Stereotypes like cultural phenomenon
Human consciousness is endowed with the property of reflecting the environment around a person objective reality, and this reflection represents a subjective image of the objective world, i.e. a certain model, a picture of the world. When reality is objectified by consciousness, the mechanisms of stereotyping are activated. The result of the reflection of a fragment of the world picture in the individual’s consciousness is a stereotype, a fixed mental “picture” [Krasnykh 2002:177-178]. Thus, from a content point of view, a stereotype is a certain stable fragment of the picture of the world stored in the mind.
The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, I. S. Kon, Yu. D. Apresyan, V. A. Ryzhkov, Yu. E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh, V.A. Maslova).
Social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of the typical features that characterize a nation. German neatness, Russian “maybe”, Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, hot temper of Italians, stubbornness of Finns, slowness of Estonians, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about the whole people that apply to each of its representatives.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with “ a naive picture peace." We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression, consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, a cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired like a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.
A stereotype is interpreted in modern social sciences as “a set of stable, simplified generalizations about a group of individuals, which makes it possible to distribute group members into categories and perceive them in a stereotyped way, according to these expectations.” However, the stereotype does not only apply to groups of subjects. It also expresses a person’s habitual attitude towards any phenomenon or event. Stereotypes are formed in the process of socialization of the individual [Ryzhkov 1988:11] and are formed under the influence social conditions and previous experience.
In linguoculturology, the following types of stereotypes are distinguished: simple and figurative. Both have autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. (think about examples).
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of the queue in different cultures are different, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or just stand in line, in a row European countries They tear off the receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
According to Harutyunyan, “a peculiar national flavor of feelings and emotions, way of thinking and action, stable and national traits habits and traditions formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, characteristics historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture.” In other words, a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation.
Ethnic cultural stereotypes cannot be considered separately from the culture of communication, since interethnic communication is not an isolated area social life, but a mechanism that ensures the coordination and functioning of all elements of human culture.
Culture interethnic communication is a system specific for of this ethnic group stereotypical forms, principles, methods of communicative activity. Ethnic system cultural stereotypes specially adapted to perform socially significant functions in the life of an ethnic group.
Ethnic stereotypes in situations of intercultural communication act as “guides” of behavior. Based on the formed ideas, we predict in advance the behavior of representatives of another ethnic group, and without meaning to, we establish a distance in the process of intercultural communication.
The perception of another ethnic group is a direct reaction to contact with a foreign ethnic environment. Typically, perception comes through the prism of one’s ethnic “I,” that is, a certain traditional stereotype of thinking and behavior determined by ethnicity. Now, when ethnic differences dominate people’s behavior more and more, determining the nature of perception of other ethnic groups, intercultural communication gives rise to many problems.
The basis for the formation of ethnic stereotypes are cultural differences that are easily perceived when intercultural interaction. Formed in the zone of ethnocultural contacts on the basis of systems of ethnic ideas about the imaginary and actual traits of one’s own and other ethnic groups, stereotypes are consolidated on a subconscious level as an unquestionable imperative in relation to representatives of other ethnic cultures.
The concept of a stereotype was first used by W. Lippmann back in 1922, who believed that these are ordered, schematic “pictures of the world” determined by culture in a person’s head, which save his efforts when perceiving complex objects of the world. With this understanding of the stereotype, two of its important features stand out - being determined by culture and being a means of saving labor effort, and, accordingly, linguistic means. If algorithms for solving mathematical problems save a person’s thinking, then stereotypes “save” the personality itself.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with a “naive picture of the world.” We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.
Yu. A. Sorokin defines a stereotype as a certain process and result of communication (behavior) according to certain semiotic models, the list of which is closed due to certain semiotic-technological principles accepted in a certain society. In this case, the semiotic model is implemented at the social, socio-psychological levels (standard) or at the linguistic, psychological levels (norm). Standard and norm exist in two forms: as a stamp (overly explicit complex sign) or as a cliché (insufficiently explicit complex sign).
