In the new literary context of the XIX V. It was not for nothing that Krylov focused on the fable. In the fable tradition, the presence of “pretext and its playing out is, in fact, the law of the genre. Krylov remained faithful to the creative principle of the 18th century, which he mastered in drama. However, processing ready-made texts when creating his own works was not only Krylov’s individual feature.
In “The Novel in Letters,” Pushkin considers essentially the same method of creating a new text that Krylov used all his life. Pushkin attributes the following reasoning to his hero: “How strange it is to read in 1829 a novel written in 775. The incident is well complicated - but Belkurg speaks askance, but Charlotte answers wryly. An intelligent person could take a ready-made plan, ready-made characters, correct the style and nonsense, fill in the omissions - and a wonderful original novel would come out.” This is exactly how Pushkin builds his “Belkin’s Tales” in the next 1830. In the post-Romantic era, the artistic code of the past and seemingly outdated century turns out to be capable of generating new meanings.
Pushkin always had a special interest in Krylov, and in the 1830s. It was not only Krylov’s memories of the Pugachev riot or other eyewitness accounts of a bygone era that were important to him. Krylov was not a museum relic. It contains the traditions of the 18th century. continued to live, organically developing and changing along with life itself, revealing their internal capabilities to the new literary era. Krylov was the link connecting the 18th century with the 19th century. It was not for nothing that Krylov and Pushkin understood each other so well. The main feature of Krylov’s methods of qualitative transformation and use of folk elements is the sharp change in their semantic and stylistic functions.
At the same time, Krylov’s style is characterized by new method the interpenetration of the style of the author’s narration and the style of “inner speech” of the characters, which largely determined the development of realistic styles of Russian fiction of the 19th century. The rudiments of forms of “non-direct” or “experienced” speech can also be found in Russian literature of the previous era. But as a deep, artistically conscious technique, this method of constructing the author’s style began to be cultivated only with early XIX century, having received a unique and subtle development in the works of Krylov, Zhukovsky, Pushkin and Gogol.
Here are the relevant lines from Krylov’s fable “Two Doves”: This Dove touched the speech:
It's a pity brother, but the desire to fly is great:
It interferes with both reasoning and feeling [...]
Here is our wanderer flying; suddenly I encounter rain and thunder;
Below him, like an ocean, the steppe all around turns blue.
Where to go? Fortunately, a dry oak caught my eye,
Our Dove nestled somehow and snuggled up to him [...]
It trembles, tears, beats;
Fortunately, the network is old: somehow I broke through it,
I only sprained my leg and crushed my wing!
But there is no time for them: he rushes away without memory.
Here, worse than that trouble, trouble is over your head!
No matter how the evil hawk appears;
My Dove did not see the light!
From the hawk he waves with all his might.
Oh! strength in a nutshell! completely exhausted!
Already the claws of the predator are spread over him;
The cold is plowing into him from his wide wings.
This technique, which promotes vivid picturesqueness and dramatic character of the image, expanding the flow of lively colloquial speech as part of the narrative style, merges in Krylov’s work with the technique of internal dialogization of the author’s tale, inherited from the Karamzin school, but given vivid realistic expressiveness by Krylov.
For example, in the fable “Two Doves”:
They did not see how time flew by;
They were sad, but never bored.
Well, it seems, where would you want? Or from a sweetheart, or from a friend?
No, one of them decided to wander - to fly...
It is in connection with this new Krylovian principle of artistic-realistic reflection of life, which requires the widespread use of a wide variety of elements of living folk speech, imposing on the writer the obligation to involve in the style of poetic depiction all everyday terminology, all the details of designations characteristic of everyday, life language, is that the most imaginary prolixity of Krylov’s presentation, which to Zhukovsky seemed to be a flaw in Krylov’s style.
