The concept of culture in various historical periods. Main stages in the development of world culture

Development of culture

Culture played a large role in the spiritual preparation of the changes called perestroika. Cultural figures with their creativity prepared public consciousness for the need for change (T. Abuladze’s film “Repentance”, A. Rybakov’s novel “Children of the Arbat”, etc.).

The whole country lived in anticipation of new issues of newspapers and magazines, television programs in which, like a fresh wind of change, a new assessment was given to historical figures, processes in society, and history itself.

Representatives of culture were actively involved in real political activity: they were elected as deputies, city leaders, and became leaders of national-bourgeois revolutions in their republics. Such an active public position led the intelligentsia to split along political lines.

After the collapse of the USSR, the political split among cultural and artistic figures continued. Some were guided by Western values, declaring them universal, others adhered to traditional national values. Almost all creative connections and groups split along these lines.

Perestroika lifted bans on many types and genres of art, and returned films that had been shelved and works prohibited for publication to the screens. The return of the brilliant culture of the Silver Age also dates back to this period.

Culture turn of the XIX century and the 20th century showed us a whole “poetic continent” of the finest lyricists (I. Annensky, N. Gumilyov, V. Khodasevich, etc.), deep thinkers (N. Berdyaev, V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, etc.), serious prose writers (A. Bely, D. Merezhkovsky, F. Sologub, etc.), composers (N. Stravinsky, S. Rachmaninov, etc.), artists (K. Somov, A. Benois, P. Filonov, V. Kandinsky, etc. .), talented performers (F. Chaliapin, M. Fokin, A. Pavlova, etc.).

This flow of “forbidden” literature had, in addition to a positive, a negative aspect: young writers, poets, and screenwriters were deprived of the opportunity to publish in state publications. The crisis in architecture associated with cutting construction costs also continued.

The development of the material base of culture has slowed down sharply, which was reflected not only in the absence of new films and books on the freely formed market, but also in the fact that, along with the best foreign examples of culture, a wave of products of dubious quality and value poured into the country.

Without clear government support (this is evidenced by the experience of developed Western countries) in market conditions, culture has little chance of survival. On our own market relations cannot serve as a universal means of preserving and enhancing the spiritual and sociocultural potential of society.

The deep crisis in which our society and culture find ourselves is a consequence of long-term neglect of the objective laws of social development during the Soviet period. The construction of a new society, the creation of a new person in the Soviet state turned out to be impossible, since throughout all the years of Soviet power people were separated from true culture, from true freedom.

Man was viewed as a function of the economy, as a means, and this dehumanizes man just as much as technogenic civilization. “The world is in danger of dehumanization human life, dehumanization of man himself... Only the spiritual strengthening of man can resist such a danger.”

Researchers of various cultural concepts talk about a civilizational crisis, about a change in cultural paradigms. The images of postmodern culture, the culture of the end of the millennium (Fin Millennium) have many times surpassed the naive decadence of the modernist culture of the end of the century (Fin de Sitcle).

In other words, the essence of the changes taking place (in relation to the change in the cultural paradigm) is that it is not culture that is in crisis, but man, the creator, and the crisis of culture is only a manifestation of his crisis.

Thus, attention to a person, to the development of his spirituality and spirit is overcoming the crisis. The books of Living Ethics drew attention to the need for a conscious approach to future changes in the cultural and historical evolution of man and highlighted ethical problems like the most important condition development of man and society.

These thoughts also echo modern understanding human life and society. Thus, P. Kostenbaum, a specialist in the education of American leadership, believes that “a society built not on ethics, not on mature hearts and minds, will not live long.”

N. Roerich argued that Culture is the cult of Light, Fire, veneration of the spirit, the highest service to the improvement of man. The establishment of true Culture in human consciousness is a necessary condition overcoming the crisis.

Already in its original meaning, language expressed an essential feature of culture - the human principle contained in it, the unity of culture, man, his abilities and activities. Culture is always a creation of man. Original form and the primary source of cultural development is human labor, methods of its implementation and results. There cannot be a culture “before” or “outside” a person, just as there cannot be a person “before” and “outside” a culture; culture, as noted, is an essential, generic property of a person, who himself is a phenomenon of culture.

Human abilities, understood as the realization of natural inclinations in the process of one’s own life path, are the source of all cultural achievements. Everything created by people, all the products of their activity can be considered as an objectification of these abilities. The values ​​of culture are the abilities of people materialized by activity. The worlds potentially contained in them are perhaps actualized and realized through culture. The world of culture, presented as a value, is the present world of developed human abilities and objectified activity.

Culture, on the one hand, is an accumulator of socially significant experience accumulated by peoples during historical development, on the other hand, is associated with goal setting, that is, setting socially significant goals and intentions to achieve them. Therefore, culture includes institutions, institutions and mechanisms that ensure, firstly, the safety, secondly, the continuity of its basic elements and patterns, and thirdly, the formation and “creation” of new values ​​and models.

The level of culture of a society is ultimately determined by socio-economic existence (base). This dimension of culture, being essential and determining, is not the only one: in a culture of one level there is a huge diversity of cultures. The transformation of culture, no matter how slow it is, occurs through an “explosion”, as a result of which the old culture is overcome. This overcoming, however, occurs only on the basis of the old culture, which ensures continuity in culture.

The basis of social dynamics is a change of traditions, that is, breaking, overcoming culture. Complex in itself, not amenable to unambiguous interpretation, this process is directed by powerful incentives that lie outside culture. At the same time, this external influence is manifested in the work of internal mechanisms, and cultural dynamics catalyze the process of changing social ideals that represent the highest strata of culture.

Without being absolutely independent, culture, to the extent that it possesses the attributes of internal autonomy, develops from a certain initial cell. If we understand culture as one of the determinants of social development, then the concept of “culture” is based on experience - a fixed side of work, practice, a kind of “frozen practice”, the structure and condition for the implementation of one or another method of activity.

An elementary socially sanctioned form of recording universally significant experience is a cultural norm. It lies at the basis of culture, its stability is a condition for the existence of culture as such. The cultural norm fixes stable starting points associated with the translation of social experience in the procedures of example, display and linguistic symbolism. Non-normative behavior is subject to cultural sanctions. The norm is associated with its own system of concepts that reflect the real existence of culture and constitute the fundamental link of the cultural system - habit, custom, etiquette, ceremony (ceremonial), ritual.

