johannes Bosschaert, as well as his son-in-law Balthasar van der Ast. Their works, generally quite numerous, are invariably in demand at art auctions.

Sources.

Having gone through a series of stages, each of which had its own specific and original significance, Dutch still life widely embraced the world of things and organic nature. From the first stage in the work of artists of the beginning of the century, with the recording of things displayed as if on display, the painters of the next generation moved on to modest “breakfasts” with metal and glass objects grouped on a white tablecloth (Klas, Heda). These “breakfasts” are distinguished by the simplicity of the things depicted: a bun, pewter dishes, glass vessels - these are the main components of the images in a grayish colorful palette. Several fish in the paintings of Ormea and Putter, a kitchen still life by the Rotterdam artists reflect the modest Puritan tastes of the democratic strata in the first half of the century.

But as the republican system was established and the subsequent strengthening of the power of the bourgeois class, and then its gradual aristocratization, the requirements for art also changed. Still life loses its modest, simple character. “Breakfasts” become more luxurious and lush, striking in their richness of color. They are now built on a combination of warm tones of carpet tablecloths and Delft earthenware laid out on dishes or Chinese porcelain orange, yellow, red fruits, enlivened by the sparkle of gilded goblets and glass glasses, on the surface of which light plays. Testifying to complete mastery of the transfer of material and lighting, saturated with color, the still lifes of Kalf, Beyeren, Streck characterize the time of the highest flowering of still life.

Not only time influenced the theme and development of still life, but also much more: local features, economic structure, typical for a particular city, often determine the theme and even the interpretation of the work of a local artist. It is by no means accidental that in the rapidly developing Haarlem with its strong associations of citizens, the type of tonal still life first developed, and in the center of economic and cultural life Holland - Amsterdam - was where the activities of the creators of luxurious desserts Kalf and Strek took place. The proximity of the Scheveningen coast inspired Beyeren, who lives in The Hague, to create a still life with fish, and in the university center - Leiden - a thoughtful still life with the image of a skull and hourglass, which should remind us of the frailty of earthly existence. Paintings depicting a scientist surrounded by tomes, globes and other scientific objects, often filling the entire foreground, were also widespread.”

A strict division of still lifes into genres is impossible, since several motifs were often combined in one picture, however, the most common genres can be identified.

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Flower still life

In flower still lifes, artists depicted tulips, roses, gladioli, hyacinths, carnations, lilies, irises, lilies of the valley, forget-me-nots, violets, violas, daisies, nigella, rosemary, anemones, calendula, gillyflowers, mallows and other flowers.

One of the first seventeenth-century artists to paint vases with flowers was Jacob (Jacques) de Geyn the Younger (1565-1629). His work is characterized by an elongated vertical format of paintings, a multi-tiered arrangement of flowers with alternating large and small plants, as well as the use of techniques that will become very popular among artists of this genre: embedding a bouquet of flowers in a niche and an image of small animals next to the vase.

The appearance of insects, animals and birds, and shells as auxiliary details in floral still lifes is a reflection of the tradition of using hidden meanings of depicted objects that have symbolic meaning. Various symbols appear in still lifes of all genres.

The followers of Jacob de Geyn the Younger were Jan Baptist van Fornenburg (1585-1649) and Jacob Wouters Vosmar (1584-1641).

Fornenburg painted bouquets of tulips, daffodils, roses, and physalis, while in his paintings there are motifs of “vanity of vanities” and the classic “deception.”

Characteristic feature Vosmar's paintings also feature a motif of “vanity of vanities” in the form of a drooping rose. He often depicted in still lifes a fly, a wren butterfly, a cabbage butterfly, a dragonfly and a bee.

The founder of a whole dynasty of masters of still lifes with flowers and fruit was Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (1573-1621). The dynasty included three sons (Johannes, Abraham and Ambrosius), two brothers-in-law (Johannes and Balthasar van der Asty) and a son-in-law (Hieronymus Swerts).

Bosshart painted small still lifes with a bouquet in a vase (in some cases it was a vase made of Chinese porcelain), placed in a niche or on the window sill. In addition to small animals, shells are also used as an entourage in his paintings.

Among Bosschaert's sons, the artist's talent most clearly manifested itself in Johannes Bosschaert (1610/11 - after 1629). Distinctive features of his work are the arrangement of objects diagonally in the picture and a matte metallic color.

Ambrosius Bosschaert the Younger (1609-1645) used the techniques of chiaroscuro modeling of the Utrecht Caravaggists.

Abraham Bosshart (1612/1613 - 1643) copied the techniques of his brothers.

The brothers of Ambrosius Bosschaert's wife, Johannes and Balthasar van der Asta, continued the traditions of Bosschaert.

Only one painting by Johannes van der Ast is known.

Of great importance for the development of still life was the work of the eldest of the brothers, Balthasar van der Ast (1593/1594 - 1657), who left a rich creative heritage- more than 125 paintings. He liked to depict a basket of flowers or a dish of fruit on the table, and in the foreground along the edge of the table he placed shells, fruits and butterflies. Some of his paintings depict parrots.

Roelant Saverey (1576-1639) belongs to the school of Ambrosius Bosshart the Elder. His still lifes are built on the principle of a bouquet of flowers located in a niche. He added “vanity of vanities” motifs to his paintings; the gravedigger beetle, dung fly, death’s-head butterfly and other insects, as well as lizards, were used as an entourage.

The work of Ambrosius Bosschaert influenced such artists as Anthony Claes I (1592-1636), his namesake Antoni Claes II (1606/1608 - 1652) and Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder's son-in-law Hieronymus Swerts.

In the work of Hans Bollongier (around 1600 - after 1670), techniques of Utrecht Caravaggism were widely used. Using chiaroscuro, the artist highlighted the flowers against the background of twilight.

Further development of floral still life was observed in the work of Middelburg masters: Christoffel van den Berghe (around 1590 - after 1642), who depicted elements of “vanity of vanities” in floral still lifes: a bottle of wine, a snuff box, a smoking pipe, playing cards and a skull; and Johannes Goodart, who widely used insects and birds as surroundings.