V.V. Krasnykh divides stereotypes into two types - stereotypes-images and stereotypes-situations. Examples of image stereotypes: a bee is a hard worker, a ram is stubborn, and situation stereotypes: a ticket is a composter, a stork is a cabbage.
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or simply stand in line; in a number of European countries, they tear off a receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
So, a stereotype is a certain fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It represents some culturally determined idea of an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell. Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge, which is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered pre-precious (important, representative) names in a culture. A stereotype is a phenomenon of language and speech, a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and on the other, to express oneself among “one’s own” and at the same time identify one’s “one.”
The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.
We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The set of mental stereotypes of an ethnos is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will talk about light moonlit night: it’s so light that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it’s so light that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, almost any feature, not just the logically main one, can become dominant in a stereotype.
The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes big picture peace. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.
A behavior stereotype is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. And in general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “our own people.”
So, a stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of a culture, it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.
The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is related to the needs modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, often very far from reality, has the same historical and cultural significance, like reality itself. It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities. Artificially created images and representations begin to play an active role in shaping the mentality of contemporaries and possibly subsequent generations.
Despite all the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in every new historical era is an important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional installation and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and rethinking the already known. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself, is still a problem.
Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, a prejudice, a cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences etc. Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, under the stereotype in general outline is understood as a relatively stable and simplified image social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, etc., developing in conditions of a lack of information as a result of a generalization of the individual’s personal experience and often preconceived ideas accepted in society.
At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes are significantly different from them in their psychological basis. The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, consolidated by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means in which society is interested (or not interested).
In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance and openness to others, while stereotypes are a product of the individual’s hidden subjective state of mind. Myth, as an eternal way of ordering reality, is a product of collective belief and acts as an extremely successful mechanism for the emotional consolidation of society.
The author of the term, Walter Lippmann, understood stereotypes as: “...preconceived opinions that decisively control all processes of perception. They mark certain objects, both familiar and unfamiliar, so that the barely familiar seems well known and the unfamiliar seems deeply alien.” W. Lippman explained the functioning of stereotypes through an analysis of the socio-psychological aspects of people’s activities and considered stereotypes to be the mental material on which public consciousness generally. Stereotypes, according to the scientist, organize the world and facilitate people’s thinking process, thanks to them a person feels confident. The scientist identified two main reasons that influence the emergence of stereotypes.
The first reason is the use of the principle of saving effort, which is characteristic of everyday human thinking and is expressed in the fact that people do not strive to react each time in a new way to new facts and phenomena, but try to bring them under existing categories. Abandoning the economy of attention in favor of a purely experimental approach would undermine human existence. Thus, the process of stereotyping is always preceded by the process of categorization, as one of the ways a person understands the surrounding reality.
The second reason for the formation of stereotypes is the protection of existing group values. Lippman called stereotypes a fortress that protects our traditions and pointed out that any attack on our stereotypes is regarded by us as an attack on the foundations of our worldview. Stability, rigidity, conservatism - these are the main characteristics of stereotypes according to W. Lippman. He studied the stereotype in the system of those factors that cause its occurrence and determine its functioning.
The formation of stereotypes is based on the peculiarities of human thinking and psyche. Firstly, this is concretization - the desire to clarify abstract, and, therefore, difficult to understand concepts with the help of some real images that are accessible and understandable to the individual and all members of a given community. Secondly, this is a simplification, which comes down to identifying one or more features as fundamental for the disclosure of complex phenomena. Social factor The emergence of stereotypes is, as a rule, the presence of limited, one-sided experience.
At the end of the forties of the 20th century, the definition proposed by the American psychosociologist Kimball Jung gained the greatest popularity in Western scientific thought. A stereotype was understood by the scientist as “a false classification concept, which, as a rule, is associated with some social sensory-emotional tones of similarity and difference, approval or condemnation of another group.” In his definition, K. Jung emphasized the distorted nature of the assessment of phenomena and objects by stereotypes and thereby laid the foundation for the understanding of a stereotype as an erroneous assessment or preconceived opinion about phenomena or groups of people.