The central link of culture is tradition, which is a form of social inheritance, the elements of which from the above series are custom and ritual. In the category of tradition, moments of stability and stability of each specific culture are recorded - that which makes the culture identical to itself every time and without which the concept of cultural continuity becomes meaningless. Abandonment of traditions is, in essence, a change of cultural guidelines, a change of cultures. (Muravyov Yu.A. Truth. Culture. Ideal. M., 1995. P. 108, 109, 114, 116, 118)

Any fact of culture represents the unity of material and ideal, spiritual being and relationship, objective existence and subjective comprehension and positing. Culture includes both objective and other results of people’s activities, as well as subjective human forces and abilities realized in activities. Culture is what arises as a result of a person’s impulse from the darkness of the material world to the light of metaphysical existence. Culture is light and spirit, nature is matter and darkness. In culture, a person gets rid of the fear of his own death, he lives such periods, such lives that death loses the meaning of a personal catastrophe. Moreover, it is culture that gives his short stay in the material world spiritual content. “The soul in the treasured lyre will survive my ashes and escape decay,” - with the lines of A. Pushkin one can answer the inevitability of death. /3/ (Mildon V.I. Nature and Culture // Questions of Philosophy. 1996, No. 12. P. 67 , 73).

Material culture carries within itself spirituality, since it is always the embodiment of ideas, knowledge, and goals of a person, just as spiritual culture exists in an realized, objectified form - in an object, sign, image, symbol - or has a material carrier. In material culture, the following areas are distinguished; they are connected:

• - with the practical transformative activity of people - means of reproduction and communication, tools, housing, technical structures, everything that is an artificial environment or habitat, as well as production technologies and specific forms of communication between people in the production process, the labor and creative potential of people, their technical knowledge;
• - with the production and reproduction of social life - social institutions, systems of government, healthcare, education, upbringing, recreation, leisure;
• - with the production and reproduction of the person himself - traditions, norms, values, ideals, development and adaptation of previous or other experience.

Spiritual culture covers the spheres of consciousness, spiritual production - cognition, morality, upbringing and education, as well as philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, law, religion, science, art, literature, mythology. An integral part of spiritual culture is the world of value knowledge, which allows a person to navigate the world as a whole and the society in which he lives. Spiritual values ​​are the existential basis on which a person builds his life and relationships with other people. The interpretation of culture as a system of values ​​allows us to “delimit” culture from nature and at the same time not identify it with society. With this approach, culture appears as a certain aspect of society, thereby clarifying its social nature, and at the same time the important problem of the relationship between culture and society is not removed.

Spiritual culture includes the sphere of creativity, thanks to which new artifacts of spiritual production are created that have never existed before and have acquired their existence and its specific forms in the course of the creative activity of the creator. Culture, understood as a value and a way of activity, is not closed, but open system. Its development is based on open, “hacking”, corrective algorithms. Culture is the dialectical unity of tradition and innovation, preservation and overcoming, generated and generative activity. A developing culture is impossible without creativity, without creative activity generating new things.

Here, however, the antinomy of tradition, understood as the transfer of experience, arises. Its essence is that, on the one hand, the meaning of tradition is immutability, conservatism, immobility, on the other hand, transmission, translation is always a process. The resolution of this antinomy is seen in turning to the category “form”. Tradition is the form by which cultural content is transmitted. Meanwhile, the tradition is meaningful. The essentially unchanged content of tradition is clothed in a constantly changing form.

Material and spiritual culture are in organic unity with each other, but their distinction is functional. Thus, elements of material culture are the result of the embodiment of certain ideas, the materialization of knowledge (a bridge over a river, an ocean liner, a spacecraft, a high-rise building, a computer), and spiritual culture is objectified with the help of material means (a painting, a film, musical composition, performance, sculpture).

In society, culture performs the following functions, acting as:

a) type of social memory

Culture preserves previous experiences. It is connected with history; it assumes the continuity of the moral, intellectual, spiritual life of a person, society and humanity. Modern culture-- the result of a huge journey that spans thousands of years, transcends boundaries historical eras, national cultures, becoming potentially the property of all people. Values ​​and symbols of culture come, as a rule, from time immemorial and, changing their meaning, are transferred to future states of culture. Therefore, culture is historical and transhistorical in nature. Its present itself always exists in relation to the past - real or constructed in the order of some mythology and to forecasts of the future. /4/ (Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture. St. Petersburg, 1994. P. 4-9)

b) forms of translation of social experience

Culture characterizes the renewing existence of society and man, acting as a living and self-renewing “substance”, the foundations of which are an algorithm, code, matrix, canon, standard, norm, tradition, etc. Each generation masters both the objective world of culture, the methods and skills of a technological relationship to nature, as well as cultural values ​​and patterns of behavior. Culture, “carrying the voices” of the past, thus appears as a form of transmission of social experience, and in all its ethnic and national manifestations.

c) the way a person is socialized

Culture as a stable tradition of human social activity makes it possible to transfer patterns of social behavior from generation to generation. The individual acts as a bearer of cultural norms and patterns. In this sense, culture appears both as a product and as a determinant of social development. Culture, ensuring the preservation and transfer of a person’s spirituality to the entire way of his life - everyday life, politics, economics, art, sports - is actually a way of socializing a subject, since the content of the cultural process is, in fact, the development of the person himself. In a situation of difficult choice, it is culture that allows a person to develop his inner world, creatively respond to social demands, realize their moral, aesthetic, political or other meaning, and make adequate decisions.

Other classifications of cultural functions are also possible. Various researchers highlight, in particular, transformative, protective, communicative, cognitive, normative (and other functions).

The pluralistic nature of the existence of cultures has given rise to the problem of their typologies. The most important of them is the one that records the differences going back centuries between large cultural aggregates, primarily Western and Eastern cultures. Their comparison is based on the problem of attitude, firstly, to human personality, secondly, to the possibilities of the mind, thirdly, to socio-political activity. If in Europe the human personality was cultivated as the image and likeness of the Creator, then eastern culture was based primarily on the idea of ​​falsity individual forms social and spiritual life, renunciation of the personal “I” in favor of the collective and impersonal whole. Feature European culture there was an emphasis on the rational and pragmatic components of cognition, while the East considered them below the introspective-intuitive and ethical dimensions and therefore deeply developed a set of meditative techniques and methods of self-hypnosis. In contrast to European culture, which is oriented towards active social design and action, Eastern culture is based on the principle of “non-action”, according to which a person should not violate the established state of affairs in nature and society, and his actions, at best, can be limitedly “built-in” into this order. It should be noted that in last decades On these and other issues, there is not only a divergence, but also a convergence of Western and Eastern cultures. In the West, attention to the social, collective (corporate) whole, to the achievements of Eastern meditative psychology, and the principle of “non-action” has increased. In turn, in countries oriental culture The values ​​of democracy and liberalism are “sprouting,” interest in individual forms of existence is obvious, rational principles in cognition (science) are strengthening, and there is a tendency to assimilate the idea of ​​active intervention in social life.

