Cultures are partly similar and partly different in solving common problems. For each pair of cultures being compared, the area of agreement is perceived as correct and is usually not noticed. The area of difference causes surprise, irritation, rejection and is perceived as a typical national trait - a cultural stereotype.
Russian stereotype: lazy, irresponsible, melancholic.
American stereotype: naive, aggressive, unprincipled, workaholic.
German stereotype: insensitive, bureaucratic, overzealous at work.
French stereotype: arrogant, hot-tempered, hierarchical, emotional.
A concept close to the concept of culture is national mentality - an integrating characteristic of people living in a particular culture, which allows us to describe the uniqueness of these people’s vision of the world around them and explain the specifics of their response to it.
Topic 5. The concept of “culture shock”. Strategies for overcoming intercultural conflict
The phenomenon of cross- culture shock widely known. Almost everyone who worked or lived abroad for a relatively long period has encountered it.
Cross-cultural shock is a state of confusion and helplessness caused by the loss of normal values and the inability to answer the questions: where, when and how to do the right thing?
Especially often, collisions that arise on the basis of cross-cultural mistakes occur during first meetings and acquaintances. It is in these situations that managers and executives, especially those who do not speak foreign languages and do not have much experience in contacts with foreigners, should be extremely attentive and careful.
Six forms of culture shock:
stress due to the efforts made to achieve psychological adaptation;
a sense of loss due to deprivation of friends, position, profession, property;
a feeling of loneliness (rejection) in a new culture, which can turn into denial of this culture;
violation of role expectations and sense of self-identity; anxiety that turns to resentment and disgust after recognizing cultural differences;
feeling of inferiority due to inability to cope with the situation.
The main cause of culture shock is cultural differences. Symptoms of culture shock can be very different: from exaggerated concern for the cleanliness of dishes, linen, and the quality of water and food to psychosomatic disorders, general anxiety, insomnia, and fear.
Cross-cultural shock, characterized by a state of indecision, helplessness, depression, and dissatisfaction with oneself. Almost without exception, businessmen have experienced this condition. This is connected not only with moving to another country, but also with a change in type of activity, change in official position, transfer from one company to another, etc.
Many researchers believe that the basis of cross-cultural shock is a violation of intercultural communications. There are usually four classic phases of cross-cultural shock.
The phase of euphoria, joyful revival.
This phase is often called the “honeymoon” of cross-cultural shock. This period is characterized by a high degree of expectations and a desire to focus on positive values. The phase of culture shock itself, frustration and irritation. Symptoms of this phase include homesickness, anxiety, depression, fatigue, irritability and even aggression. For many, this condition is accompanied by the development of an inferiority complex, a reluctance to perceive new culture
, limiting communication only with their compatriots.
Phase three is the phase of gradual adaptation, recovery. During this period, the new cultural environment is comprehended, a positive perception of the surrounding world returns, and a sense of hope for the best grows.
The fourth phase is the phase of complete adaptation, reverse culture shock. This phase is characterized by awareness of the values of the new culture and at the same time a critical understanding of the culture of one’s own country.
Success in the market largely depends on the cultural adaptability of the company, its employees, and their competence in the field of intercultural communications. Cultural incompetence and inflexibility in intercultural communication expose the success of the company to risk, including monetary risk. If an unsuccessful transaction is made, here too, perhaps, an important role is played by the inability to communicate with a foreign partner, ignorance of the customs, history, and culture of the partners’ country, the volume of sales and purchases may decrease, and the attitude of buyers towards the company will worsen. An important component of the effectiveness of cross-cultural contacts is knowledge of foreign languages. Language plays an important role in collecting information and evaluating it, language gives access to understanding the culture of other people, they become more open. Cross-cultural research shows that without knowledge of a foreign language it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to seriously study and understand the culture of another country. Entering the global world and successfully conducting international business requires the formation of cross-cultural literacy. Another barrier in intercultural communications can be stereotyping, simplified perception and standardization of reality phenomena. A manager who trusts his previous experience and stereotype often makes mistakes. His communication skills are difficult and most often lead to cross-cultural shock. Strictly speaking, stereotyping paralyzes creative thinking and has a detrimental effect on the ability to perceive new things.
In a cross-cultural environment important place occupied by the system of values, norms and traditions of a particular country. Respectful attitude not only to the cultural heritage of the country, but knowledge of the religious and ethical norms of a given country is necessary for a manager associated with international activities. Unfortunately, the most important reason for the disruption of cross-cultural communication and the occurrence of cross-cultural shock is still ethnocentrism, which is associated with a sense of superiority that representatives of one culture experience in relation to others. There is nothing more destructive to cooperation than a disdainful attitude towards a partner, the desire to impose your system of values and views on him. The manifestation of ethnocentrism and egocentrism is always detrimental to business and is usually accompanied by a loss of competitiveness. Not possible in modern conditions achieve business success without respecting the culture and traditions of other countries, just as it is impossible to achieve career success in a company, business culture which the manager does not accept and condemns. In business, as in any activity, the golden rule of morality still applies: Treat others the way you want to be treated.