Subsequently, a stereotype began to be perceived as an image or idea, obviously false, about a person or group. In Western science, the concept of a stereotype has increasingly become identified with ethnic or racial prejudice. As a result, the content of the concept of “stereotype” was narrowed even in comparison with the original one, which was proposed by W. Lippmann - these are images of any object or phenomenon that exist in a person’s mind and are manifested in his behavior. Now stereotypes are interpreted as a set of distorted ideas. Falsehood became so strongly associated with the concept of “stereotype” that the term “sociotype” was proposed to denote standard but true knowledge about a sociocultural group.
Only at the end of the 1950s. O. Kleinberg's hypothesis about the presence of a “grain of truth” in this phenomenon became widespread. According to this hypothesis, stable simplified representations can be either true or false. The American researcher argued that “partially incorrect, superficial, limited stereotypes, however, generalize the real features of a culture.” Under the influence of Kleinberg's hypothesis, discussions arose again about the correspondence of stereotypes to true knowledge about objects and objects of the surrounding world. There has been a tendency to identify stereotypes with generalizations of phenomena that actually exist, although perhaps not in the form in which they are reflected.
However, it should be noted that some Western scientists who have studied the stereotype as a phenomenon of human psychology and culture do not consider the problem of containing a “grain of truth” in a stereotype to be worthy of attention at all. From their point of view, any generalization regarding the assessment of human behavior is already a stereotype.
In fact, the problem of the relationship between true and false in stereotypes is very important. The main difficulty in resolving this issue is the lack of a reliable criterion for identifying the degree of truth of a judgment. Let us note that truth, in this case, is understood as an adequate reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The evolution of views on the problem of the truth-falsity of stereotypes can be presented in the form of three stages. In the beginning, stereotypes were considered to be predominantly false formations. It was assumed that stereotypes, functioning both at the personal and collective levels, cannot act as an absolutely true reproduction of reality. Later, social stereotypes began to be understood primarily as a simplification, a schematization of real objects. The simplification itself can be either false or true. The process of stereotyping is neither good nor bad; it performs the function of categorizing the social world that is objectively necessary for a person. American psychosociologist E. Bogardus defined stereotyping as the lower stage of the evaluation process, but at the same time vital. Stereotyped perceptions arise from the enormous diversity of groups and individuals and the inability for most busy people to weigh every reaction to every individual. In this way, individuals and groups are typified. Stereotyping plays an evaluative role and makes life easier in society.
A negative attitude towards stereotypes can be seen in the definition of another American researcher J. Wishman. The scientist identified the following main characteristics of the concept that underlies the stereotype:
1. the concept is simple rather than differentiated;
2. more erroneous than true;
3. it is learned from others rather than obtained through direct experience with reality;
4. it is resistant to the influence of new experience.
Stereotypes are effective but unreliable. Thus, scientists are pointed out the conditions for the emergence of stereotypes, namely inadequacy of perception and lack of contact with reality. At the same time, the stability of this phenomenon is especially emphasized.
Today, the most common opinion is that a stereotype is simultaneously true and false. This is possible when a person’s actions, conditioned by “false” stereotypes, influence the further course of events in such a way that even false ideas and expectations come true and are validated in the eyes of the bearer of this stereotype. IN this issue one can agree with the opinion of P.N. Shikhirev, who argues that in a stereotype it is not the truth itself that is important, but the conviction in it.
Cultures are partly similar and partly different in solving common problems. For each pair of cultures being compared, the area of agreement is perceived as correct and is usually not noticed. The area of difference causes surprise, irritation, rejection and is perceived as a typical national trait - a cultural stereotype.
Russian stereotype: lazy, irresponsible, melancholic.
American stereotype: naive, aggressive, unprincipled, workaholic.
German stereotype: insensitive, bureaucratic, overzealous at work.
French stereotype: arrogant, hot-tempered, hierarchical, emotional.
A concept close to the concept of culture is national mentality - an integrating characteristic of people living in a particular culture, which allows us to describe the uniqueness of these people’s vision of the world around them and explain the specifics of their response to it.
Topic 5. The concept of “culture shock”. Strategies for overcoming intercultural conflict
The phenomenon of cross-cultural shock is widely known. Almost everyone who worked or lived abroad for a relatively long period has encountered it.