Another version of the typology of cultures is the separation of mass and elite cultures. Mass culture is a phenomenon that embraces diverse and heterogeneous cultural phenomena that have become widespread in connection with the scientific and technological revolution, the development of communication and reproductive systems, and the globalization of information exchange and space. The main characteristics of mass culture are mass production of cultural samples and their mass consumption. Mass culture is internally contradictory. In a mature market economy, artifacts of mass culture function both as consumer goods and as cultural assets. As a commodity, they must be sold and make a profit, so many of them form vulgar needs and mythologies, indulge undeveloped tastes, and contribute to the standardization and unification of personality. At the same time, mass culture is considered as a generally satisfactory form of democratization of society, a means of raising the cultural level of the broad masses, an opportunity to become familiar with the world's masterpieces and realize the connection with all of humanity and its problems.

By updating and objectifying the socio-psychological expectations of large masses of people, mass culture satisfies their needs for emotional release and compensation, communication, leisure, entertainment, and play. The continuous nature of production and standardization of products are accompanied by the process of formation of subcultures (age, professional, ethnic, etc.) with their characteristic and specially created samples of mass culture. This is a special type of industry with intense competition, its own producers, directors, managers, marketing, advertising and media specialists, etc. The focus on general standards of consumption, on fashion with its laws of imitation, suggestion and infection, on momentary success and sensationalism is complemented by the myth-making mechanisms of mass culture, which processes almost all the key symbols of previous and modern culture.

Mass culture is a phenomenon of the 20th century, however, its roots are found in earlier stages - popular prints, ditties, the tabloid press, operetta, caricature. Content-wise, it is very diverse - from primitive kitsch (comics, “soap operas”, “thieves’ songs”, electronic works, “yellow press”) to complex rich forms (certain types of rock music, “intellectual detective”, pop art) -- and balances between vulgar and sophisticated, primitive and original, aggressive and sentimental. A special type of mass culture is the culture of totalitarian societies, in which the state appropriates cultural-creative functions and subordinates them to political and ideological tasks, forming behavioral stereotypes that are obligatory for everyone, instilling conformism. /5/ (Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1989. P. 345) .

Elite culture is a set of specific forms created in the spheres of art, literature, fashion, as well as items of individual production and consumption, luxury, produced in the expectation that they will be in demand and understood only by a small group of people with a special artistic sensibility and material means, called for this reason the “elite” of society. The main ideas associated with elite culture were formulated in the works of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche, and in the 20th century were developed by O. Spengler, H. Ortega y Gasset, T. Adorno, G. Marcuse. They characterize elite culture as an opportunity for selected natures, who have realized unity with each other, to resist the amorphous crowd, the “mass” and thereby the “massifying” tendencies in culture. However, due to the lack of clear criteria to judge the adequacy of understanding the artifacts of elite culture, it turns out to be impossible to distinguish between the “elite” and the “mass”. As a rule, what was called “elite culture” turned out to be only a temporary and transient form of spiritual and aesthetic self-affirmation of certain social groups, which was quickly discarded as unnecessary, turning into an object of development by relatively broad layers of society far from the elite .

Thus, mass and elite cultures do not have clearly defined boundaries; they are parts of a whole - a single socio-cultural process.

An integral part of culture is counterculture - a set of phenomena and sociocultural attitudes that oppose the fundamental principles of a particular culture and are in opposition to dominant models. The main ideas of the counterculture were formulated in the 60-70s. in the works of American researchers T. Roszak and C. Reich. They boil down to the following:

• - denial of the individual-personal principle of Western culture;
• - cultivation of the impersonal, collectively anonymous principle;
• - objection to the principle of self-identity of the human “I”;
• - rejection of traditional Christian rigorism in the field of marriage and family relations and intimateization of the erotic sphere; rejection of the Protestant ethic of individual work and personal responsibility;
• - erection of aimless pastime into a cult.

The leading types of counterculture are youth counterculture and underground.

Youth counterculture is seen as a form of protest against the alienation and soullessness of civilization at its industrial, post-industrial, and now information stages. As an alternative to the lifestyle and value system of their fathers, the youth of the 70s. created the hippie, punk and other movements, turned to the study of Eastern religious and esoteric teachings, and demonstrated defiant behavior. Along with this, the youth counterculture drew public attention to a number of real issues - the survival of humanity, global problems of our time, contributed to the creation of the “green” movement, etc.

Underground is an underground culture (art), characterized by the reluctance of its creators to pursue commercial success and persecution by the authorities. This culture exists in all countries of the world, but is especially characteristic of those that have totalitarian and authoritarian forms of government.

The most important problem of culture is its opposition to the dictates of commodity-money relations. The commercialization of culture, on the one hand, allows many talented creators to achieve success and find living conditions that correspond to their abilities and efforts. On the other hand, it does not allow the mass of equally talented people to hope for success and recognition during their lifetime due to the lack of demand for their creations in the market. Only a few cultural institutions and creators can resist the dictates of the market. Their existence is determined by the degree of stability of the cultural tradition in a particular society, the attitude of the state and authorities to the problems of culture and cultural identification of the country, the activities of devotees and enthusiasts, various circles of the population interested in the younger generations entering the world of genuine, and not surrogate, commercial culture.

In certain conditions, culture can become a problem of national security of the country, ethnic self-identification of individual peoples, especially small ones. The issue of preserving cultural diversity on the planet is quite acute these days, especially in the face of a total invasion of examples of Western mass culture. (JOURNAL "PERSONALITY. CULTURE. SOCIETY" Selected articles: 2000, Vol. 2, issue 2(3). O.A. Mitroshenkov Culture and civilization (lecture materials)).

Culture is what sets a person apart from the natural environment. Therefore, the emergence of culture is associated with the time of the separation of man from the animal world.

Stage I development of world culture - primitive culture or archaic culture - from the appearance of man -2.5 million years ago - until the 4th millennium BC

Stage II development of world culture - culture ancient world or culture of civilizations - IV millennium BC - V century AD

Stage III development of world culture - Middle Ages culture - from the 5th century AD - until midday XVII century

Stage IV development of world culture - modern culture- from ser. ХVII - 1917

Stage V development of world culture - culture modern times - 1917.- to the present day.

Each stage in the history of culture is a unique world with its own special attitude towards man, towards life, towards nature, with its own worldview, ideals, desires and needs. By studying them, we learn how people of previous generations lived and thought about them.

Culture of primitive society and the ancient world.The successes of the first civilizations of the East and the features of Greco-Roman culture.Early forms of culture. Main features of primitive culture.

The culture of primitive society (or archaic culture) existed for the longest period in human history. The emergence of culture is directly related to the origin of man, who, according to modern scientists, emerged from the animal world about 2.5 million years ago.