The severity of culture shock and the duration of intercultural adaptation depend on many factors: internal (individual) and external (group).
In the first group of factors, the most important are the individual characteristics of a person: gender, age, character traits. Therefore, recently researchers believe that the education factor is more important for adaptation. The higher it is, the more successful the adaptation is. Education, even without taking into account cultural content, expands a person’s internal capabilities. The more complex a person’s picture of the world, the easier and faster he perceives innovations.
In connection with these studies, scientists have made attempts to identify a certain universal set personal characteristics that a person preparing for life in a foreign country with a foreign culture must have. The following personality traits are usually called: professional competence, high self-esteem, sociability, extroversion, openness to different views, interest in other people, a tendency to cooperate, tolerance of uncertainty, internal self-control, courage and perseverance, empathy. If the cultural distance is too great, adaptation will not be easier. The internal factors of adaptation and overcoming culture shock also include the circumstances of a person’s life experience. The most important thing here is the motives for adaptation. Having knowledge of the language, history and culture certainly makes adaptation easier.
Foreign companies operating in Russia bring new methods of communication, new models for organizing work processes, and new requirements for the professionalism of employees. Despite the fact that many employees of international companies have a good command of foreign language, orientation in a complex cultural space can be very difficult, which affects decision making and simply communication between employees. A prerequisite for successful staff interaction is the development of cross-cultural competencies.
Ways to resolve an individual’s conflict with an alien environment:
Ghettoization (from the word "ghetto"). This phenomenon occurs when immigrants, having arrived in a foreign country, for various internal or external reasons, become isolated in their own circle, minimizing communication with the surrounding society and its culture. They often settle in the same area of the city where they speak native language, retain the consumption patterns to which they are accustomed in their homeland. In many large and even medium-sized cities of the West you can see Chinese and Indian quarters. Brighton Beach in New York is a cultural enclave created in America by immigrants from Soviet Union, unable or unwilling to undergo socialization again. In such cultural ghettos, restaurants offering national cuisine, souvenir shops of the corresponding country, etc. are concentrated. In these areas, a corresponding demand is formed for the attributes of the culture of the country where the residents of the area or their ancestors came from.
Assimilation is a way of overcoming culture shock, the opposite of ghettoization. In this case, the individual strives to renounce his own culture as quickly as possible and adopt the culture of the host country. Such people in America are much more American than those whose ancestors landed in the New World hundreds of years ago.
An intermediate strategy in which immigrants strive to assimilate a new culture, but at the same time enrich it with the one they brought with them. So, Italian spaghetti, pizza became national dishes USA, and Indian and Chinese cuisine are part of consumption in the UK, USA and many other countries.
Partial assimilation is the abandonment of one’s culture and the adoption of a new one only in certain areas. Thus, most often, immigrants are forced to adapt to the norms accepted in a given country at work. However, in the family they often try to maintain their national culture and remain committed to national cuisine, apartment decoration style. They often remain committed to their traditional religion.
Colonization is the imposition by immigrants of their cultural values, norms, language local residents. In this case, the consumption style is introduced to new soil and becomes dominant either in the country as a whole or in certain groups of the population. A classic example of cultural colonization was the creation of empires of Western European countries in Asia and Africa, accompanied by the implantation of elements of European culture there.
However, the Americanization of life in Western Europe after World War II is sometimes cited as an example of cultural colonization. With this approach, cultural shifts in post-Soviet Russia can also be called cultural colonization.
Cognitive dissonance – (from the English words: cognitive – “cognitive” and dissonance – “lack of harmony”) is a state of an individual characterized by a collision in his consciousness of conflicting knowledge, beliefs, behavioral attitudes regarding some object or phenomenon, in which the existence of one element the denial of the other follows, and the feeling of psychological discomfort associated with this discrepancy. Dissonance may arise due to differences in cultural practices.
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Ivanova Elena Anatolyevna. Stereotype as a cultural phenomenon: Dis. ...cand. Philosopher Sciences: 09.00.11 Moscow, 2000 172 p. RSL OD, 61:01-9/32-8
Introduction
Chapter 1. Development of scientific and philosophical ideas about the concept of stereotype.
1. Mythological roots of stereotype 11
2. The emergence of the term “stereotype” and the degree of its research in science 29
Chapter 2. Stereotype and the problem of intercultural dialogue.
1. East - West as one of the stereotypical models of culture and the problem of intercultural dialogue 56
2. Ethnic, national, religious stereotypes 74
Chapter 3. Creative and stereotypical activities as phenomena of cultural activity.
1. Culture of the masses and their stereotypical symbols 100
2. Creative and stereotypical activities 114
Conclusion 134
Sources and comments 144
Bibliography 162
Introduction to the work
Relevance of the problem. Research on various aspects of stereotypes and related problems is relevant for many reasons. A stereotype is a unique phenomenon that inevitably, against the will of the individual, manifests itself at all levels of consciousness: when operating with images social interactions, actions with objects, natural and cultural connections, in direct contact with people and acts of any activity. Stereotypes are observed at the mental level and directly affect behavior.