The school of Dordrecht masters of floral still life includes Bartholomeus Abrahams Asstein (1607(?) - 1667 or later), Abraham van Kalrath (1642-1722), the father of the famous landscape painter and animal painter Albert Cuyp, Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1594 - 1651/1652). Their work is characterized by extensive use of chiaroscuro.

“Served tables” (“Breakfasts”, “Desserts”, “Banquets”)

The birthplace and center of "set tables" was Haarlem. The prerequisite for the creation of this type of still life was the widespread distribution in the 16th century of portraits of members of shooting guilds during a banquet. Gradually, the image of a set table became an independent genre.

The set of objects forming the still life initially included traditional Dutch products: cheese, ham, buns, fruit, beer. However, later, in still lifes, dishes typical of special occasions or tables of wealthy townspeople began to appear more and more: game, wine, pies (the most expensive was blackberry pie). In addition to traditional herring, lobsters, shrimp, and oysters appeared.

Expensive dishes made of silver and Chinese porcelain, jugs, and tatsas also began to be used. Special attention The artists used glasses: Roemer, Berkemeier, pass glass, flute glass, Venetian glass, akeley glass. The most exquisite was the Nautilus cup.

Frequent attributes of still lifes were a salt shaker and a table knife. Half-peeled lemon was often used as a colorful spot.

One of the earliest still lifes showing Dutch table setting is The Table Set by Nicholas Gillies (c. 1580 - after 1632). The artist used an elevated point of view in his paintings.

The still lifes of Floris Gerrits van Schouten (c. 1590 - after 1655) are characterized by complexity, he used a large number of objects, and the main subject was often a pile of cheeses. In a number of cases, he used the technique of moving the emphasis of the still life group away from the geometric center of the picture.

A significant figure in this type of still life painting was Floris van Dyck (1575-1651). The center of his paintings was a pyramid of cheeses, the background dissolving into haze.

Clara Peters (1594-1657) specialized in this same type of still life. She often depicted expensive, exquisite tableware, lobsters and oysters. In some of her still lifes she used a lowered point of view, almost at table level.

Compositions close to Peters were created by Hans van Essen (1587/1589 - after 1648).

Roelof Coots (1592/1593 - 1655) used the technique of deliberate negligence, the plate or knife in his paintings hung halfway from the edge of the table. He was one of the first to create canvases depicting not a set table, but a table with traces of the finished breakfast, introducing motifs of “vanity of vanities” into the paintings: clocks, books, fallen grapes.

On early stage Peter Klas also created paintings of this genre in his work.

Tonal still life

The tonal Dutch still life was led by Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heda, who lived in Haarlem.

The tradition of depicting the mistress of the house, cook or servants has been preserved, although they increasingly moved to the background. In the foreground were kitchen utensils and meat, fish and many vegetables brought into the kitchen: pumpkin, turnips, rutabaga, cabbage, carrots, peas, beans, onions and cucumbers. Wealthier people had cauliflower, melons, artichokes and asparagus on their tables.

Pieter Cornelis van Ryck (1568-1628) painted in the tradition of the 16th century, sometimes with biblical scenes in the background.

Cornelis Jacobs Delff (1571-1643) used an elevated point of view and liked to place kitchen utensils in the foreground.

The famous master of “set tables” Floris Gerrits van Schoten also painted kitchen scenes; sometimes he included genre motifs in his still lifes.

Cornelis Pieters Begi (1631/1632 - 1664) went even further by including a satyr who came to visit the peasants in the still life.

The genre and portrait painter Gottfried Schalcken (1643-1706) depicted a storeroom with barrels of wine and supplies.

A group of masters of the everyday genre, brothers Cornelis and Hermann Saftleven (1607/1608 - 1681 and 1609-1685), Pieter de Blot (1601-1658), Hendrik Martens Sorg (1611-1670) and Ecbert van der Poel (1621-1664) also wrote “kitchen” still lifes with genre motifs, but household items still dominated in their paintings.

The still lifes of the famous master of “peasant breakfasts” Philips Angel are also close to the works of Rotterdam genre painters.

Unlike artists who depicted the kitchens of a wealthy burgher with its cleanliness and order, Francois Reykhals (after 1600 - 1647) painted poor peasant kitchens.

The famous master of “luxurious” still lifes, Willem Kalf, dedicated more than 60 of his works to the theme of kitchen still life.

"Fish" still life

The Hague became the cradle of still life with fish. The proximity of Scheveningen encouraged artists not only to paint marines, but also to create a special type of still life painting - paintings depicting fish and sea animals.

The founders of this type of still life were: Pieter de Putter, Pieter van Schijenborg and Pieter van Noort.

Pieter de Putter (1600-1659) chose a high point of view from which the table with fish was clearly visible, sometimes a net was added to the still life.

Pieter van Schijenborg (? - after 1657) painted fish on a gray or yellow-brown background.

The paintings of Pieter van Noort (about 1600 - ?), who colorfully conveyed the shine of scales, had a special color.

The main representative of this direction of painting was Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621 - 1690), who worked in many other genres of still life, and also painted marinas. He depicted fish both on the table and on the seashore.

Perhaps van Beyeren's student was Isaac van Duinen (1628 - 1677/1681).

Landscape painter Albert Cuyp (1620-1691) can also be counted among the masters of “fish” still life.

Utrecht masters Willem Ormea (1611-1673) and his student Jacob Gillig (about 1630 - 1701) were fond of “fish” still life.

“Vanity of vanities” (Vanitas, Memento mori, “scientific” still life)

Important place The philosophical and moral still life, which received the Latin name “vanitas” (“vanity of vanities”), occupied the place in Dutch painting.

“The ideological foundations of this movement uniquely intertwine medieval ideas about the frailty of all earthly things, the moralizing tendencies of Calvinism and the humanistic ideal of a wise man striving for truth and beauty.”