Cross-cultural shock is a state of confusion and helplessness caused by the loss of normal values and the inability to answer the questions: where, when and how to do the right thing?
Especially often, collisions that arise on the basis of cross-cultural errors occur during first meetings and acquaintances. It is in these situations that managers and executives, especially those who do not speak foreign languages and do not have much experience in contacts with foreigners, should be extremely attentive and careful.
Six forms of culture shock:
stress due to the efforts made to achieve psychological adaptation;
a sense of loss due to deprivation of friends, position, profession, property;
a feeling of loneliness (rejection) in a new culture, which can turn into denial of this culture;
violation of role expectations and sense of self-identity; anxiety that turns to resentment and disgust after recognizing cultural differences;
feeling of inferiority due to inability to cope with the situation.
The main cause of culture shock is cultural differences. Symptoms of culture shock can be very different: from exaggerated concern for the cleanliness of dishes, linen, and the quality of water and food to psychosomatic disorders, general anxiety, insomnia, and fear.
Cross-cultural shock, characterized by a state of indecision, helplessness, depression, and dissatisfaction with oneself. Almost without exception, businessmen have experienced this condition. This is connected not only with moving to another country, but also with a change in type of activity, change in official position, transfer from one company to another, etc.
Many researchers believe that the basis of cross-cultural shock is a violation of intercultural communications. There are usually four classic phases of cross-cultural shock.
The phase of euphoria, joyful revival.
This phase is often called the “honeymoon” of cross-cultural shock. This period is characterized by a high degree of expectations and a desire to focus on positive values. The phase of culture shock itself, frustration and irritation. Symptoms of this phase include homesickness, anxiety, depression, fatigue, irritability and even aggression. For many, this condition is accompanied by the development of an inferiority complex, a reluctance to perceive new culture
, limiting communication only with their compatriots. Phase three is the phase of gradual adaptation, recovery. During this period, a new understanding takes place cultural environment
The fourth phase is the phase of complete adaptation, reverse culture shock. This phase is characterized by awareness of the values of the new culture and at the same time a critical understanding of the culture of one’s own country.
Reverse culture shock is a set of sensations that a person who has lived abroad for a long time experiences when returning home.
Success in the market largely depends on the cultural adaptability of the company, its employees, and their competence in the field of intercultural communications. Cultural incompetence and inflexibility in intercultural communication expose the success of the company to risk, including monetary risk. If an unsuccessful transaction is made, here too, perhaps, an important role is played by the inability to communicate with a foreign partner, ignorance of the customs, history, and culture of the partners’ country, the volume of sales and purchases may decrease, and the attitude of buyers towards the company will worsen. An important component of the effectiveness of cross-cultural contacts is knowledge of foreign languages. Language plays an important role in collecting information and evaluating it, language gives access to understanding the culture of other people, they become more open. Cross-cultural research shows that without knowledge of a foreign language it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to seriously study and understand the culture of another country. Entering global world, successful international business requires the development of cross-cultural literacy. Another barrier in intercultural communications can be stereotyping, simplified perception and standardization of reality phenomena. A manager who trusts his previous experience and stereotype often makes mistakes. His communication skills are difficult and most often lead to cross-cultural shock. Strictly speaking, stereotyping paralyzes creative thinking and has a detrimental effect on the ability to perceive new things.
In a cross-cultural environment important place occupied by the system of values, norms and traditions of a particular country. Respectful attitude not only to the cultural heritage of the country, but knowledge of the religious and ethical norms of a given country is necessary for a manager associated with international activities. Unfortunately, the most important reason for the disruption of cross-cultural communication and the occurrence of cross-cultural shock is still ethnocentrism, which is associated with a sense of superiority that representatives of one culture experience in relation to others. There is nothing more destructive to cooperation than a disdainful attitude towards a partner, the desire to impose your system of values and views on him. The manifestation of ethnocentrism and egocentrism is always detrimental to business and is usually accompanied by a loss of competitiveness. It is impossible in modern conditions to achieve business success without respecting the culture and traditions of other countries, just as it is impossible to achieve career success in a company, business culture which the manager does not accept and condemns. In business, as in any activity, the golden rule of morality still applies: Treat others the way you want to be treated.