Duration of the primitive era in history different nations has its own time variations. Its end corresponds to the appearance of the first state among each people, which arose approximately in the 4th - 1st millennium BC.

The entire history of primitive society is divided into three eras:

The oldest of the three eras is the Stone Age. In turn, it is divided into three periods:

Sometimes they also distinguish the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age - the transition from stone to metal)

The chronological framework of the Bronze Age occupies the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. And in the 1st millennium BC the Iron Age begins.

The initial form of organization of society in the ancient Stone Age was the so-called “primitive herd” or ancestral community. This was a very long period of human existence, when man began to stand out from the animal world, gradually accumulating experience in making and using tools. These tools were initially very primitive: hand axes made of flint, various scrapers, digging sticks, pointed points, etc. Gradually, during the Late Paleolithic period, man learned to make fire, which played a very important role in his life. Fire was used to cook food, ward off predators, and later to make the first metal products and pottery.

The primitive herd lived in the open air or used caves. Special dwellings that resembled dugouts or half-dugouts appeared only during the Mesolithic period. The farm had appropriating character. People were engaged in gathering or hunting and were therefore completely dependent on nature. This method of farming could not provide the required amount of food, so people spent all their free time searching for it. To do this, he had to lead a nomadic lifestyle. The population was small, life expectancy did not exceed 30 years.

An important factor in life primitive man one should consider the need for joint labor to obtain food, which required communication and mutual understanding from people, fostered the ability to live in a team, and contributed to overcoming zoological individualism. Over the course of thousands of years, there was a process of limiting the biological instincts of the primitive man, which was accompanied by the formation of norms of behavior mandatory for each member of the primitive herd. Thus, the unity of material and spiritual factors in the life of primitive society became characteristic of primitive culture as syncretic phenomenon(undifferentiated, complex, unified, characterizing the original, undeveloped state).

The development process was very slow, so the culture of primitive society is considered stable. Gradually, material culture improved (special tools appeared: chisels, knives, needles, an axe, a bow and arrows). Spiritual culture also developed - a language appeared.

One of the highest achievements of primitive society is considered to be the evolution from the primitive herd to the creation of a family and clan community. It is difficult to say how this evolution took place. It is only known that it took place for many thousands of years and ended during the Late Paleolithic period. The primitive herd is replaced by a clan - an association of blood relatives. This process occurred parallel to the formation of the modern type of man. Formed 40 - 25 thousand years ago new type human - homo sapiens (reasonable man). The most important prerequisite for the formation of a modern person was the regulation of marriage relations by family, the prohibition of mixing the blood of close relatives.

An important place in the life of primitive society also played art, which contributed to the transfer of experience and knowledge. The first drawings were images of animals, scenes of hunting them. The most famous drawings are from the caves of Lascaux (France), Altamira (Spain), Kapova (Russia).

Among the images on the walls of caves, Paleolithic man left drawings of horses, wild bulls, rhinoceroses, bison, lions, bears, and mammoths. These animals were painted, hunted, seen as the main source of their existence, and also feared as their potential enemies. Gradually, man conquered nature more and more. Therefore, in art, man began to occupy a central place, becoming the main subject of the image.

One of the first evidence of primitive man’s attention to himself, to the problems of his origin can be considered “ paleolithic venus" This is how archaeologists named numerous female sculptures made of stone, bone or clay, which were found in different parts of Europe and Asia. These figures emphasized the features of female anatomy. They are associated with the cult of the mother - the ancestor.

Some researchers admit that primitive people did not understand the connection between sexual relations and the appearance of children. Therefore, the appearance of a newborn was perceived as a manifestation of a higher power. And the fact that this force acted through women gave them advantages in society, which led to the emergence of matriarchy. It is possible that in the conditions of a primitive herd, where marriage was polygamous, origin and kinship were established through the maternal line. Therefore, the sculptural representation of women could be associated with the cult of the common mother of the entire clan. In the early stages of development in society there was matriarchy(literally - the power of the mother) - an era in the development of primitive society, which is characterized by matrilineal clan, the equal role of women in the family, economic and social life.

Myths were of great importance in preserving the collective experience of ancestors. Myth (literally - word, legend, tradition). Mythology- a set of myths and legends that convey the beliefs of ancient peoples about the origin of the world and natural phenomena, about gods and legendary heroes. Myths were a form of reflection of reality; they were not questioned or verified. They often contained fantastic versions of reality.

Myth became the basis for the emergence of religion. The religious views of people appeared already at a relatively mature stage of development of primitive society.

Early forms of religion- totemism, animism, fetishism and magic. In primitive society they did not create a unified system.

I. Totemism- a form of religion, which is characterized by the belief in the existence of kinship relationships between a given group of people with a breed of animal, plant species or other element of the surrounding nature, the so-called totem. The totem is a “relative and friend” and can be influenced by magic.

II. Fetishism- a form of religion, which is characterized by belief in the supernatural capabilities of individual objects (the most common form is the wearing of amulets and talismans).

III. Magic- witchcraft, sorcery, a set of rituals associated with belief in a person’s ability to influence people, animals, nature, gods, etc. in a certain way.

IV. Animism- a form of religion, which is characterized by belief in the general spirituality of nature (anima - soul), belief in the existence of spirits, in the presence of souls in humans, animals, and plants. Ideas arise about the immortality of the soul and its existence separately from the body.

A large role in the organization of primitive society, in overcoming the animal, zoological principles in human behavior was played by various taboo- prohibitions. Violation of prohibitions was severely punished. However, punishment was expected primarily not from people, but from higher, secret forces in the form of instant death, serious illness or something terrible.

The system of taboos among different peoples is complex and diverse, but two prohibitions should be considered the main ones:

· One of the first taboos concerned incest - marriage with blood relatives. The appearance of this taboo is associated with the Mesolithic era, when the transition to a sedentary lifestyle began to occur.

· Another important taboo was the prohibition of cannibalism (cannibalism). This ban was not as consistent and absolute as the first. Even in the recent past, cannibalism was found among some tribes.

With the development of humanity and the increasing complexity of knowledge and production processes, become more complicated and rituals. One of the most important of them was the ritual initiation— initiation of young men into full-fledged adults. It was a rite of passage to test a young man physical strength, endurance, the ability to endure pain, to go without food for a long time.

Primitive culture reached its greatest development in the Neolithic era, when, with the emergence of agriculture, “ neolithic revolution" This term is commonly used to denote the transition of humanity from an appropriating to a producing form of economy.

With the transition of people to productive production, the cultural world is changing. Tools become more complex and more efficient, the number of utensils increases, knowledge in the field of construction is further developed, and the technology of processing wood and animal skins is improved. The problem of food preservation is becoming urgent, and the process of knowledge transfer is improving. Prerequisites for the emergence and development of writing appear: the volume of information increases, its nature becomes more complex.