The most common symbols of mortality in “vanity of vanities” still lifes were: a skull, an extinguished candle, a clock, books, musical instruments, withered flowers, overturned or broken dishes, playing cards and dice, smoking pipes, soap bubbles, seals, a globe, etc. .d. Sometimes the artist included in the work a sheet of parchment with a Latin saying on the theme “vanity of vanities.”

The first still life of the 17th century that has come down to us, belonging to the “vanity of vanities” genre, was painted by Jacob de Geyn the Younger.

“In the upper part of the niche, on the capitals of the pylons flanking it, there are sculptural images of female and male figures, and on the keystone of the arch of the niche there is a Latin inscription carved: “HUMANA VANA”, which can be translated as “human vanity is in vain.” This motto allows us to understand the symbolism of the figures, of which the first, as if warning about the ephemerality of the soap sphere, points a finger at it, and the second, as if reflecting on the futility of human actions, leaned her head on her arm bent at the elbow in thought. The validity of the Latin saying is confirmed by the image of a skull - a symbol of death, stopping both good and evil human deeds, and a soap bubble, expressing the tragic fate of natural matter, doomed to disappear in the whirlpool of existence."

Jacob de Geyn the Younger lived in Leiden, the city in which the first Dutch university was opened and which was the center of book printing. It was Leiden that became the center of “scientific” still life.

The development of still life of the “vanity of vanities” type was greatly influenced by the activities of the Leiden resident David Bayley and the masters grouped around him.

The pioneer of a new type of still life genre was Jan Davids de Hem (1606-1684). He tried himself in various genres: floral, scientific, kitchen still lifes. In 1636 the artist moved to Antwerp and came under the influence of Flemish painting. He began to create luxurious still lifes, overloaded with bright and colorful fruits, lobsters, parrots... Flower still lifes also had a clear Flemish trace, distinguished by a baroque symphony of colors.

Jan Davids de Hem had a workshop with a large number of students and assistants. In addition to the master's son Cornelis de Hem, his direct students were Pieter de Ring, Nicholas van Gelder, Johannes Borman, Martinus Nellius, Matthijs Naive, Jan Mortel, Simon Luttihuis, Cornelis Kik. In turn, Kik raised gifted students - Elias van den Broek and Jacob van Walskapelle.

The techniques of Jan Davids de Hem were well mastered by his son Cornelis de Hem (1631-1695). At the same time, there is more air in his paintings.

The most gifted student of Jan Davids de Hem was Pieter de Ring (1615-1660). A distinctive feature of his still lifes was the indispensable presence of a signet ring, hinting at the artist’s surname (ring in Dutch).

Another outstanding student of Jan Davids de Hem was Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - c. 1676), who created his still lifes under the influence of the work of Willem Kalf.

More simple and intimate are the still lifes of the followers of Jan Davids de Hem - Johannes Bormann and Martinus Nellius (? - after 1706).

Simon Lüttihuis (1610 - ?) also created luxurious still lifes, adding to them motifs of “vanity of vanities.”

Another student of Jan Davids de Hem, Cornelis Kick (1631/1632 - 1681), used outdoor sketches in his paintings. He passed on his plein air techniques to his students Elias van den Broek (1650-1708) and Jacob van Walskapelle (1644-1727), whose still lifes are characterized by a subtle rendering of the light-air environment.

From the workshop of Jan Davids de Hem also came the master of vanity of vanities still lifes Maria van Oosterwijk, and two masters of late floral still lifes, Jacob Rotius (1644 - 1681/1682) and Abraham Mignon.

During the first “luxurious” still lifes of Jan Davids de Heem, a few works on this topic were also written by François Reichals.

The desire for color is characteristic of Abraham van Beyeren's luxurious still lifes. An indispensable attribute of these paintings was a pocket watch.

One of Beyeren's few followers, Abraham Susenir, loved to depict silver dishes.

The “luxurious” still lifes of Willem Kalf (1619-1693) had a great influence on artists. In them, Kalf often used vessels made of gold, silver and Chinese porcelain. At the same time, the paintings were equipped with symbols of “vanity of vanities”: a candlestick and a pocket watch. Kalf often chose a vertical format. His work splits into periods of stay in France and return to Amsterdam. The late period is characterized by a decrease in the number of objects depicted in the picture and a gloomy background.

Kalf's followers were Jurian van Streek, his son Hendrik van Streek (1659 - ?), Christian Jans Streep (1634-1673) and Barent van der Meer (1659 - to 1702).

Another follower of Kalf, Peter Gerrits Rustraten (1627-1698), took the path of bringing “luxurious” still lifes closer to “deceptive” ones.

Along with Aalst, Matthaus Bloom is one of the pioneers of still life with hunting trophies.

A number of paintings on this topic performed by Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - c. 1676).

Melchior de Hondecoeter also depicted hunting trophies.

The theme of hunting still life was touched upon by the famous landscape master Jan Baptist Venix (1621-1660), who depicted killed roe deer and swans. His son Jan Weniks created at least a hundred paintings with images of slaughtered hares against the backdrop of a stone niche or a park landscape.

Another student of Jan Baptist Weenix was Willem Frederik van Rooyen (1645/1654 - 1742), who also incorporated images of animals into the landscape.

Dirk de Bray was also a supporter of the ceremonial hunting still life, like Aalst and Royen. It represented the trophies of falconry, the entertainment of aristocrats and wealthy burghers.

Along with decorative canvases of “hunting trophies,” “chamber” hunting still lifes also became widespread. Jan Vonk (about 1630 - 1660?), Cornelis Lelienberg (1626 - after 1676), Aalst's student Willem Gau Ferguson (about 1633 - after 1695), Hendrik de Fromenthue (1633/1634 - after 1694) and Pieter Harmens Verelst (1618-1678), as well as his son Simon Peters Verelst (1644-1721).

“Chamber” hunting still lifes were created by painters who worked in other genres of still life: Abraham Mignon, Abraham van Beyeren, Jacob Biltius. The famous landscape painter Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603 - 1670), who wrote “Still Life with Killed Game” (1661) and “Hunting Trophies” (1662), and the genre painter, student of Adrian van Ostade, Cornelis Dusart (1660-1704) paid tribute to the hunting still life. .