The severity of culture shock and the duration of intercultural adaptation depend on many factors: internal (individual) and external (group).
In the first group of factors, the most important are the individual characteristics of a person: gender, age, character traits. Therefore, recently researchers believe that the education factor is more important for adaptation. The higher it is, the more successful the adaptation is. Education, even without taking into account cultural content, expands a person’s internal capabilities. The more complex a person’s picture of the world, the easier and faster he perceives innovations.
In connection with these studies, scientists have made attempts to identify a certain universal set personal characteristics, which a person preparing for life in a foreign country with a foreign culture must have. Usually called the following features personalities: professional competence, high self-esteem, sociability, extroversion, openness to different views, interest in other people, a tendency to cooperate, tolerance of uncertainty, internal self-control, courage and perseverance, empathy. If the cultural distance is too great, adaptation will not be easier. The internal factors of adaptation and overcoming cultural shock also include the circumstances of a person’s life experience. The most important thing here is the motives for adaptation. Having knowledge of the language, history and culture certainly makes adaptation easier.
Foreign companies operating in Russia bring new methods of communication, new models for organizing work processes, and new requirements for the professionalism of employees. Despite the fact that many employees of international companies have a good command of foreign language, orientation in a complex cultural space can be very difficult, which affects decision making and simply communication between employees. A prerequisite for successful staff interaction is the development of cross-cultural competencies.
Ways to resolve an individual’s conflict with an alien environment:
Ghettoization (from the word "ghetto"). This phenomenon occurs when immigrants, having arrived in a foreign country, for various internal or external reasons, become isolated in their own circle, minimizing communication with the surrounding society and its culture. They often settle in the same area of the city where they speak native language, retain the consumption patterns to which they are accustomed in their homeland. In many large and even medium-sized Western cities you can see Chinese and Indian quarters. Brighton Beach in New York is a cultural enclave created in America by immigrants from Soviet Union, unable or unwilling to undergo socialization again. In such cultural ghettos, restaurants offering national cuisine, souvenir shops of the corresponding country, etc. are concentrated. In these areas, a corresponding demand is formed for the attributes of the culture of the country where the residents of the area or their ancestors came from.
Assimilation is a way of overcoming culture shock, the opposite of ghettoization. In this case, the individual strives to renounce his own culture as quickly as possible and adopt the culture of the host country. Such people in America are much more American than those whose ancestors landed in the New World hundreds of years ago.
An intermediate strategy in which immigrants strive to assimilate a new culture, but at the same time enrich it with the one they brought with them. So, Italian spaghetti, pizza became national dishes USA, and Indian and Chinese cuisine are part of consumption in the UK, USA and many other countries.
Partial assimilation is the abandonment of one’s culture and the adoption of a new one only in certain areas. Thus, most often, immigrants are forced to adapt to the norms accepted in a given country at work. However, in the family they often try to maintain their national culture and remain committed to national cuisine, apartment decoration style. They often remain committed to their traditional religion.
Colonization is the imposition by immigrants of their cultural values, norms, language local residents. In this case, the consumption style is introduced to new soil and becomes dominant either in the country as a whole or in certain groups of the population. A classic example of cultural colonization was the creation of empires of Western European countries in Asia and Africa, accompanied by the implantation of elements of European culture there.
However, the Americanization of life in Western Europe after World War II is sometimes cited as an example of cultural colonization. With this approach, cultural shifts in post-Soviet Russia can also be called cultural colonization.
Cognitive dissonance – (from the English words: cognitive – “cognitive” and dissonance – “lack of harmony”) is a state of an individual characterized by a collision in his consciousness of conflicting knowledge, beliefs, behavioral attitudes regarding some object or phenomenon, in which the existence of one element the denial of the other follows, and the feeling of psychological discomfort associated with this discrepancy. Dissonance may arise due to differences in cultural practices.