One of the most important cultural consequences of the Neolithic Revolution was the rapid increase in population. Agricultural and pastoral tribes began to rapidly increase and actively populate neighboring territories. Under these conditions, individual nomadic groups were either assimilated or forced out into less suitable conditions for life. The tribal community begins to experience crisis phenomena. The tribal community is gradually being replaced by the neighboring community. Tribes and tribal unions arise.

Despite the noticeable dependence on the elemental forces of nature, primitive society walked along the path from ignorance to knowledge, along the path of ever-increasing mastery of the forces of nature. Already in the Paleolithic era, the beginning of astronomy, mathematics, and the calendar was laid. The sun, moon and stars served as a compass and a clock.

Archaic culture is the longest, most mysterious and difficult for us to understand period of cultural development. Time has destroyed and covered with a thick veil many traces of the human past. And yet, the facts indicate that these are millennia not of primitive, semi-wild existence, but of grandiose, intense spiritual work. Here the foundations of universal human culture were laid, spiritual potential was formed, which heralded the appearance of a qualitatively different creature on Earth. Here for the first time the light of aesthetic consciousness flashes.

Thus, the cultural achievements of the primitive era served as the basis for the further development of world culture.

Culture - from the Latin cultura, its main meanings are “cultivation”, “processing”, “care”. The term "culture" appeared in Ancient Rome. Accordingly, “culture” is cultivation of the land, breeding plants and animals, etc., and cultor is a cultivator, plowman, winegrower, cattle breeder.

Nowadays, the word “culture” is one of the most used in everyday language and in many scientific definitions, which speaks both to the ambiguity of the term and to the diversity of the cultural phenomenon itself. But when classifying various areas of culture in accordance with established word usage, one should take into account the fact that culture is not only different areas of reality, but also the reality of a person in these areas, the global sphere of human life. Everything that we use in the field of culture (including the very concept of culture) was once discovered, comprehended and introduced into the global world of human everyday life. Culture is the level of relationships that have developed in a team, those norms and patterns of behavior that are sanctified by tradition and are mandatory for representatives of a given ethnic group and its various social groups. Culture appears as a form of transmission of social experience through the mastery by each generation of not only the objective world of culture, skills and techniques of technological relationship to nature, but also cultural values ​​and patterns of behavior. Moreover, this role of culture regulating social experience is such that it forms stable artistic and cognitive canons, the idea of ​​the beautiful and the ugly, good and evil, attitudes towards nature and society, what is and what should be, etc.

THE ORIGIN OF IMPLEMENTATIONS ABOUT CULTURE IN ANTIQUE

It is necessary to distinguish the history of ideas about culture from the history of culture itself. Although the “rudiments” of culture are discovered at the earliest stages of people’s historical existence, the first ideas about it become possible at a fairly high level of their social and spiritual development.

Man deified natural forces and elements, endowed nature with human properties - consciousness, will, and the ability to predetermine the course of events.

In Ancient Rome, the term “culture” meant the purposeful impact of man on the nature around him: cultivation of the soil, cultivation of the land, agricultural labor.

In its original meaning, the term “culture” was close to the modern word “agriculture”. Over time, its meaning expands. The process of cultural transformation began to be associated not only with nature, but also with man, his inner world.

Culture began to be understood as upbringing, education, improvement of a person, his abilities, knowledge, skills.

Ancient thinkers saw the means of such improvement primarily in philosophy, science and art. In this meaning, the term “culture” was first used by Cicero.

UNDERSTANDING CULTURE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Antiquity is being replaced by the Middle Ages

(5th - 14th centuries in Western Europe). Ancient society was based on the slave system, while medieval society was based on the feudal mode of production. Feudalism was based on subsistence farming and the personal dependence of peasants on the feudal lords. At the end of the 5th century AD. the culture of antiquity is decaying. In place of the huge Roman Empire, which covered almost all of Europe, part of Asia and Africa, tribes came with their own ideas about human culture and society. They partially borrow the culture of antiquity - for example, language, religion, the system of Roman law, but for the most part they destroy it. A huge empire is breaking up into many barbarian kingdoms, warring among themselves. The only force uniting the peoples of Europe was religion - Christianity. At the end of the 4th century AD. From persecuted Christianity turned into the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Changes in the real life and worldview of people in the Middle Ages lead to the formation of new ideas about culture. In the Middle Ages, a theological concept of culture was formed, according to which God acts as the center of the universe, its active, creative principle, the source and cause of everything that exists. The idea of ​​providentialism occupies an important place in the theological concept. Providentialism is an understanding of the world according to which the course of world history and human life is determined by divine providence. Thus, in Christian ideology, the place of man is taken by God the creator, and the place of the concept of “culture,” so valued in antiquity, is taken by the concept of “cult.” Therefore, the cultural development of man is understood as a constant elevation, ascent to the ideal, God, the absolute, as a process of overcoming the sinful and establishing the divine in man.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF RENAISSANCE THINKERS TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE CULTURE OF THE 14th-16th centuries. Important changes were also taking place in the worldview of the people of that era. The ideas of humanism are becoming widespread. During the Renaissance, the formation of secular culture began, the departure of culture from religion and the church, but since it was a transitional era, the traditions of the Middle Ages were also preserved.

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE IN THE 17TH CENTURY

In the 17th century, the position of religion weakened, the role of science increased, and the first scientific revolution took place. Experimental natural science is being developed. F. Bacon stood at the origins of science and philosophy of the New Age. He plays an important role in the development of a new concept of culture. Bacon Defines Culture as the world of human activity. In cultural - historical process he distinguishes two sides: material and spiritual. Bacon defines material culture as the process of man's transformation of nature. He names the most significant achievements in the field of material culture - printing, gunpowder and the compass. They changed the face and state of the whole world in the field of education, military affairs and navigation. Bacon defines spiritual culture as a purposeful influence on the spiritual world of a person. The most important contribution to the study of problems of society, culture and man was made by the English philosopher T. Hobbes. The most important problems of culture in Hobbes's teaching are: origin, essence, social functions of culture as a whole and its individual components (science, art, morality, law). According to Hobbes, nature created people equal in physical and mental abilities. Since a person is guided in his actions by selfishness and does not take into account the rights of other people, a state of “war of all against all” arises. Hobbes calls this state of society natural. He considers language to be the most important cultural value.

PROBLEMS OF CULTURE IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF ENLIGHTENMENT

Enlighteners considered the problems of the history of culture, the laws of its development, its role in the transformation of society and the formation of man. The subjects of the analysis of the enlighteners were such types of spiritual culture as religion, science, art, philosophy, and morality. Enlighteners developed many new ideas and concepts in the field of political and legal culture. This is the theory of the social contract, the concept of the rule of law, the principle of separation of powers, the idea of ​​“natural” human rights, the concept of enlightened absolutism. “Back to nature” - this is Rousseau’s appeal to his contemporaries.