New methods of narration and depiction, based on the semantics of real-everyday language with its different styles, sometimes approaching book speech, sometimes going deep into oral folk speech, were associated with the technique of dramatic reproduction of an action, fact, object in their life dynamics, in their connections with other phenomena and things. Therefore, widely known and commonly used expressions of different styles and genres of book and colloquial language, regardless of their belonging to the middle syllable system, are involved by Krylov in the fable style, in the language of fiction, and are located within the same work in such combinations and combinations that were not characteristic of the styles of classicism. In the same fable by Krylov “The Lion and the Mosquito”, next to the picturesque and expressive expressions of everyday language, as if directly reflecting life facts and phenomena in their individual concreteness, there are also abstract bookish and traditional literary phrases and designations. For example:
Leo showed contempt for the mosquito [...]
And he challenges Leo to deadly warfare.
Achilles suddenly becomes Omir.
These new forms of expression, developed by Krylov and partly already prepared by Novikov, Radishchev and Derzhavin, marked not only the complete collapse of the system of three styles of the 18th century, but also a departure from the recognition of the middle style as the central core new system Russian literary language. Outlines and distinctive features The new system of the Russian literary language appeared even more clearly and widely in the works of Griboedov, Pushkin, Gogol, Belinsky and Lermontov, in the language of leading figures in fiction and magazine prose of the 20-30s of the 19th century.
In the complex and multilateral process of formation of a new system of the Russian literary language, several stages are distinguished. The most important of them, which led to the discovery of the national norm of the Russian literary language and its folk foundations, is most closely associated with the names of Krylov, Griboyedov and Pushkin.
As always, in the spontaneously occurring regrouping of linguistic phenomena, due to various cultural-historical and socio-political reasons, individual, advanced plans for new stylistic formations are first put forward, bearing within themselves the grain and harbinger of the future system. At the beginning of the 19th century. The emergence of new folk styles of Russian artistic speech appeared most noticeably in the language of Krylov's fables. Here - first in a narrow genre circle - unique principles and possibilities emerged for the intensive - folk-inspired - mixing and unification of all those diverse styles of Russian literature, which, after Lomonosov's theory and practice, were distributed into three different literary and linguistic categories - high, mediocre and simple style. Here, oral folk Russian speech with its variegated range of class and professional tones and the language of folklore with its rich artistic tradition and centuries-tested wisdom broke through in a wide stream into the styles of Russian book literature and, having formed new alloys with them, new amalgams, showed their miraculous power in patterns new Russian literary language.
Krylov's fables were already perceived by his contemporaries as “genuinely Russian both in meaning and expression,” as “eminently Russian.” In them all felt “the spirit of the Russian people, the bend of their mind, the manner of their speech.” “Even in translations and imitations, Krylov knew how to remain Russian.”
According to V.G. Belinsky, Krylov, with his fables, “fully expressed the whole side of the Russian national spirit... And all this is expressed in such original Russian images and phrases, not conveyed into any language in the world; all this represents such an inexhaustible wealth of idioms, Russianisms that make up the folk physiognomy of the language, its original means and original, native wealth - that Pushkin himself is not complete without Krylov in this regard.”
There were special reasons that led to the fact that it was in Krylov’s fables that the features of the new national Russian literary and artistic style appeared sharpest, brightest and most fully.
The style of the Russian fable developed in close connection with the history of Russian proverbs and sayings. The fable initially belonged to the sphere of simple folk style. “Piitika fables” allowed the most liberties, which was facilitated by the free verse that was established in it, close to colloquial speech 3*. At the same time, “a fable requires poetry of the mind.”
The Russian fable has become a living response to everyday life with its rough language, with its diverse voices. She demanded naturalness of thoughts and images. Striving to be an expression of the national spirit and drawing closer to folklore, she at the same time had the entire arsenal of expressive means of poetic poetic language. Within its boundaries, the fusion of oral folk speech and folk poetry with the achievements of literary and linguistic culture could most acutely occur.