Still life with animals

The founders of the genre were Otto Marceus van Scrieck (1619/1620 - 1678) and Matthias Withos (1627-1703).

Skrik started a terrarium on his estate with insects, spiders, snakes and other animals, which he depicted in his paintings. He loved to create complex compositions with exotic plants and animals, introducing philosophical overtones into them. For example, in the Dresden painting “The Snake at the Bird’s Nest,” butterflies collect nectar from flowers, a thrush catches butterflies and feeds them to its chick, another chick is swallowed by a snake, which is hunted by an ermine.

Vithos preferred to depict thistles and other plants in the foreground of his paintings, among which snakes, lizards, spiders and insects crawl. As a background, he depicted an Italian landscape, a memory of a trip to Italy.

Christian Jans Streep painted Thistles and Moles in the manner of Skrick.

Abraham de Heus very carefully and close to life depicted various species of moles, lizards, snakes and butterflies.

Willem van Aalst has several paintings dedicated to the depiction of animals. His student Rachel Reusch began her creative career by imitating Skrik, but then developed her own style, which is characterized by the depiction of small animals against the backdrop of a golden landscape.

Along with landscape painting, still life, which was distinguished by its intimate character, became widespread in 17th-century Holland. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of objects for their still lifes, knew how to arrange them perfectly, and reveal the characteristics of each object and its inner life, inextricably linked with human life.
The 17th century Dutch painters Pieter Claes (c. 1597 - 1661) and Willem Heda (1594-1680/1682) painted numerous versions of “breakfasts”, depicting hams, ruddy buns, blackberry pies, fragile glass glasses half filled with wine on the table, with amazing masterfully conveying the color, volume, texture of each item. The recent presence of a person is noticeable in the disorder, the randomness of the arrangement of things that have just served him. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is strictly thought out and found. A restrained grayish-golden, olive tonal palette unites objects and gives a special sonority to those pure colors that emphasize the freshness of a freshly cut lemon or the soft silk of a blue ribbon.
Over time, the “breakfasts” of the still life masters, painters Klas and Kheda give way to “desserts” Dutch artists Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621-1690) and Willem Kalf (1622-1693). Beyeren's still lifes are strict in composition, emotionally rich, and colorful. Throughout his life, Willem Kalf painted in a free manner and democratic “kitchens” - pots, vegetables and aristocratic still lifes in the selection of exquisite precious objects, full of restrained nobility, like silver vessels, cups, shells saturated with the internal combustion of colors.
IN further development still life follows the same path as all Dutch art, losing its democracy, its spirituality and poetry, its charm. Still life turns into decoration for the home of high-ranking customers. With all the decorativeness and skill of execution, the late still lifes anticipate the sunset Dutch painting.
Social degeneration and the well-known aristocratization of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century give rise to a tendency towards rapprochement with aesthetic views French nobility, lead to idealization artistic images, their grinding. Art is losing connections with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis and entering a period of long-term decline. Severely exhausted in the wars with England, Holland is losing its position as a great trading power and a major artistic center.

The work of Frans Hals and the Dutch portrait of the first half of the 17th century.

Frans Hals(Dutch Frans Hals, IPA: [ˈfrɑns ˈɦɑls]) (1582/1583, Antwerp - 1666, Haarlem) - an outstanding portrait painter of the so-called golden age of Dutch art.

• 1 Biography
• 2 Interesting Facts
• 3 Gallery
• 4 Notes
• 5 Literature
• 6 Links

Biography

"Family portrait of Isaac Massa and his wife"

Hals was born around 1582-1583 to the Flemish weaver François Frans Hals van Mechelen and his second wife Adriantje. In 1585, after the fall of Antwerp, the Hals family moved to Haarlem, where the artist lived his entire life.

In 1600-1603, the young artist studied with Karel van Mander, although the influence of this representative of Mannerism is not traced in Hals’ subsequent works. In 1610, Hals became a member of the Guild of St. Luke and begins to work as a restorer at the city municipality.

Hals created his first portrait in 1611, but fame came to Hals after creating the painting “Banquet of the officers of the rifle company of St. George" (1616).

In 1617 he married Lisbeth Reyners.

“The early style of Hals was characterized by a predilection for warm tones and clear modeling of forms using heavy, dense strokes. In the 1620s, Hals, along with portraits, painted genre scenes and compositions on religious themes (“Evangelist Luke,” “Evangelist Matthew,” circa 1623-1625).”

"Gypsy" Louvre, Paris

In the 1620-1630s. Hals painted a number of portraits depicting representatives bursting with vital energy common people(“Jester with a Lute”, 1620-1625, “Merry Drinking Companion”, “Malle Babbe”, “Gypsy”, “Mulatto”, “Fisherman Boy”; all - around 1630).

The only portrait in full height is the "Portrait of Willem Heythuissen" (1625-1630).

“During the same period, Hals radically reformed the group portrait, breaking with conventional systems of composition, introducing elements of life situations into the works, ensuring a direct connection between the picture and the viewer (“Banquet of officers of the St. Adrian rifle company,” circa 1623-27; “Banquet of rifle officers company of St. George", 1627, "Group portrait of the rifle company of St. Adrian", 1633; "Officers of the rifle company of St. George", 1639). Not wanting to leave Haarlem, Hals refused orders if this meant going to Amsterdam. The only group portrait he began in Amsterdam had to be completed by another artist.

In the years 1620-1640, the time of greatest popularity, Hals wrote a lot double portraits married couples: the husband is on the left portrait, and the wife is on the right. The only painting where the couple are depicted together is “Family Portrait of Isaac Massa and his Wife” (1622).

"Regents of the Home for the Elderly"

In 1644 Hals became president of the Guild of St. Luke. In 1649 he painted a portrait of Descartes.

“Psychological characteristics deepen in portraits of the 1640s. ("The Regents of St. Elizabeth's Hospital", 1641, portrait of a young man, circa 1642-50, "Jasper Schade van Westrum", circa 1645); In the coloring of these works, a silver-gray tone begins to predominate. Hals's later works were performed in a very free manner and were designed in a spare color scheme, built on contrasts of black and white tones (“Man in black clothes", around 1650-52, "V. Cruz", around 1660); some of them showed a feeling of deep pessimism (“The Regents of the Home for the Aged,” “The Regents of the Home for the Aged,” both 1664).”