A stereotype is a cultural phenomenon. Stereotyped forms of behavior include any relatively stable, repeated acts of activity that serve as a means of transmitting social experience, which are based on certain algorithms of action. For example, rituals, customs, etiquette, labor traditions, games, holidays,
education and more other processes subject to certain
« regulation.
Ethnic, national, religious stereotypes are associated with
One of the global problems of humanity is ethnic conflicts.
I Ethnostereotypes unite communities of people into a certain
sociocultural system. In times of crisis, consolidating “our own”
Ethnostereotypes differentiate “outsiders” to the same extent.
Ethnostereotype can play a positive and constructive role in
preservation traditional features and features national culture,
and also, under certain conditions, lead to genocide by
relation to other peoples and ethnic groups. In order to avoid ethnic, national, religious and related military conflicts, you need to know and manage the system of dynamic stereotypes, which changes along with changes in life, life support systems, etc. Knowledge of some stereotypical models of culture, for example, the East-West dichotomy, helps to solve the problem of intercultural dialogue.
The phenomenon of stereotype and the process of stereotyping can be observed, taking into account certain specific features, throughout the history of mankind. However, the very concept of a stereotype, as well as a number of problems associated with the phenomenon of stereotyping, arose only in the 20th century. together with developments in the areas of ideology, propaganda, and manipulation of public consciousness. On modern stage Research in these areas continues to be particularly relevant. Stereotype research is used for political and commercial purposes, since a stereotype can be a certain stimulator of a single emotional background by highlighting effective, impressive components of information by reducing other, “less significant” elements of information about an object, by simplifying and schematizing the content. Practical developments in the field of creating mechanisms for the formation and destruction of certain stereotypes associated with ideological and political phenomena, as well as the needs in the field of marketing, advertising and public relations continue to be relevant.
However, it should be noted: society is faced with the fact that stereotyping of thinking, affecting practical actions
individuals and groups in economic, political, social, ideological and other spheres of life, in some cases can not only slow down social development, but also cause significant moral and material damage. Being a natural, deterministic phenomenon of individual and public consciousness stereotypes sometimes become a dangerous phenomenon.
/ STEREOTYPICAL ACTIVITY CAN DISPLACE THE SECOND, I"""
the opposite type of cultural phenomenon: creative activity, without which human progress is impossible. Stereotyping and standardization are modern phenomena that affect all spheres of life: science, culture, art, personal communication. On a global scale, complete displacement creative activity could lead to the collapse of civilization.
In this regard, the study of the phenomenon of stereotype and the problem of stereotyping is associated with deepening the theoretical and methodological foundations of various fields of knowledge, and also has broad social and practical significance. A comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of stereotypes, ways and methods of influencing stereotypes, mechanisms of their formation and destruction is caused by the modern needs of science and practice.
The degree of development of the topic. The topic of stereotype has been and is being given special attention in philosophical, scientific and other literature.
Many authors point to the mythological roots underlying the stereotype. In particular, in domestic science this is done by S. A. Muradyan, O. 10. Semendyaeva and others. “Traditional” references to mythology create the illusion that mythological roots are
an indisputable fact, an axiom underlying the analysis of the stereotype and
stereotyping. However, in domestic science there are no separate
research revealing the mythological essence,
The peculiarity of stereotypes is as a phenomenon of individual and social consciousness with certain characteristics and functions, as well as social and psychological mechanisms, a phenomenon that plays a significant role in life social groups, society and in international relations - is revealed to a certain extent in the works of Soviet and Russian sociologists, social psychologists and philosophers: V. A. Yadov (“Social Stereotype”), G. M. Kondratenko (“Issues of the theory of the press in the light of social psychology” ), K.K. Platonov (" Brief dictionary systems psychological concepts"), A. A. Bodaleva ("Formation of the concept of" another person as a person "), S. A. Muradyan ("Stereotype in philosophical argumentation"), Zh. Karbovsky ("Stereotype as a phenomenon of consciousness"), etc. Analysis and systematization of a number of Western concepts of stereotype are given in the works of P. N. Shikhirev (“Studies of stereotype in American social science”), O. Yu. Semendyaeva (“Critical analysis of the concept of “stereotype” in social psychology of the USA”) V. S. . Ageev (" Psychological research social stereotypes"), etc.
The theme of the stereotype has been developed in sufficient detail in American sociological, socio-psychological, etc. scientific literature. Western research in the field of stereotype is associated with the names of W. Lippmann (Lippmann W., Public Opinion), G. W. Allport (Allport G. W., The Nature of Prejudice), T. Adorno (Adorno T. W., The Authoritarian Personality), J. G. Martin (Martin J. G., The Tolerant Personality), B.