The fable genre was sanctified by the authorities of Aesop, Phaedrus, and La Fontaine. The motives of many Russian fables, their plots are repeated from century to century, passed on from one writer to another. But the forms of presentation of the same topic are changeable and heterogeneous. “The main thing in a fable is the story...” It “must be created by a poet; it constitutes his character, strength and glory. A story in a fable is like a syllable in prose.”
The fable has become creative laboratory, in which the uniqueness of individual style was honed and the properties of the Russian language were tested. For a fable, language and syllable are “a great thing, if not the main thing.” That is why it is in the history of the fable language that the variety of methods of mixing and merging literary styles with the poetry of living folk speech is most clearly and vividly identified. The history of the fable, as if in miniature, reflects the history of the simple and middle styles of the Russian literary language of the 18th and early 19th centuries. and their role in the creation of a new system of the all-Russian national language.
The style of Krylov's fable is the pinnacle of Russian national achievements along this path.
About the language of Krylov’s fables, Academician spoke beautifully about 75 years ago. A.V. Nikitenko:
“The amazing ability to collect oneself, to concentrate in one thought or dimension, with extraordinary separation and clarity of concepts, gave the author the opportunity to group and maintain all the particulars in the most concise and few features, and a subtle knowledge of language in all its modifications and formations, from the highest to the most inferior, endowed him with ways of giving these features such precision and plastic appearance, as if they were carved from copper. Often one short turn of phrase was enough for him to paint a picture, one word, or, so to speak, a stroke of his brush, to give this picture a certain shade, color. And as he thought and expressed himself according to the thoughts and hearts of his people, it is not surprising that many of his turns of speech soon turned into popular proverbs and sayings.”
In terms of the depth and variety of reflections of living colloquial speech, in terms of the breadth of coverage of social varieties of oral folk language from all genres of Russian literature of the 18th and early 19th centuries. Only comedy and satire could compete with fable. But the fable in this respect had a clear advantage over both satire and comedy. In the fable, the voice of the author, now narrating, now teaching, now denouncing and indignant, now reproducing someone else’s speech, was heard directly and openly - among the voices of various fable characters. Fable is a mobile and syncretic genre. It combined elements of a story, a fairy tale, an essay, a dramatic scene, a social satire, and a personal epigram. The genre limits of the fable expanded especially widely in the works of I.A. Krylova.
A.A. Bestuzhev, in his article “A Look at the Old and New Literature of Russia,” spoke about Krylov like this: “His every fable is a satire, all the more powerful because it is short and told with an air of innocence. Reading his poems, you don’t even notice that they are stopped - and this is the height of art. It’s a pity that Krylov gave the theater only two comedies.”
Krylov's fable language is endowed with enormous generalizing power. It revealed the breadth of semantic scope of folk expressions and their sharp, tenacious imagery.
This amazing fusion of Krylov’s individual style with the all-Russian style of national expression is explained by the fact that Krylov’s image of the narrator of the fable is immersed in the sphere of folk Russian thinking, the national Russian psychological structure, and folk expressive assessments.
In Krylov's fable, the expression of the story is constantly changing. It follows from the situation, it is suggested by objects and typical assessments of them in colloquial, everyday language. It seems that the narrator only skillfully combines the expressive colors of folk speech, constantly changing his point of view, taking different poses, most often ironic, for example, in the fable “Squirrel”:
Belka has finally become old,
And Leo got bored: it was time for her to retire.
Belka was given resignation,
And sure enough, they sent her a whole cart of nuts.
Glorious nuts, such as the world has never seen;
Everything is selected: nut to nut - a miracle!
There is only one bad thing -
Belka has had no teeth for a long time.
The narrator's lively interest in the events and persons depicted is reflected in the emotional judgments he inserts every now and then about the incidents described. These judgments - values embodied in current popular sayings and familiar sayings - also correspond to the point of view of the characters. They are natural and folk. For example, in the fable “The Bear in the Nets”:
Bear
Caught in the net.
Jokes about death from afar as boldly as you like:
But death up close is a completely different matter.