“In his old age, Hals stopped receiving orders and fell into poverty. The artist died in a Haarlem almshouse on August 26, 1666.”

The largest collection of the artist's paintings is owned by the Hals Museum in Haarlem.

The founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Frans Hals (Hals) (about 1580-1666), whose artistic legacy, with its sharpness and power of capturing the inner world of a person, goes far beyond the national Dutch culture. An artist with a broad worldview, a brave innovator, he destroyed the canons of class (noble) portraiture that had emerged before him in the 16th century. He was not interested in a person depicted according to his social status in a majestically solemn pose and ceremonial costume, but in a person in all his natural essence, character, with his feelings, intellect, emotions. In Hals's portraits all layers of society are represented: burghers, riflemen, artisans, representatives of the lower classes, his special sympathies are on the side of the latter, and in their images he showed the depth of a powerful, full-blooded talent. The democracy of his art is due to connections with the traditions of the era of the Dutch revolution. Hals portrayed his heroes without embellishment, with their unceremonious morals and powerful love of life. Hals expanded the scope of the portrait by introducing plot elements, capturing those portrayed in action, in concrete life situation, emphasizing facial expressions, gestures, postures, instantly and accurately captured. The artist sought emotional intensity and vitality of the characteristics of those portrayed, conveying their irrepressible energy. Hals not only reformed individual commissioned and group portraits, but was the creator of a portrait bordering on the everyday genre.
Hals was born in Antwerp, then moved to Haarlem, where he lived all his life. He was a cheerful, sociable person, kind and carefree. The creative personality of Khalsa took shape by the early 20s of the 17th century. Group portraits of officers of the St. George's rifle company (1627, Haarlem, Frans Hals Museum), and the St. Adrian's rifle company (1633, ibid.) gained him wide popularity. Strong, energetic people who took an active part in the liberation struggle against the Spanish conquerors are presented during the feast. A cheerful mood with a touch of humor unites officers of different characters and manners. There is no main character here. All those present are equal participants in the celebration. Hals overcame the purely external connection of characters characteristic of the portraits of his predecessors. The unity of the asymmetrical composition is achieved by lively communication, relaxed freedom of arrangement of figures, united by a wave-like rhythm.
The artist's energetic brush sculpts the volumes of forms with brilliance and strength. Streams sunlight glide over faces, sparkle in lace and silk, sparkle in glasses. The colorful palette, dominated by black suits and white collars, is enlivened by the sonorous golden-yellow, purple, blue and pink officer's baldrics. Full of self-esteem and at the same time free and relaxed, gesticulating, the Dutch burghers appear in the portraits of Hals, conveying an instantly captured state. An officer in a wide-brimmed hat, arms akimbo, smiles provocatively (1624, London, Wallace Collection). The naturalness and liveliness of the poses, the sharpness of the characterization, and the highest skill in using the contrast of white and black in painting are captivating.
Hals's portraits are varied in themes and images. But those portrayed are united by common features: integrity of nature, love of life. Hals is a painter of laughter, a cheerful, infectious smile. With sparkling joy, the artist brings to life the faces of representatives of the common people, visitors to taverns, and street urchins. His characters do not withdraw into themselves; they turn their gazes and gestures towards the viewer.
The image of “The Gypsy” (circa 1630, Paris, Louvre) is filled with a freedom-loving breath. Hals admires the proud position of her head in a halo of fluffy hair, her seductive smile, the perky sparkle of her eyes, her expression of independence. The vibrating outline of the silhouette, sliding rays of light, running clouds, against which the gypsy is depicted, fill the image with the thrill of life. The portrait of Malle Babbe (early 1630s, Berlin - Dahlem, Picture Gallery), an innkeeper, not accidentally nicknamed the “Harlem Witch,” develops into a small genre scene. An ugly old woman with a burning, sly look, turning sharply and grinning widely, as if answering one of the regulars of her tavern. An ominous owl looms in a gloomy silhouette on her shoulder. The artist’s sharpness, vision, gloomy strength and vitality of the image he created is striking. The asymmetry of the composition, the dynamics, and the richness of the angular strokes enhance the anxiety of the scene.
By the middle of the 17th century, the shifts that had taken place in Dutch society were clearly visible; As the position of the bourgeoisie, which has lost contact with the masses, strengthens in it, it acquires an increasingly conservative character. The attitude of bourgeois clients towards realist artists has changed. Hals also lost his popularity, whose democratic art became alien to the degenerating bourgeoisie, which rushed after aristocratic fashion.
The life-affirming optimism of the master was replaced by deep thought, irony, bitterness, and skepticism. His realism became more psychologically in-depth and critical, his skill more refined and perfect. The color of the Khalsa also changed, acquiring greater restraint; in the predominant silver-gray, cold tonal range, among black and white, small, accurately found spots of pinkish or red color acquire a special sonority. The feeling of bitterness and disappointment is palpable in “Portrait of a Man in Black Clothes” (circa 1660, St. Petersburg, Hermitage), in which the subtlest colorful shades of the face are enriched and come to life next to the restrained, almost monochrome black and white tones.
Highest Achievement Khalsa are his last group portraits of regents and regents (trustees) of a nursing home, executed in 1664, two years before the death of the artist, who ended his life alone in the shelter. Full of vanity, cold and devastated, power-hungry and arrogant, the old trustees sitting at the table from the group “Portrait of the Regents of a Home for the Elderly” (Harlem, Frans Hals Museum. The hand of the old artist unerringly accurately applies free, swift strokes. The composition has become calm and strict. Sparsity of space , the arrangement of the figures, the even diffused light, equally illuminating all those depicted, contribute to focusing attention on the characteristics of each of them. The laconic color scheme with a predominance of black, white and gray tones. Hals’s late portraits stand next to the most remarkable creations of world portraiture: with their psychologism. are close to the portraits of the greatest of Dutch painters - Rembrandt, who, like Hals, experienced his lifetime fame by coming into conflict with the bourgeois elite of Dutch society.