Bettlheim and M. Janowicz (Bettlheim V. and Janowicz M., Social Change and predjudice), P. O'Hara R., Media for Millions, P. Taguiri R., Person Perception, E . various interpretations of a stereotype as a certain formation with certain psychological mechanisms, formed under the influence of certain external and internal factors. What American stereotype studies have in common is that most of them are devoted to anthropostereotypes and their impact in the social, political spheres and national relations. A stereotype is considered as a phenomenon associated with the formation of various social personality types (authoritarian, tolerant, etc.), the practical actions of which, according to some American researchers, determine! the nature and content of social and political processes in a particular country.
The stereotype in connection with the problems of intercultural dialogue, the East-West dichotomy, the development of Oriental studies and some other aspects of cross-cultural interaction were considered to one degree or another in domestic science by Yu. M. Lotman (“Current problems of semiotics and culture”), B. F. Porshnev ("Social psychology and history"), A. V. Sagadeev ("Stereotypes and auto-stereotypes in comparative studies of Eastern and Western philosophy"), I. S. Urbanaeva and Z. P. Morokhoeva ("On the specifics of the spiritual culture of the East: criticism of some stereotypes of bourgeois oriental studies"), etc., in foreign - A. Schweitzer
(Schweitzer A., Die Weltanschauung der indischen Denker), G. Grimm (Grimm G., Die Wissenschaft des Buddismus), H. Roetz (Roetz H., Mensch und Natur im alten China), J. Newson (Newson J., Dialogue and Development), L. Abegg (Abegg L., Ostasien denkt anders), etc.
Numerous articles and individual scientific studies are devoted to the problem of ethnic, national and religious stereotypes: L. N. Gumilyov (“Ethnogenesis and the Earth’s biosphere”), Yu. V. Bromley (“On the question of the influence of the characteristics of the cultural environment on the psyche”), L. E. Shklyar (“Ethnicity. Culture. Personality”), V. P. Trusov and A. S. Filippov (“Ethnic stereotypes”), D. Katz and K. Braly (Katz D., Braly K., Racial prejudice and stereotypes), O. Klineberg (Klineberg 0., The scientific study of national stereotypes), X. Triandis and V. Vassiliou (Triandis N., Vassiliou V., Frequency of contact and racial stereotyping), H. Schoenfild (N. , An experimental study of some problems relating to stereotypes), L. Edwards (Edwards L., Four dimensions in political stereotypes) and mh. etc.
However, stereotypes in connection with the problems of intercultural dialogue have not yet been fully studied, and effective models for resolving conflicts in which ethnic, national, and religious stereotypes are used have not been developed. In science and society there is no clear answer to the question: is there even a possibility of conflict-free cultural interaction in modern conditions?
Creative and stereotypical activities as types of cultural phenomena are discussed in scientific articles by S. A. Arutyunov (“Custom, ritual, traditions”), E. S. Makaryan (“Theory of culture and modern science"), V. D. Plakhova (" Traditions and Society "), I. A. Beskova
(“Specifics of thinking of creative individuals”), N. S. Zlobina (“Culture and social progress”), N. N. Ivanova (“Understanding culture and its significance for the analysis of problems of cultural progress”) and others.
The culture of the masses and their stereotypical symbols are analyzed by G. Lebon ("Psychology of Peoples and Masses"), 3. Freud ("Mass Psychology and Analysis of the Human Self"), Jose Ortega y Gasset ("Revolt of the Masses"), E. Canetti (“Mass and Power”), S. Moscovici (“The Age of Crowds”), G. Bloomer (“Collective Behavior”).
This study is an attempt to synthesize various aspects of the stereotype as a cultural phenomenon.
The purpose of the study is the development of a holistic view and theoretical analysis of various aspects of the stereotype as a cultural phenomenon. To achieve this goal, the following are set: tasks:
Consider the mythological roots of the stereotype;
analyze. the meaningful evolution of the concept of “stereotype” and its cognitive function;
Show the features of stereotypical ideas about models
culture and analyze the problem of intercultural dialogue on
example of the East-West dichotomy;
consider various modifications of ethnocultural stereotypes;
systematize and analyze modern philosophical ideas about creative and stereotypical activities as types of cultural activity.
Theoretical and methodological basis This work consists of research in various fields of knowledge: philosophy, cultural studies, history, oriental studies, sociology, psychology, etc. When working on the dissertation, the principles of systematicity and historicism, meaningful retrospection, and comparative studies are used. Scientific novelty of the research is:
Philosophical and methodological development of the problem of stereotype
as a cultural phenomenon operating at various levels
public and individual consciousness;
In the explication of the "stereotype", which allows you to record
manifestation of the corresponding phenomenon in various social
spheres;
comparative analysis and classification of a number of domestic and foreign concepts of stereotype;
identifying the role and significance of stereotypes in the socio-cultural life of society, in interethnic relations;
consideration of stereotypes in connection with problems of intercultural dialogue;
Analysis of creative and stereotypical activities as
phenomena of cultural activity;
Consideration of some aspects of the stereotype, allowing
if necessary, neutralize their negative impact on
ethnic, national, religious relationships, as well as
creative progress.