Bear doesn't want to die.
When the narrator takes the point of view of the characters themselves, then expression sympathetic to them takes on forms of expression, as if determining their choice and selection. Events and objects in this case are named and depicted from the point of view of the characters themselves. Their assessments, their judgments, definitions are reflected in the choice of expressions, and in their connection, in the very order of words, in the direction of stylistic inversions. For example, in the fable “Golik”:
The dirty Golik was greatly honored...
He won’t have sex in the kitchens;
He is entrusted with the master's caftans.
But this glorification of the golik, reflected in the promotion of the pronoun he - him in first place, in the intensifying particle already, in the contrasting symmetry of the word arrangement of the last two verses, is ironically illuminated by the narrator’s explanation hidden in brackets:
(As you can see, the servants were drunk).
The narrator suddenly, with a sudden change of expression, ironically exposes the truth. The tone of his speech breaks.
This expressive contrast between the main chain of narrative style and the author's notes, sometimes placed in brackets, this revealing function of brackets, is one of Krylov's favorite stylistic devices. In the fable “The Fish Dance”:
“Great sovereign! This is not where they live - it's paradise.
That's all we prayed to the gods for,
May your precious days be prolonged.”
(Meanwhile, the fish were fighting in the frying pan.)
The fairy-tale expression in Krylov's fable style is ironically contradictory. The author's notes placed in parentheses are especially contrastingly crafty. In the fable "Donkey":
My Donkey pouted: he began to put on airs and be proud (Of course, he had heard about the orders)
And he thinks that now he has become a big gentleman.
But the new rank came out to the Donkey, poor thing, sideways (That can serve as a lesson to more than one Donkey).
The play and contrast of expression in the language of Krylov’s fables intensifies different types mixing narrative style with someone else’s speech, with the speech of characters.
Forms of “non-direct” or “experienced” speech characteristic of the depicted heroes imperceptibly interfere with the fable story. Alien speech enhances the democratic unpretentiousness, the “common people” of the fable language, its colloquial syntactic structure. For example, in the fable “Three Men”:
Three men went into the village to spend the night.
Here, in St. Petersburg, they worked as a driver;
We worked, walked and now headed home to our homeland.
And since the skinny little guy doesn’t like to sleep,
Our guests asked for dinner.
What kind of delicacy is there in the village:
They put an empty cup of cabbage soup on the table for them,
Yes, they served bread, and what was left was porridge.
Not so in St. Petersburg, but that’s not what we’re talking about:
Anything is better than going to bed hungry.
The mobility, variability of expression and at the same time its peculiar detachment from personal preferences give Krylov’s fable style the character of realistic objectivity. The narration directly correlates with the corresponding life episodes, which are, as it were, reproduced in their very course and development. The author often presents himself as an eyewitness or participant in events that are quickly unfolding before him. His point of view either merges with the perception of the characters, or is separated from it.
It is curious that the bewilderment of the imaginary reader in Krylov’s fable is addressed not to the author, but to the heroes of the fable. For example, in the fable “The Peasant and the Dog”:
A man, a big housekeeper,
The owner of a wealthy house,
The dog was hired to guard the yard and bake bread and, moreover, to weed and water the seedlings -
What nonsense did he come up with?
The reader says - there is no warehouse here,
Let them guard the yard;
Have you ever seen dogs bake bread? Or were the seedlings watered?
Reader! I would be wrong all around
When I would say “yes” - but that’s not the point here,
And the fact is that our Barbos took charge of everything and he told himself that he would pay for three.
In the language of Krylov’s fables, a general type of colloquial Russian language crystallized, rich in expressive colors, rich folk images and proverbs, imbued with the poetry of oral folk speech, therefore, more democratic and more expressive than the salon style of the “middle class”, which was cultivated by Russian Europeans from the Karamzin school.