Frans Hals was born around 1581 in Antwerp into a weaver's family. As a young man, he came to Haarlem, where he lived almost constantly until his death (in 1616 he visited Antwerp, and in the mid-1630s - Amsterdam). Little is known about Hulse's life. In 1610 he entered the Guild of St. Luke, and in 1616 he entered the chamber of rhetoricians (amateur actors). Very quickly Hals became one of the most famous portrait painters in Haarlem.
In the XV–XVI centuries. in the painting of the Netherlands there was a tradition of painting portraits only of representatives of the ruling circles, famous people and artists. Hals's art is deeply democratic: in his portraits we can see an aristocrat, a wealthy citizen, an artisan, and even a person from the very bottom. The artist does not try to idealize those depicted; the main thing for him is their naturalness and uniqueness. His nobles behave as relaxed as representatives of the lower strata of society, who in Khals’s paintings are depicted as cheerful people who are not devoid of self-esteem.
Great place The group portrait occupies a place in the artist’s work. The best works Portraits of officers of the rifle company of St. George (1627) and the rifle company of St. Adrian (1633) became this genre. Each character in the paintings has its own distinct personality, and at the same time, these works are distinguished by their integrity.
Hals also painted commissioned portraits depicting wealthy burghers and their families in relaxed poses (“Portrait of Isaac Massa,” 1626; “Portrait of Hethuisen,” 1637). Hals’s images are lively and dynamic; it seems that the people in the portraits are talking to an invisible interlocutor or addressing the viewer.
Representatives of the popular environment in Khals’s portraits are distinguished by their vivid expressiveness and spontaneity. In the images of street boys, fishermen, musicians, and tavern visitors, one can feel the author’s sympathy and respect. His “Gypsy” is remarkable. The smiling young woman seems surprisingly alive, her sly gaze directed at her interlocutor, invisible to the audience. Hals does not idealize his model, but the image of a cheerful, disheveled gypsy delights with its perky charm.
Very often, Hulse's portraits include elements of a genre scene. These are images of children singing or playing musical instruments (“Singing Boys,” 1624–1625). The famous “Malle Babbe” (early 1630s) was performed in the same spirit, representing a well-known tavern owner in Haarlem, whom visitors called the Haarlem Witch behind her back. The artist almost grotesquely depicted a woman with a huge beer mug and an owl on her shoulder.
In the 1640s. The country is showing signs of a turning point. Only a few decades have passed since the victory of the revolution, and the bourgeoisie has already ceased to be a progressive class based on democratic traditions. The truthfulness of Hulse's paintings no longer attracts wealthy clients who want to see themselves in portraits better than they really are. But Hulse did not abandon realism, and his popularity plummeted. Notes of sadness and disappointment appear in the painting of this period (“Portrait of a Man in a Wide-brimmed Hat”). His palette becomes stricter and calmer.
At the age of 84, Hulse created two of his masterpieces: group portraits of regents (trustees) and regents of a nursing home (1664). These last works The Dutch master's works are distinguished by the emotionality and vivid individuality of his images. The images of the regents - old men and women - emanate sadness and death. This feeling is also emphasized by the color scheme in black, gray and white.
Hals died in 1666 in deep poverty. His truthful, life-affirming art had a great influence on many Dutch artists.

Painting by Rembrandt.

Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn(Dutch Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn[ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə(n)soːn vɑn ˈrɛin], 1606-1669) - Dutch artist, draftsman and engraver, great master of chiaroscuro, the largest representative of the golden age of Dutch painting. He managed to embody in his works the entire spectrum of human experiences with such emotional richness that fine art had never known before. Rembrandt's works, extremely diverse in genre, reveal to the viewer the timeless spiritual world of human experiences and feelings.

• 1 Biography
• 1.1 Years of apprenticeship
• 1.2 Influence of Lastman and the Caravaggists
• 1.3 Workshop in Leiden
• 1.4 Developing your own style
• 1.5 Success in Amsterdam
• 1.6 Dialogue with Italians
• 1.7 "Night Watch"
• 1.8 Transition period
• 1.9 Late Rembrandt
• 1.10 Recent works
• 2 Attribution problems
• 3 Rembrandt's students
• 4 Posthumous fame
• 5 At the movies
• 6 Notes
• 7 Links

Biography

Years of apprenticeship

Rembrandt Harmenszoon (“son of Harmen”) van Rijn was born on July 15, 1606 (according to some sources, in 1607) in the large family of the wealthy mill owner Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn in Leiden. Even after the Dutch Revolution, the mother's family remained faithful to the Catholic religion.

"Allegory of Music" of 1626 - an example of Lastman's influence on the young Rembrandt

In Leiden, Rembrandt attended the Latin school at the university, but showed the greatest interest in painting. At the age of 13, he was sent to study fine art with the Leiden historical painter Jacob van Swanenburch, a Catholic by faith. Rembrandt's works of this period have not been identified by researchers, and the question of Swanenbuerch's influence on the development of his creative style remains open: too little is known today about this Leiden artist.

In 1623, Rembrandt studied in Amsterdam with Pieter Lastman, who had trained in Italy and specialized in historical, mythological and biblical subjects. Returning to Leiden in 1627, Rembrandt, together with his friend Jan Lievens, opened his own workshop and began to recruit students. Within a few years he had gained considerable fame.

Dutch artists achieved great achievements in creating art of a realistic direction, naturally depicting reality, precisely because such art was in demand in Dutch society.

For Dutch artists, easel painting was important in art. The canvases of the Dutch of this time do not have the same dimensions as the works of Rubens, and preferably solve not monumental-decorative tasks; the clients of the Dutch painters were envoys of the ruling leadership of the organization, but also the second class - burghers and artisans.

One of the main concerns of Dutch painters was man and the environment. The main place in Dutch painting was the everyday genre and portrait, landscape and still life. The better the painters depicted the natural world impartially and deeply, the more numerous the significant and demanding subjects of their work were.