Theoretical and practical significance The work is that the main conclusions and provisions of this study can be used:
For subsequent theoretical development of the problem
stereotyping of individual and social consciousness and
applied research of the stereotype phenomenon;
When analyzing and resolving ethnic, national, religious
conflicts, as well as other problems related to intercultural
dialogue;
when developing direct methods for forming creative personalities with flexible dialectical thinking;
when developing specific activities that help overcome the inertia of thinking and behavior of social actors;
When analyzing some problems of mass culture;
When preparing courses on theoretical and applied
disciplines addressing the problems of stereotype and stereotyping.
Mythological roots of the stereotype
Stereotype as a phenomenon has been studied by different schools of research. The modern scientific and philosophical understanding of a stereotype implies the content in it of such elements-characteristics as binaryness, inconsistency, standardization, schematism, symbolism, emotionality, categoricalness, stability and many others. etc. It should be noted that scientists are looking for the roots of the above-mentioned elements in mythology, since myth is one of the most important phenomena of human culture, which is based on the basic models of personal and social stereotypical behavior, certain “codes” of individual and social human existence.
The ambiguity of mythology was noted in Giambattista Vico's work "Foundations of a new science of the general nature of nations", which is considered to be the beginning of modern interpretations of mythology (1). G. Vico discovers in mythology new way knowledge, which has special features: the principle of multiplicity, a sense of connection between all elements of existence, a tendency to ambiguity, and, as noted above, a predilection for ambiguity.
In the era of German romanticism, F. Schelling develops a theory of mythology, polemically directed against classical allegorism. According to this concept, mythological image does not “mean” something, but “is” this something, i.e. itself is a meaningful form, located in organic unity with its content - a symbol.
F. Nietzsche considered mythological symbols to be basic, and the process of their destruction as extremely dangerous for modern civilization. Nietzsche saw in mythology the living conditions of any culture. Culture, according to Nietzsche, can develop only within the horizon outlined by mythology. The disease of modernity, according to Nietzsche, is historical - and it consists in the destruction of the closed horizon of mythology by an excess of historical events: getting used to thinking under the sign of more and more new value symbols. In refusal mythological symbols, according to the theory of F. Nietzsche, there is a danger of self-destruction of civilization (2).
M. Müller created the linguistic concept of the emergence of myth as a result of a “disease of the tongue”: primitive denoted abstract concepts through concrete signs using metaphorical epithets. When the original meaning of the latter was forgotten or obscured, then, due to semantic shifts, a myth arose. The gods seemed to Müller mainly solar symbols, while A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz (they, like M. Müller, were representatives of the romantic tradition of the school of studying mythology of the second half of the 19th century) saw in them a figurative generalization of meteorological (thunderstorm) phenomena. Later, astral and lunar myths and the symbols associated with them came to the fore.
The connection of the symbol with mythology, in particular such aspects as the transformation of myth into allegory and history; analogy turned into myth and metaphor; the influence of language on the formation of myth; material and verbal personification in myths and many others. others studied the “anthropological” or “evolutionary” school (its representatives: E. Tylor, E. Lang, G. Spenceo, etc.) developed in the 19th century. in England and was the result of the first scientific steps of comparative ethnography (3).
The connection of the symbol with magic and ritual was considered by J. J. Frazer. In magic he saw the oldest form of a universal worldview. Frazer's position served as the starting point for the spread of ritualistic doctrine (4).
The English ethnographer B. Malinovsky laid the foundation for the functional school in ethnology. According to Malinovsky, myth codifies thought, strengthens morality, offers certain rules of behavior and sanctions rituals, rationalizes and justifies social institutions. Malinowski argues that myth is not just a story told or a narrative that is allegorical, symbolic, etc. meanings. Myth is experienced by the archaic consciousness as a kind of oral “sacred scripture”, as a certain reality influencing the world and man (5).
East - West as one of the stereotypical models of culture and the problem of intercultural dialogue
Since ancient times, the opposition of East to West has become one of the stereotypical models of culture. In the modern world, the contrast between the cultures of the West and the East can be seen in all spheres of life and creativity: in science, politics, morality, religion, literature, etc. The East in the scientific sense does not study the West, in contrast to which it actively cultivates research in the field of Oriental studies: a science that arose in Western Europe and comprehensively studies history, economics, languages, ethnography, culture, etc. East. The emergence of Oriental studies as a special branch of knowledge is associated with the era of the initial accumulation of capital and the beginning of European expansion into the countries of the East.
The first stage of Oriental studies: in the 15th - 16th centuries. descriptive writings by travelers appear mainly about the countries of the Middle East; in Europe, the first university departments for teaching ancient Hebrew and Arabic languages were created (in the 16th century in Paris, in the 17th century in England); in the first half of the 18th century. - expansion of language learning groups (Persian, Turkish, Chinese, etc.); prerequisites for scientific research of the East arise.