In understanding the phenomena of “linguistic picture of the world” and “value picture of the world,” the concept of “stereotype” plays an important role. Most dictionaries note that the word “stereotype” has negative meaning. An example is the definition of a stereotype, which is given by the psychology dictionary compiled by Mike Cordwell: “A stereotype is a rigid, often simplified idea about a specific group or category of people. Since we are generally prone to simplifications, we form stereotypes to make other people’s behavior more predictable. These stereotypes are often negative in nature and based on prejudice and discrimination. Stereotypes are not necessarily false; they usually contain some grain of truth. They are shared by a significant number of people, which generally contributes to their rooting. Stereotypes may change over time, but their bearers often find it difficult to break free from internalized ideas.” [Cordwell 2000: 46]
In the Brief Dictionary of Cognitive Terms we find the following definition: “A stereotype is a standard opinion about social groups or about individuals as representatives of these groups. A stereotype has a logical form of judgment in a sharply simplifying and generalizing form, with emotional overtones attributing to a separate class of persons certain properties or attitudes, or, conversely, denying them these properties or attitudes. Expressed in a sentence like: Italians are musical, Southerners are hot-tempered, professors are absent-minded, etc.” [ Brief dictionary cognitive terms 1997: 198]
The “stereotype” phenomenon is considered not only in the works of psychologists, but also linguists, sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, Yu.D. Apresyan, Yu.A. Sorokin, Yu.E. Prokhorov, E. Bartminsky, etc. .)
Representatives of each of these sciences highlight in a stereotype those properties that they notice from the standpoint of their field of study, and therefore social stereotypes, communication stereotypes, mental stereotypes, cultural stereotypes, ethnocultural stereotypes, etc. are highlighted. For example, social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of the typical features that characterize a particular people.
The term “stereotype” (Greek stereos - solid, typos - imprint) was introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist W. Lippman. By stereotype, Lippman understood a special form of perception of the world around us, which has a certain influence on the data of our senses before this data reaches our consciousness. . According to Lippmann, a person, trying to comprehend the world around him in all its inconsistency, creates a “picture in his head” regarding those phenomena that he has not directly observed. A person has a clear idea of most things even before he directly encounters them in life. Such stereotypes are formed under the influence of the cultural environment of a given individual. “In most cases, we do not first see and then give a definition, we first define this or that phenomenon for ourselves, and then we observe it. “.
V.V. Krasnykh understands a stereotype as “the structure of the mental-lingual complex, formed by an invariant set of valence bonds attributed to a given unit and representing the concept of the phenomenon behind this unit” [Krasnykh 2001: 78].
According to Yu.A. Sorokin’s stereotype is “a certain process and result of communication according to certain semiotic models, the list of which is closed due to certain semiotic-technical principles accepted in a certain society. In this case, the semiotic model is implemented at the social, socio-psychological levels (standard) or at the linguistic, socio-psychological levels (norm). The standard and norm exist in two forms: as a stamp (overly explicit complex sign) or as a cliche (insufficiently explicit complex sign) [Sorokin 1998: 56].
Maslova V.A. distinguishes a behavioral stereotype - the most important among stereotypes, which can turn into a ritual. In her opinion, “stereotypes have much in common with traditions, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, and stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “their own” [Maslova 2001: 208].
V.A. Maslova also emphasizes that “the basis for the formation of ethnic consciousness and culture as regulators of human behavior are both innate and acquired in the process of socialization factors - cultural stereotypes that are acquired from the moment a person begins to identify himself with a certain ethnic group, a certain culture and recognize oneself as their element” [ibid.: 59].
Thus, the formation of stereotypes is based on cognitive processes, and stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions: the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology and other mental functions.
In our study, the greatest interest is in ethnic stereotypes that embody the ideas about our own and other peoples inherent in ordinary consciousness.
N.V. Ufimtseva differentiates ethnic stereotypes and cultural stereotypes: “ethnic stereotypes are inaccessible to self-reflection of a “naive” member of an ethnic group and are facts of behavior and the collective unconscious, they cannot be specially taught, but cultural stereotypes are accessible to self-reflection and are facts of behavior, individual unconscious consciousness, they can already be taught” [Ufimtseva 1996: 140].