Dutch painters produced works for sale and sold their paintings at fairs. Their works were bought mainly by people from the upper strata of society - rich peasants, artisans, merchants, and factory owners. Simple people could not afford it, and looked at and admired the paintings with pleasure. The general disposition of art in the heyday of the 17th century, deprived such powerful consumers as the court, the nobility and the church.

The works were produced in a small format, based on the modest and not large-sized furnishings of Dutch houses. One of the favorite pastimes of the Dutch was easel painting, since it was receptive to reflect the reality of actions with great reliability and in a variety of ways. The paintings of the Dutch depicted, close to them, the reality of their country; they wanted to see what was very familiar to them - the sea and ships, the nature of their land, their home, the action of everyday life, the things that surrounded them everywhere.

One important attraction to learning environment appeared in Dutch painting in such natural forms and with such clear continuity as nowhere else in Dutch art of these times. In connection with this, the depth of its scale is also connected: portraits and landscapes, still lifes and everyday genres were formed in it. A few of them, still life and everyday painting, were the first to emerge in mature forms in Holland and flourished to such an extent that they became the only example of this genre.

In the first two decades, the main tendency of the search for the main Dutch artists, counteracting the correct artistic trends, is clearly manifested - the desire for the faithful reproduction of reality, for the accuracy of its expression. It was not by coincidence that the artists of Holland were attracted by the art of Caravaggio. The work of the so-called Utrecht Caravaggists - G. Honthorst, H. Terbruggen, D. Van Baburen - showed an impact on Dutch artistic culture.

Dutch painters in the 20s - 30s of the 17th century created main view a suitable small-figure painting depicting scenes from the life of ordinary peasants and their everyday activities. In the 40s - 50s household painting is one of the main genres, the authors of which in history have acquired the name “little Dutch”, either because of the artlessness of the plot, or because of the small size of the paintings, or maybe for both. The images of peasants in the paintings are covered with traits of good-natured humor Adriana van Ostade. He was a democratic writer of everyday life and an entertaining storyteller. Jan Steen.

One of the major portrait painters of Holland, the founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Franz Hals. He created his fame with group portraits of shooting guilds, in which he expressed the ideals of the young republic, feelings of freedom, equality, and camaraderie.

The pinnacle of creativity of Dutch realism is Harmens van Rijn Rembrandt, distinguished by its extraordinary vitality and emotionality, deep humanity of images, and great thematic breadth. He painted historical, biblical, mythological and everyday paintings, portraits and landscapes, was one of greatest masters etching and drawing. But no matter what technique he worked with, the center of his attention was always the person, his inner world. He often found his heroes among the Dutch poor. In his works, Rembrandt combined the strength and penetration of psychological characteristics with exceptional mastery of painting, in which neat tones of chiaroscuro acquire the main importance.

During the first third of the 17th century, the views of the Dutch realistic landscape emerged, which flourished in the middle of the century. The landscape of the Dutch masters is not nature in general, as in the paintings of the classicists, but a national, specifically Dutch landscape: windmills, desert dunes, canals with boats gliding along them in summer and with skaters in winter. The artists sought to convey the atmosphere of the season, humid air and space.

Still life has developed vividly in Dutch painting and is distinguished by its small size and character. Peter Claes And Willem Heda most often they depicted so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. The recent presence of a person is palpable in the disorder and naturalness with which the things that have just served him are arranged. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is carefully thought out. In a skillful arrangement, objects are shown in such a way that one can feel the inner life of things; it is not for nothing that the Dutch called still life “still leven” - “quiet life”, and not “nature morte” - “dead nature”.

Still life. Peter Claes and Willem Heda

Subtlety and truthfulness in the reconstruction of reality are combined by the Dutch masters with a keen sense of beauty, revealed in any of its phenomena, even the most inconspicuous and everyday. This trait of the Dutch artistic genius manifested itself perhaps most clearly in still life; it is no coincidence that this genre was a favorite in Holland.

The Dutch called still life "stilleven", which means "quiet life", and this word expresses incomparably more accurately the meaning that Dutch painters put into the depiction of things than "nature morte" - dead nature. In inanimate objects they saw a special, hidden life associated with the life of a person, with his way of life, habits, and tastes. Dutch painters created the impression of natural “mess” in the arrangement of things: they showed a cut pie, a peeled lemon with the peel hanging in a spiral, an unfinished glass of wine, a burning candle, an open book - it always seems that someone touched these objects, just used them , the invisible presence of a person is always felt.

The leading masters of Dutch still life painting in the first half of the 17th century were Pieter Claes (1597/98-1661) and Willem Heda (1594-ca. 1680). A favorite theme of their still lifes is the so-called “breakfasts”. In "Breakfast with Lobster" by V. Kheda, the objects various shapes and materials - coffee pot, glass, lemon, earthenware dish, silver plate, etc. - are compared with each other so as to reveal the characteristics and attractiveness of each. Using a variety of techniques, Heda perfectly conveys the material and the specificity of their texture; Thus, reflections of light play differently on the surface of glass and metal: on glass - light, with sharp outlines, on metal - pale, matte, on a gilded glass - shining, bright. All elements of the composition are united by light and color - a grayish-green color scheme.

In “Still Life with a Candle” by P. Klass, not only the accuracy of the reproduction of the material qualities of objects is remarkable - the composition and lighting give them great emotional expressiveness.