Second stage of Oriental studies: second half of the 18th century. - early 19th century The scientific foundations of the analysis are laid. The special development of Eastern philology, the beginning of comparative linguistics, the discovery of ancient written languages.
Third stage: second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century Orientalists appear in the countries of the East themselves. Objects of research and study trends are expanding. On the one hand, there is the deepening of academic research (in Europe, dictionaries of Oriental languages are published, periodical Orientalist publications of a philological nature appear, and congresses of Orientalists have been held since 1873), on the other hand, they are trying to use the knowledge of the East for practical purposes during the period of colonialism.
New and modern times: academic research continues (archaeological excavations - the discovery of some ancient civilizations, the creation of summary works on the history, literature, philosophy, etc. of the East, etc.) and the number of sociological works is sharply increasing, research related to the construction of economic models is being conducted and forecasting social and political processes. Oriental studies itself was also actively studied at various historical stages both in the West and in the East. i
Summarizing many of the theses of both Oriental studies itself and works studying it, we can conclude that certain stereotypes of perception of the East are widespread in science. Standard stereotypes of Western Orientalism include the tendency to diametrically oppose the East to the West. This approach is based on a geographical phenomenon: East is one of the four cardinal directions and the direction opposite to west, the part of the horizon where the sun rises. West is the part of the horizon where the sun sets. When it is day (light) in the East, it is night (darkness) in the West. This fact V different eras interpreted differently different peoples and found a special reflection in consciousness. "For the Egyptians and Greeks, the West - the place where the sun sets - is the place where the kingdom of spirits should be. According to St. Jerome, the west is the dwelling place of the devil. Thus, if the East symbolizes the kingdom of Christ, then the West is the kingdom of the devil (the death of the sun In the early Middle Ages, the Scandinavian peoples believed that in the West there was a poisoned sea of destruction and an abyss of waters." (1)
Culture of the masses and their stereotypical symbols
The mass (crowd) has its own culture, which has a certain classification and has a number of characteristics. On the use of factors influencing the variability of opinions and beliefs of the masses, as well as certain symbols associated with them, principles, methods and other forms of religious beliefs, ideologies, propaganda, political and social institutions, education and upbringing, advertising and many others are built. etc.
In this case, culture means the activity of people to reproduce and renew, or destroy or consume the results and products of social existence. The concept of stereotypical in this context means, first of all, a stable and standard pattern. Different authors define the concept of masses in different ways.
For Gustav Le Bon, mass is adequate to the concept of crowd. “The word “crowd” means,” writes Le Bon, “in the ordinary sense, a collection of individuals, whatever their nationality, profession or gender and whatever the accidents that caused this gathering. But from a psychological point of view, this word receives a completely another meaning. Under certain conditions - and, moreover, only under these conditions - an assembly of people has completely new features, different from those that characterize the individuals who make up this assembly. The conscious personality disappears, and the feelings and ideas of all the individual units that form the whole. called a crowd, takes the same direction. A collective soul is formed, which, of course, has a temporary character, but also very specific features. The meeting in such cases becomes ... an organized crowd or a spiritual crowd, constituting a single being and obeying the law of the spiritual unity of the crowd. " (1) Freud's definition of the masses is primarily associated with mass psychology, which he considers, comparing it with the concept of the individual “I”. (2)
José Ortega y Gasset uses different terms: mass and crowd. The crowd, according to the definition of José Ortega y Gasset, is a quantitative and visible concept. “Expressing it in sociological terms, we come to the concept of social mass. Every society is a dynamic unity of two factors, minorities and the masses” (3). The mass for Ortega y Gasset is a type of people found in all social classes, a type characteristic of the modern era, predominant and dominant in society (4). The researcher also calls a mass a “cluster” or “crowding” of people (5).
S. Moscovici prefers to use the term crowd. He says that whenever people gather together, a crowd soon begins to be outlined and visible. They acquire a certain common essence that suppresses their own; they are instilled with a collective will that silences their personal will (6).
E. Canetti uses two concepts: mass and flock. The phenomenon of the emergence of a mass, according to Canetti, is associated with the fear of touch: “The more people are compressed, the more they feel that they are not afraid of each other” (7). Canetti also claims that the mass originates from the pack. "A pack is a group of excited people eager to become more of them." (8)
G. Bloomer distinguishes the concepts of crowd, mass, as well as crowd and public. Bloomer considers crowding to be the main type of elementary human interaction. By this term he means a circular reaction: “in a crowd of people, people circle aimlessly and randomly around each other, like the intertwining movements of sheep that are in a state of excitement.” (9)
The mass, according to Bloomer, is represented by people engaged in mass behavior, such as those who are excited by some national event, or are participating in a land boom, or are interested in some murder trial, the reports of which are published in press, or are involved in some kind of large-scale migration (10).