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE IN GERMAN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY

German classical philosophy is an important stage in the history of world philosophical thought, which covers almost an entire century (from the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries). The concepts of “consciousness”, “spirit”, “thinking”, “cognition” are central to German classics.

The founder of German classical philosophy is I. Kant (1724 - 1804). Kant's problems of culture are closely related to the problem of man. Kant understands culture as the totality of all the achievements of mankind, created by him in the process of developing his natural inclinations.

Depending on three types of deposits Kant identifies three aspects in the development of culture:

• 1. culture of skill - skills, the ability to use certain things to achieve necessary goals;
• 2. culture of communication - development of the inclinations of civilization;
• 3. morality - the development of a person’s moral qualities.

Applying dialectical method, Hegel analyzed the entire path of development of world culture. No thinker had created such a grandiose and harmonious logical picture before him. The development of culture in all the diversity of its manifestations appeared for the first time as a natural, holistic process.

Culture appears in Hegel as the realization of the world mind, the embodiment of its creative power.

Material culture is the embodiment of thinking in objective-sensual forms. For example, a house is an architect’s plan embodied in stone, a car is an engineer’s thought embodied in technology.

Hegel views spiritual culture as the total spiritual activity of man. The problems of spiritual culture are analyzed by him in the doctrine of the absolute spirit. The stages of development of the absolute spirit and, accordingly, the most important types of spiritual culture for Hegel are art, religion and philosophy.

THEORY OF CULTURE IN THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF MARXISM

In the works of Marx and Engels one can find an extremely broad interpretation of culture as a qualitative characteristic of society. They associate milestones in the development of culture with the development of productive forces, social connections, practical activities(mastery of fire, invention of the bow, formation of speech).

The social division of labor played an important role in the development of culture. Initially, spiritual production was directly woven into material activity.

The process of separating mental labor from physical labor was caused by historical necessity. It was necessary to have a social layer of people who would be freed from everyday grueling work and could devote themselves entirely to managerial, scientific and artistic activities.

Patterns of cultural development:

• 1. The line of economic development and the line of development of certain types of spiritual culture may not coincide. This pattern was analyzed by Marx using the example of art. He noted that in eras that are economically less developed, art that is more significant and great can be created than in subsequent, more developed ones. And some forms of art are possible only at a low stage of development of society.
• 2. Each type of culture has its own internal logic of development.
• 3. Another important pattern of cultural development is connected with this - interconnection, interaction various types culture. All types of culture influence each other and the economic base.
• 4. Relative independence in the development of culture is also manifested in the fact that there is cultural inheritance and continuity. Continuity lies in using the achievements of previous generations and past historical eras.

Marx and Engels apply a formational approach to the historical analysis of culture.

A socio-economic formation is a specific historical type of society, taken in the unity of all its aspects. The OEF is based on the production method material goods. Marx identifies five OEFs and, accordingly, five formational types of culture: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist. Socialism is the first stage of communism. Consecutive changes in formational types of culture form a progressive, progressive line of cultural development. During the transition from one formational type of culture to another, continuity is maintained: some elements of culture are discarded as outdated (ideology), others enter the new culture almost unchanged (language, means of labor), others are critically processed based on the interests of the classes that have come to power ( law), the fourth are created anew (forms of property, political system).

Culture

Basically, culture refers to human activity at its most different manifestations, including all forms and methods of human self-expression and self-knowledge, the accumulation of skills and abilities by man and society as a whole. Culture also appears as a manifestation of human subjectivity and objectivity (character, competencies, skills, abilities and knowledge).

Culture is a set of sustainable forms of human activity, without which it cannot be reproduced, and therefore cannot exist.

Culture is a set of codes that prescribe a person a certain behavior with his inherent experiences and thoughts, thereby exerting a managerial influence on him. Therefore, for every researcher the question about the starting point of research in this regard cannot but arise.

Different definitions of culture

The variety of philosophical and scientific definitions of culture existing in the world does not allow us to refer to this concept as the most obvious designation of an object and subject of culture and requires a clearer and narrower specification: Culture is understood as...

History of the term

Antiquity

In Ancient Greece close to the term culture was paideia, which expressed the concept of “inner culture,” or, in other words, “culture of the soul.”

In Latin sources, the word first appears in the treatise on agriculture by Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) De Agri Cultura(c. 160 BC) - the earliest monument of Latin prose.

This treatise is devoted not just to cultivating the land, but to caring for the field, which presupposes not only cultivation, but also a special emotional attitude towards it. For example, Cato gives the following advice on purchasing a plot of land: you should not be lazy and walk around the plot of land you are purchasing several times; If the site is good, the more often you inspect it, the more you will like it. This is the “like” you should definitely have. If it doesn’t exist, then there won’t be good care, that is, there won’t be culture.

Marcus Tullius Cicero

In Latin the word has several meanings:

The Romans used the word culture with some object in the genitive case, that is, only in phrases meaning improvement, improvement of what was combined with: “culture juries” - development of rules of behavior, “culture lingual” - improvement of language, etc.

In Europe in the 17th-18th centuries

Johann Gottfried Herder

In the meaning of an independent concept culture appeared in the works of the German lawyer and historian Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694). He used this term in relation to “artificial man”, brought up in society, as opposed to “natural” man, uneducated.

In philosophical, and then scientific and everyday use, the first word culture launched by the German educator I. K. Adelung, who published the book “An Experience in the History of the Culture of the Human Race” in 1782.

We can call this human genesis in the second sense whatever we want, we can call it culture, that is, cultivation of the soil, or we can remember the image of light and call it enlightenment, then the chain of culture and light will stretch to the very ends of the earth.

In Russia in the 18th-19th centuries

In the 18th century and in the first quarter of the 19th, the lexeme “culture” was absent from the Russian language, as evidenced, for example, by N. M. Yanovsky’s “New Interpreter, Arranged Alphabetically” (St. Petersburg, 1804. Part II. From K to N.S. 454). Bilingual dictionaries offered possible translations of the word into Russian. Two German words, proposed by Herder as synonyms to denote a new concept, in the Russian language there was only one correspondence - enlightenment.

Word culture entered Russian only in the mid-30s of the 19th century. The presence of this word in the Russian lexicon was recorded by I. Renofantz, published in 1837, “A Pocket Book for an Enthusiast of Reading Russian Books, Newspapers and Magazines.” The said dictionary distinguished two meanings of the lexeme: firstly, “plowing, farming”; secondly, “education”.