The still lifes of Klass and Kheda are filled with a special mood that brings each other closer together - this is a mood of intimacy and comfort, giving rise to the idea of ​​​​the well-established and calm life of a burgher's house, where prosperity reigns and where the care of human hands and attentive eyes of the owner is felt in everything. Dutch painters affirm the aesthetic value of things, and still life, as it were, indirectly glorifies the way of life with which their existence is inextricably linked. Therefore, it can be considered as one of the artistic embodiments of an important theme of Dutch art - the theme of the life of a private person. She received her main decision in a genre film.[&&] Rotenberg I. E. Western European art XVII V. Moscow, 1971;

In the second half of the 17th century, changes took place in Dutch society: the bourgeoisie’s desire for aristocracy increased. Klas and Heda's modest "Breakfasts" give way to rich "desserts" Abraham van Beijern And Willem Kalf, which included spectacular earthenware dishes, silver vessels, precious goblets and shells in still lifes. Compositional structures become more complex, and colors become more decorative. Subsequently, still life loses its democracy, intimacy, its spirituality and poetry. It turns into a magnificent decoration for the homes of high-ranking customers. For all their decorativeness and skillful execution, the late still lifes anticipate the decline of the great Dutch realistic painting that began in early XVIII century and caused by the social degeneration of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century, the spread of new trends in art associated with the bourgeoisie’s attraction to the tastes of the French nobility. Dutch art is losing ties with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis, losing its national identity and entering a period of long-term decline.

Still life ("Stilleven" - which means "quiet life" in Dutch) - is a unique and quite popular branch of Dutch painting. Dutch still life painting of the 17th century is characterized by the narrow specialization of Dutch masters within the genre. The theme "Flowers and Fruits" usually includes a variety of insects. "Hunting trophies" are, first of all, hunting trophies - killed birds and game. "Breakfasts" and "Desserts", as well as images of fish - alive and asleep, various birds - are only some of the most famous topics still lifes. Taken together, these individual plots characterize the keen interest of the Dutch in the plots Everyday life, and their favorite activities, and passion for the exoticism of distant lands (the compositions contain outlandish shells and fruits). Often in works with motifs of “living” and “dead” nature there is a symbolic subtext that is easily understandable to an educated viewer of the 17th century.

Yes, the combination individual items could serve as a hint of the frailty of earthly existence: fading roses, an incense burner, a candle, a clock; or associated with habits condemned by morality: splinters, smoking pipes; or indicated a love affair; writing, musical instruments, brazier. There is no doubt that the meaning of these compositions is much broader than their symbolic content.

Dutch still lifes attract, first of all, their artistic expressiveness, completeness, and ability to reveal the spiritual life of the objective world. Preferring large-sized paintings with an abundance of all kinds of objects, Dutch painters limit themselves to a few objects of contemplation, striving for the utmost compositional and color unity.

Still life is one of the genres in which Dutch national traits were especially clearly manifested. Still lifes depicting utensils of modest use, so common in Dutch painting and very rare in Flemish painting, or still lifes with household items of the wealthy classes. Still lifes by Pieter Claes and Willem Heda, shrouded in cold diffused light, with an almost monochrome color scheme, or later still lifes by Willem Kalf, where, at the will of the artist, golden lighting brings to life the forms and vibrant colors of objects from the twilight. They are all characterized by common national features that will not allow them to be mixed with paintings of another school, including the related Flemish one. In Dutch still life there is always a feeling of calm contemplation, and a special love for conveying real forms of the tangibly material world.

De Heem gained worldwide recognition for his magnificent images of flowers and fruits. Image detail down to the smallest details he combined with a brilliant choice color range and refined taste in composition. He painted flowers in bouquets and vases, in which butterflies and insects often fluttered, flower wreaths in niches, windows and images of Madonnas in gray tones, garlands of fruit, still lifes with glasses filled with wine, grapes and other fruits and products. Hem masterfully used the possibilities of color and achieved a high degree of transparency; his images of inanimate nature are completely realistic. His paintings are in almost all major art galleries. Still life painting, which was distinguished by its character, became widespread in 17th-century Holland. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of objects for their still lifes, knew how to arrange them perfectly, and reveal the characteristics of each object and its inner life, inextricably linked with human life. The 17th century Dutch painters Pieter Claes (c. 1597 - 1661) and Willem Heda (1594 - 1680/1682) painted numerous versions of “breakfasts”, depicting hams, ruddy buns, blackberry pies, fragile glass glasses half filled with wine on the table, with amazing skill conveying the color, volume, texture of each item. The recent presence of a person is noticeable in the disorder, the randomness of the arrangement of things that have just served him. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is strictly thought out and found. A restrained grayish-golden, olive tonal palette unites objects and gives a special sonority to those pure colors that emphasize the freshness of a freshly cut lemon or the soft silk of a blue ribbon. Over time, the “breakfasts” of the still life masters, painters Claes and Heda give way to the “desserts” of the Dutch artists Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621-1690) and Willem Kalf (1622-1693). Beyeren's still lifes are strict in composition, emotionally rich, and colorful. Throughout his life, Willem Kalf painted in a free manner and democratic “kitchens” - pots, vegetables and aristocratic still lifes in the selection of exquisite precious objects, full of restrained nobility, like silver vessels, cups, shells saturated with the internal combustion of colors. In its further development, still life follows the same path as all Dutch art, losing its democracy, its spirituality and poetry, its charm. Still life turns into decoration for the home of high-ranking customers. For all their decorativeness and skillful execution, the late still lifes anticipate the decline of Dutch painting. Social degeneration and the well-known aristocratization of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century gave rise to a tendency towards convergence with the aesthetic views of the French nobility, leading to the idealization of artistic images and their reduction. Art is losing connections with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis and entering a period of long-term decline. Severely exhausted in the wars with England, Holland is losing its position as a great trading power and a major artistic center.

Willem Heda (c. 1594 - c. 1682) was one of the first masters of Dutch still life painting in the 17th century, whose work was highly valued by his contemporaries. Particularly popular in Holland was this type of painting called “breakfast”. They were created to suit every taste: from the rich to the more modest. The painting “Breakfast with Crab” is distinguished by its large size, which is uncharacteristic of a Dutch still life (Appendix I). The overall color scheme of the work is cold, silver-gray with a few pinkish and brown spots. Kheda exquisitely depicted a set table on which the items that make up breakfast are arranged in carefully thought out disorder. On the platter lies a crab, depicted with all its peculiarities, next to it is a yellowing lemon, the gracefully cut rind of which, curling, hangs down. On the right are green olives and a delicious bun with a golden crust. Glass and metal vessels add solidity to the still life; their color almost merges with the overall palette.