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A cultural stereotype is a certain canon of thoughts and perceptions, a stable reproduction of leisure activities and forms of behavior. On the one hand, a cultural stereotype helps an individual navigate situations; an entrenched form of prejudice plays a negative role and prevents an objective assessment of the contradictions that arise during development. public relations, the ambiguity of people's actions.
In a broad sense, a cultural stereotype as part of a worldview can be considered as a carrier of collective ideas, as an imprint of power relations, as a manifestation of implicit knowledge, as a component of motivation for social practice. Its diverse study is relevant, first of all, from the position of the anthropological version of cultural studies, which, by studying the specifics of the subject of cultural activity, is aimed at providing him with pragmatic, adaptation-appropriate knowledge.
The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is related to the needs modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, often very far from reality, has the same historical and cultural significance, like reality itself. It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities.
Despite all the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in every new historical era is an important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional setting and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and the rethinking of already known ones. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself, is still a problem.
Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, a prejudice, a cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences.
Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, under the stereotype in general outline is understood as a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, emerging in conditions of information deficiency as a result of generalization personal experience individual and often preconceived ideas accepted in society.
At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ significantly from them in their psychological basis.
The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, consolidated by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means , in which society is interested (or not interested).
In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance and openness to others, while stereotypes are a product of hidden subjective attitudes.
By their nature, stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and interactions of individuals. Having this nature, stereotypes have a number of qualities: integrity, value, stability, conservatism, emotionality, rationality, etc. Thanks to these qualities, stereotypes perform their various functions and tasks, of which for the process intercultural communication The following are of particular importance:
explanation of human actions by providing ready and simple information about their specific sociocultural characteristics;
anticipating various forms of behavior from communication partners;
formation of the foundations of one’s own behavior in relation to interlocutors and partners;
protection of traditions, customs, habits, one’s culture, apology for one’s own co-cultural group;
providing members of society with appropriate standards, models, and standards of behavior;
stabilization and integration of relations between sociocultural groups in society.
Stereotypes are rigidly “built-in” into our value system, are an integral part of it and provide a kind of protection for our positions in society. For this reason, stereotypes are used in every intercultural situation. The mechanisms of intercultural perception activate the selective application of the norms and values of the native culture. It is impossible to do without the use of these extremely general, culturally specific ways of assessing both one’s own group and other cultural groups. Representatives of another group are identified by such characteristics as gender, ethnicity, speech characteristics, appearance, skin color, marriage customs, religious beliefs, etc. cultural stereotype tradition
The relationship between the cultural background of a person and the character traits attributed to him is usually not adequate. People belonging different cultures, have different understandings of the world, which makes communication from a “single” position impossible. Guided by the norms and values of his culture, a person himself determines which facts and in what light to evaluate, which significantly affects the nature of our communication with representatives of other cultures.
For example, when communicating with Italians who are animatedly gesturing during a conversation, Germans, accustomed to a different style of communication, may develop a stereotype about the “eccentricity” and “disorganization” of Italians. In turn, Italians may have a stereotype about Germans as “cold” and “restrained”, etc.
Depending on the methods and forms of use, stereotypes can be useful or harmful for communication. Stereotyping helps people understand a situation and act in accordance with new circumstances in the following cases:
if it is consciously adhered to: the individual must understand that the stereotype reflects group norms and values, group traits and characteristics, and not specific qualities characteristic of an individual from a given group;
if the stereotype is descriptive and not evaluative: this involves the reflection in the stereotypes of real and objective qualities and properties of people of a given group, but not their assessment as good or bad;
if the stereotype is accurate: this means that the stereotype must adequately express the characteristics and traits of the group to which the person belongs;
if the stereotype is only a guess about the group, but not direct information about it: this means that the first impression of the group does not always provide reliable knowledge about all individuals of this group;
if the stereotype is modified, i.e. based on further observations and experience with real people or comes from experience of a real situation.
In situations of intercultural contacts, stereotypes are effective only when they are used as a first and positive guess about a person or situation, and are not considered as the only correct information about them.
Stereotypes become ineffective and impede communication when, based on them, they mistakenly assign people to the wrong groups, incorrectly describe group norms, when they confuse stereotypes with a description of a particular individual, and when it is not possible to modify stereotypes based on real observations and experience. In such cases, stereotypes can become a serious obstacle to intercultural contacts.
In general, the following reasons are distinguished, because of which? stereotypes can hinder intercultural communication:
if stereotypes fail to reveal the individual characteristics of people: stereotyping assumes that all members of the group have the same traits. This approach applies to the whole group and to the individual over a period of time, despite individual variations;
if stereotypes repeat and reinforce certain erroneous beliefs and beliefs until people begin to accept them as true;
if stereotypes are based on half-truths and distortions. While retaining the real characteristics of the stereotyped group, stereotypes distort reality and give inaccurate ideas about the people with whom intercultural contacts are made.
People retain their stereotypes, even if reality and their life experience they are contradicted. In this regard, in a situation of intercultural contacts, it is important to be able to effectively deal with stereotypes, i.e. be aware of and use them, and also be able to refuse them if they do not correspond to reality.