A year before the publication of the Renofantz dictionary, from the definitions of which it is clear that the word culture had not yet entered the consciousness of society as a scientific term, as a philosophical category, a work appeared in Russia, the author of which not only addressed the concept culture, but also gave it a detailed definition and theoretical justification. We are talking about the essay by academician and emeritus professor of the Imperial St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy Danila Mikhailovich Vellansky (1774-1847) “Basic outlines of general and particular physiology or physics of the organic world.” It is from this natural philosophical work of a medical scientist and Schellingian philosopher that one should begin not only with the introduction of the term “culture” into scientific use, but also with the formation of cultural and philosophical ideas in Russia.

Nature, cultivated by the human spirit, is Culture, corresponding to Nature in the same way that a concept corresponds to a thing. The subject of Culture consists of ideal things, and the subject of Nature consists of real concepts. Actions in Culture are carried out with conscience, works in Nature occur without conscience. Therefore, Culture has an ideal quality, Nature has a real quality. - Both, in their content, are parallel; and the three kingdoms of Nature: fossil, vegetable and animal, correspond to the regions of Culture, containing the subjects of the Arts, Sciences and Moral Education.

The material objects of Nature correspond to the ideal concepts of Culture, which, according to the content of their knowledge, are the essence of bodily qualities and mental properties. Objective concepts relate to the study of physical objects, while subjective concepts relate to the occurrences of the human spirit and its aesthetic works.

In Russia in the 19th-20th centuries

Berdyaev, Nikolai Alexandrovich

The contrast and juxtaposition of nature and culture in Vellansky’s work is not the classical opposition of nature and “second nature” (man-made), but a correlation real world and him ideal image. Culture is a spiritual principle, a reflection of the World Spirit, which can have both a physical embodiment and an ideal embodiment - in abstract concepts (objective and subjective, judging by the subject to which knowledge is directed).

Culture is connected with a cult, it develops from a religious cult, it is the result of the differentiation of a cult, the unfolding of its content in different directions. Philosophical thought, scientific knowledge, architecture, painting, sculpture, music, poetry, morality - everything is organically contained in the church cult, in a form that has not yet been developed and differentiated. The most ancient of Cultures - the Culture of Egypt began in the temple, and its first creators were the priests. Culture is associated with the cult of ancestors, with legend and tradition. It is full of sacred symbolism, it contains signs and similarities of another, spiritual reality. Every Culture (even material Culture) is a Culture of the spirit, every Culture has a spiritual basis - it is a product creative work spirit over natural elements.

Roerich, Nikolai Konstantinovich

Expanded and deepened the interpretation of the word culture, his contemporary, Russian artist, philosopher, publicist, archaeologist, traveler and public figure - Nikolai Konstantinovich Roerich (1874-1947), who devoted most of his life to the development, dissemination and protection of culture. He more than once called Culture “worship of Light”, and in the article “Synthesis” he even split the lexeme into parts: “Cult” and “Ur”:

The cult will always remain the veneration of the Good Beginning, and the word Ur reminds us of an old eastern root meaning Light, Fire.

In the same article he writes:

...Now I would like to clarify the definition of two concepts that we encounter every day in our everyday life. It is significant to repeat the concept of Culture and Civilization. To our surprise, we have to notice that these concepts, which seem so refined by their roots, are already subject to reinterpretation and distortion. For example, many people still believe it is quite possible to replace the word Culture with civilization. At the same time, it is completely missed that the Latin root Cult itself has a very deep spiritual meaning, while civilization fundamentally has a civil, social structure of life. It would seem to be absolutely clear that each country goes through a degree of publicity, that is, civilization, which in a high synthesis creates the eternal, indestructible concept of Culture. As we see in many examples, civilization can perish, can be completely destroyed, but Culture in indestructible spiritual tablets creates a great heritage that feeds future young shoots.

Every manufacturer of standard products, every factory owner, of course, is already a civilized person, but no one will insist that every factory owner is already a cultured person. And it may very well turn out that the lowest worker in a factory can be the bearer of undoubted Culture, while its owner will be only within the boundaries of civilization. You can easily imagine a “House of Culture,” but it will sound very awkward: “House of Civilization.” The name “cultural worker” sounds quite definite, but “civilized worker” will mean something completely different. Every university professor will be quite satisfied with the title of cultural worker, but try telling the venerable professor that he is a civilized worker; For such a nickname, every scientist, every creator will feel internal awkwardness, if not resentment. We know the expressions “civilization of Greece”, “civilization of Egypt”, “civilization of France”, but they do not at all exclude the following, highest in its inviolability, expression when we talk about the great Culture of Egypt, Greece, Rome, France...

Periodization of cultural history

In modern cultural studies, the following periodization of the history of European culture is accepted:

• Primitive culture (up to 4 thousand BC);
• The culture of the Ancient World (4 thousand BC - V century AD), in which the culture of the Ancient East and the culture of Antiquity are distinguished;
• Culture of the Middle Ages (V-XIV centuries);
• Culture of the Renaissance or Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries);
• Culture of the New Time (16th-19th centuries);

The main feature of the periodization of cultural history is the identification of the culture of the Renaissance as an independent period of cultural development, while in historical science this era is considered the late Middle Ages or early modern times.

Culture and nature

It is not difficult to see that the removal of man from the principles of rational cooperation with the nature that generates him leads to the decline of the accumulated cultural heritage, and then to the decline of civilized life itself. An example of this is the decline of many developed states of the ancient world and the numerous manifestations of the cultural crisis in the life of modern megacities.

Modern understanding of culture

In practice, the concept of culture refers to all the best products and actions, including in the fields of art and classical music. From this point of view, the concept of “cultural” includes people who are in some way connected with these areas. At the same time, people involved in classical music are, by definition, at a higher level than rap fans from working-class neighborhoods or the aborigines of Australia.

However, within the framework of this worldview, there is a current - where less “cultured” people are seen, in many ways, as more “natural”, and the suppression of “human nature” is attributed to “high” culture. This point of view is found in the works of many authors since the 18th century. They emphasize, for example, that folk music (as created by ordinary people) more honestly expresses natural look life, while classical music looks superficial and decadent. Following this view, people outside of “Western civilization” are “noble savages”, uncorrupted by Western capitalism.

Today, most researchers reject both extremes. They do not accept either the concept of the “only correct” culture or its complete opposition to nature. In this case, it is recognized that the “non-elite” can have the same high culture as the “elite”, and “non-Western” residents can be just as cultured, it’s just that their culture is expressed in different ways. However, this concept makes a distinction between “high” culture as the culture of elites and “mass” culture, implying goods and works aimed at the needs of ordinary people. It should also be noted that in some works both types of culture, “high” and “low”, simply refer to different subcultures.