Ethnic stereotypes not only summarize certain information, but also express emotional attitude to the object. What in relation to one’s own people is called reasonable economy, in relation to others can be called stinginess. What is characterized by “oneself” as perseverance, strength of character by the “stranger” is called stubbornness. The same psychological complex, depending on the relationship to its bearer, can be called spontaneity, carelessness, and irresponsibility [Dictionary of cognitive terms 1997: 189].
The concept of N.A. seems interesting and scientifically substantiated. Erofeev, which is based on historical material. “Ethnic ideas are, as it were, the result of acquired information, the result of its processing and a generalized conclusion from it; they often influence relations between nations, ethnic groups and states." [Erofeev 1982: 11].
The main reason for the development of stereotypes is associated with the protection of group values as a purely social function, realized in the form of affirmation of one’s dissimilarity and specificity. “Stereotypes are a fortress that protects the traditions, views, beliefs, and values of an individual; he is comfortable behind the walls of this fortress, because there he feels safe. Therefore, any attack on stereotypes is an attack on the safety of the individual; he regards such actions as an attack on the foundations of his worldview” [Platonov 2001: 139].
One of the central problems that arises when studying stereotypes is how objective they are and how they reflect reality. There is no consensus on this issue. If the stereotype is based on reality, then it should be relatively stable, but if it is completely and completely false, then it should change depending on the historical, international and even internal political situation in a particular country.
There are autostereotypes, which reflect what people think about themselves, and heterostereotypes, which relate to another people, which relate to another people, and they are more critical. For example, what is considered a manifestation of prudence among one’s own people, is considered a manifestation of greed among another people. People perceive ethnocultural stereotypes as models that must be conformed to. Therefore, stereotypes have a fairly strong influence on people, stimulating in them the formation of character traits that are reflected in the stereotype.
“Specialists in ethnic psychology who study ethnocultural stereotypes note that nations located on high level economic development, emphasize such qualities as intelligence, efficiency, enterprise, and nations with more backward economies - kindness, cordiality, hospitality” [Maslova 2001: 58]. This can be confirmed by the research of S.G. Ter-Minasova, according to the results of which professionalism, hard work, responsibility, etc. are more valued in English society, while in Russian society hospitality, sociability, and fairness are more valued [Ter-Minasova 2000: 255].
According to E.Yu. Prokhorov, a stereotype is a super-fixed phenomenon that does not change even in the face of real experience that refutes its truth. [Prokhorov 1997: 124].
According to Maslova V.A. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to the stereotyping of such objects [Maslova 2001: 109].
For all their schematism and generality, stereotypical ideas about other peoples and other cultures prepare for a collision with a foreign culture and reduce culture shock. “Stereotypes allow a person to form an idea of the world as a whole, to go beyond the boundaries of his narrow social and geographical world” [Pavlovskaya 1998: 139].
Yu. P. Platonov defines a stereotype as “a stable mental formation in which some sufficiently complex fact reality, first of all, an image of some kind social group or community, easily extended to all its representatives. Stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and relationships between individuals” [Platonov 2001: 131].
The most popular source of stereotypical ideas about national characters are the so-called interethnic jokes, that is, jokes built on a template plot: representatives of different nations, finding themselves in the same situation, react to it differently, in accordance with their traits. national character which are attributed to them in the homeland of the joke.
An anecdote, being a text created by the people and for the people, is a reflection of the stereotypes that have developed in a particular linguistic and cultural environment.
Having analyzed the concept of “stereotype” in various sciences, it can be noted that each person has an individual personal experience, a special form of perception of the surrounding world, on the basis of which a so-called “picture of the world” is created in his head, which includes an objective (invariant) part and a subjective assessment of reality by the individual. The stereotype is an integral part of this picture.
The main feature of stereotypes is their determination by culture - a person’s ideas about the world are formed under the influence of the cultural environment in which he lives. Stereotypes are shared by most people, but they can change depending on the historical, international, and internal political situation in a particular country;