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The concept of a stereotype was first used by W. Lippmann back in 1922, who believed that these are ordered, schematic “pictures of the world” determined by culture in a person’s head, which save his efforts when perceiving complex objects of the world. With this understanding of the stereotype, two of its important features stand out - being determined by culture and being a means of saving labor effort, and, accordingly, linguistic means. If algorithms for solving mathematical problems save a person’s thinking, then stereotypes “save” the personality itself.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with a “naive picture of the world.” We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression, consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, a cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired like a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.
Yu. A. Sorokin defines a stereotype as a certain process and result of communication (behavior) according to certain semiotic models, the list of which is closed due to certain semiotic-technological principles accepted in a certain society. In this case, the semiotic model is implemented at the social, socio-psychological levels (standard) or at the linguistic, psychological levels (norm). Standard and norm exist in two forms: as a stamp (overly explicit complex sign) or as a cliché (insufficiently explicit complex sign).
V.V. Krasnykh divides stereotypes into two types - stereotypes-images and stereotypes-situations. Examples of image stereotypes: a bee is a hard worker, a ram is stubborn, and situation stereotypes: a ticket is a composter, a stork is a cabbage.
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or simply stand in line; in a number of European countries, they tear off a receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
So, a stereotype is a certain fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It represents some culturally determined idea of an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell. Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge, which is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered pre-precious (important, representative) names in a culture. A stereotype is a phenomenon of language and speech, a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and on the other, to express oneself among “one’s own” and at the same time identify one’s “one.”
The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.
We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The set of mental stereotypes of an ethnos is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will talk about light moonlit night: it’s so light that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it’s so light that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, almost any feature, not just the logically main one, can become dominant in a stereotype.
The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes of the general picture of the world. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.
A behavior stereotype is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. And in general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “our own people.”
So, a stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of a culture, it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.
Stereotypes as a cultural phenomenon
Human consciousness is endowed with the property of reflecting the objective reality surrounding a person, and this reflection is a subjective image of the objective world, i.e. a certain model, a picture of the world. When reality is objectified by consciousness, the mechanisms of stereotyping are activated. The result of the reflection of a fragment of the world picture in the individual’s consciousness is a stereotype, a fixed mental “picture” [Krasnykh 2002:177-178]. Thus, from a content point of view, a stereotype is a certain stable fragment of the picture of the world stored in the mind.
The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, I. S. Kon, Yu. D. Apresyan, V. A. Ryzhkov, Yu. E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh, V.A. Maslova).
Social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethno cultural stereotypes- this is a generalized idea of the typical features that characterize a nation. German neatness, Russian “maybe”, Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, hot temper of Italians, stubbornness of Finns, slowness of Estonians, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about the whole people that apply to each of its representatives.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with a “naive picture of the world.” We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.
A stereotype is interpreted in modern social sciences as “a set of stable, simplified generalizations about a group of individuals, which makes it possible to distribute group members into categories and perceive them in a stereotyped way, according to these expectations.” However, the stereotype does not only apply to groups of subjects. It also expresses a person’s habitual attitude towards any phenomenon or event. Stereotypes are formed in the process of socialization of the individual [Ryzhkov 1988:11] and are formed under the influence social conditions and previous experience.
In linguoculturology, the following types of stereotypes are distinguished: simple and figurative. Both have autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. (think about examples).
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or simply stand in line; in a number of European countries, they tear off a receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
According to Harutyunyan, “a peculiar national flavor of feelings and emotions, way of thinking and actions, stable and national features of habits and traditions, formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, the peculiarities of the historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture.” In other words, a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation.
Ethnic cultural stereotypes cannot be considered separately from the culture of communication, since interethnic communication is not an isolated area social life, but a mechanism that ensures the coordination and functioning of all elements of human culture.
Culture interethnic communication is a system of stereotypical forms, principles, and methods of communicative activity specific to a given ethnic group. The system of ethnocultural stereotypes is specially adapted to perform socially significant functions in the life of an ethnic group.
Ethnic stereotypes in situations of intercultural communication act as “guides” of behavior. Based on the formed ideas, we predict in advance the behavior of representatives of another ethnic group, and without meaning to, we establish a distance in the process of intercultural communication.
The perception of another ethnic group is a direct reaction to contact with a foreign ethnic environment. Typically, perception comes through the prism of one’s ethnic “I,” that is, a certain traditional stereotype of thinking and behavior determined by ethnicity. Now, when ethnic differences dominate people’s behavior more and more, determining the nature of perception of other ethnic groups, intercultural communication gives rise to many problems.
The basis for the formation of ethnic stereotypes are cultural differences, which are easily perceived in intercultural interaction. Formed in the zone of ethnocultural contacts on the basis of systems of ethnic ideas about the imaginary and actual traits of one’s own and other ethnic groups, stereotypes are consolidated on a subconscious level as an unquestionable imperative in relation to representatives of other ethnic cultures.