Artifacts, or works of material culture, are usually derived from the first two components.

Examples.

Thus, culture (assessed as experience and knowledge), when assimilated into the sphere of architecture, becomes an element of material culture - a building. A building, as an object of the material world, affects a person through his senses.

When assimilating the experience and knowledge of a people by one person (the study of mathematics, history, politics, etc.), we get a person who has a mathematical culture, political culture, etc.

Subculture concept

The subculture has the following explanation. Since the distribution of knowledge and experience in society is not uniform (people have different mental abilities), and experience that is relevant for one social stratum will not be relevant for another (the rich do not need to save on products, choosing what is cheaper), in this regard, culture will have fragmentation.

Changes in culture

Development, change and progress in culture are almost identically equal to dynamics; it acts as a more general concept. Dynamics is an ordered set of multidirectional processes and transformations in culture, taken within a certain period

• any changes in culture are causally determined by many factors
• dependence of the development of any culture on the measure of innovation (the ratio of stable elements of culture and the scope of experiments)

• Natural resources
• communication
• cultural diffusion (mutual penetration (borrowing) of cultural traits and complexes from one society to another when they come into contact (cultural contact)
• economic technologies
• social institutions and organizations
• value-semantic
• rational-cognitive

Cultural studies

Culture is a subject of study and reflection within a number of academic disciplines. Among the main ones are cultural studies, cultural studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy of culture, sociology of culture and others. In Russia, the main science of culture is considered to be culturology, while in Western, predominantly English-speaking countries, the term culturology is usually understood in a narrower sense as the study of culture as a cultural system. A common interdisciplinary field of study of cultural processes in these countries is cultural studies. cultural studies) . Cultural anthropology studies the diversity of human culture and society, and one of its main tasks is to explain the reasons for the existence of this diversity. The sociology of culture is engaged in the study of culture and its phenomena using the methodological means of sociology and the establishment of dependencies between culture and society. Philosophy of culture is a specifically philosophical study of the essence, meaning and status of culture.

Notes

1. *Culturology. XX century Encyclopedia in two volumes / Chief editor and compiler S.Ya. Levit. - St. Petersburg. : University Book, 1998. - 640 p. - 10,000 copies, copies. - ISBN 5-7914-0022-5
2. Vyzhletsov G.P. Axiology of culture. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. - P.66
3. Pelipenko A. A., Yakovenko I. G. Culture as a system. - M.: Languages ​​of Russian culture, 1998.
4. Etymology of the word “culture” - Cultural Studies mailing archive
5. "cultura" in translation dictionaries - Yandex. Dictionaries
6. Sugai L. A. The terms “culture”, “civilization” and “enlightenment” in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries // Proceedings of GASK. Issue II. World of Culture.-M.: GASK, 2000.-p.39-53
7. Gulyga A.V. Kant today // I. Kant. Treatises and letters. M.: Nauka, 1980. P. 26
8. Renofants I. A pocket book for those who like to read Russian books, newspapers and magazines. St. Petersburg, 1837. P. 139.
9. Chernykh P.Ya Historical and etymological dictionary of the modern Russian language. M., 1993. T. I. P. 453.
10. Vellansky D.M. Basic outlines of general and particular physiology or physics of the organic world. St. Petersburg, 1836. pp. 196-197.
11. Vellansky D.M. Basic outlines of general and particular physiology or physics of the organic world. St. Petersburg, 1836. P. 209.
12. Sugai L. A. The terms “culture”, “civilization” and “enlightenment” in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries // Proceedings of GASK. Issue II. World of Culture.-M.: GASK, 2000.-pp.39-53.
13. Berdyaev N. A. The meaning of history. M., 1990 °C. 166.
14. Roerich N.K. Culture and civilization M., 1994. P. 109.
15. Nicholas Roerich. Synthesis
16. White A Symbolism as a worldview C 18
17. White A Symbolism as a worldview C 308
18. Article “Pain of the Planet” from the collection “Fiery Stronghold” http://magister.msk.ru/library/roerich/roer252.htm
19. New philosophical encyclopedia. M., 2001.
20. White, Leslie "The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome." McGraw-Hill, New York (1959)
21. White, Leslie, (1975) "The Concept of Cultural Systems: A Key to Understanding Tribes and Nations", Columbia University, New York
22. Usmanova A. R. “Cultural research” // Postmodernism: Encyclopedia / Mn.: Interpressservice; Book House, 2001. - 1040 p. - (World of Encyclopedias)
23. Abushenko V.L. Sociology of culture // Sociology: Encyclopedia / Comp. A. A. Gritsanov, V. L. Abushenko, G. M. Evelkin, G. N. Sokolova, O. V. Tereshchenko. - Mn.: Book House, 2003. - 1312 p. - (World of Encyclopedias)
24. Davydov Yu. N. Philosophy of culture // Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Literature

• Georg Schwarz, Kulturexperimente im Altertum, Berlin 2010.
• Etymology of the word "culture"
• Ionin L. G. History of the word “culture”. Sociology of culture. -M.: Logos, 1998. - p.9-12.
• Sugai L. A. The terms “culture”, “civilization” and “enlightenment” in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries // Proceedings of GASK. Issue II. World of Culture.-M.: GASK, 2000.-pp.39-53.
• Chuchin-Rusov A. E. Convergence of cultures. - M.: Master, 1997.
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• Leach Edmund. Culture and communication: the logic of the relationship of symbols. Towards the use of structural analysis in anthropology. Per. from English - M.: Publishing house "Eastern Literature". RAS, 2001. - 142 p.
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• Markaryan E. S. Theory of culture and modern science. - M.: Mysl, 1983.
• Flier A. Ya. History of culture as a change in dominant types of identity // Personality. Culture. Society. 2012. Volume 14. Issue. 1 (69-70). pp. 108-122.
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• Shendrik A.I. Theory of culture. - M.: Publishing house of political literature "Unity", 2002. - 519 p.

see also

• World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development

Links

• Vavilin E. A., Fofanov V. P. Historical materialism and the category of culture: Theoretical and methodological aspect. Novosibirsk, 1993.
• Association of Cultural Departments and Research Centers
• Gureev, M.V. The main threats and dangers for culture in the 21st century. ,
• Kelle V.Zh. Globalization processes and cultural dynamics // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. - 2005. - No. 1. - P. 69-70.
• Colin K.K. Neo-globalism and culture: new threats to national security // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. - 2005. - No. 2. - P. 104-111.
• Colin K.K. Neo-globalism and culture: new threats to national security (end) // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. - 2005. - No. 3. - P. 80-87.
• Culture in the USSR = subculture of the Russian intelligentsia
• Lukov M.V.