The language of Krylov’s fables had a tremendous formative influence on the new stylistic system of the Russian literary language, not only because it embodied the main trends in the development of the Russian literary language in the 19th century with extraordinary depth and clarity, but also because it contained with captivating force and amazing the artistic fullness of Krylov’s own brilliant verbal mastery as a great national poet was revealed.
Academician I.I. Sreznevsky wrote about the expressiveness of Krylov’s language: “One can, so to speak, chemically separate what exactly Krylov acted and acts on his readers, giving freedom to the expressiveness of the language. One can distinguish words in his language as true images of his concepts and images: his selection of words is beautiful and varied and rich, so rich that from Krylov’s fables alone one can choose a fairly large dictionary of the Russian language, most incomplete in terms of subject matter, since Krylov did not have the opportunity to talk about many subjects. One can distinguish in his language many turns of phrase, special ways of combining words and, at the same time, various modifications of words: in this respect, Krylov’s language is, if not richer, then not poorer than words. It is possible to isolate in it a huge number of expressions, those connections of words that are inseparable for the mind in the same way as the syllables of one word: many of them are the old heritage of the people, erased from some of its layers by foreign language and foreign customs; many arose from Krylov’s soul, and their expressiveness is no less precious than those. It is possible to distinguish in Krylov’s language many proverbs and sayings, both taken from the people and given by him to the people, which are in no way different from the others, unless you know that one or the other of them was in use before Krylov, and one or the other went to move only after Krylov. Behind all this, what remains easily separated is that which is not distinguished by any chemical decomposition: the coherence of the parts into one whole, the vitality of the living, without which Krylov would not have been Krylov, without which no collections of words, phrases and expressions, sayings and proverbs can replace his fables included in his fables, no matter what seductive forms you give them. This is why Krylov is great in the expressiveness of his language, that for him the riches of Russian speech were not someone else’s goods, selected one way or another, but the property of his soul.”
Krylov not only actively mastered all the means of artistic expression that Russian speech culture had at the beginning of the 19th century, but also significantly enriched the treasury of Russian literary stylistics. The use of folk speech in Krylov's style turned out to be deep and effective because, in assessing its poetic capabilities and in its artistic use, Krylov relied both on his brilliant flair for the Russian language and on the entire experience of previous Russian literature.
Behind many of the verses of Krylov’s fables stands in the background a long string of verses from the previous tradition that they deny. Against the background of old stylistic constructions, the artistic novelty and individual originality of Krylov’s images and designs stood out especially impressively and sharply. An illustration can serve as lines from the fable “The Donkey and the Nightingale”, dedicated to the description of the art of the nightingale:
Here Nightingale began to show his art:
It clicked, whistled in a thousand frets, pulled, shimmered;
Then gently it weakened and echoed like a languid pipe in the distance,
Then it suddenly scattered in small fractions throughout the grove.
In these lines, Krylov offers a new, original stylistic solution to an artistic task that aroused particular interest among poets of the 18th and early 19th centuries - to give a figurative description of the music of a nightingale’s voice. It can be proven that in Krylov’s style here, with extraordinary sharpness and independence, those contrasting and, in any case, distant, different forms of expression are united and transformed, which - in relation to this topic - were established, on the one hand, in the style of Derzhavin, and on the other - in the style of Karamzin and his school 23*.
Already M.V. Lomonosov in his “Rhetoric” (§ 58) includes a description of the nightingale’s singing, partly inspired by Pliny the Younger 24*:
“This is worthy of great surprise! in the small throat of a gentle bird there is only tension and strength of voice. For when, prompted by the warmth of a spring day, it flies up onto the branch of a tall tree, suddenly the voice strains without rest, then moves in different ways, then strikes with a break, then twists to the top and to the bottom, then suddenly utters a pleasant song and rumbles gently between strong elevations, whistles, clicks, moves, wheezes, crushes, groans tiredly, swiftly, thickly, thinly, sharply, dullly, smoothly, curly, pitifully, equally” 4.
This style of Lomonosov’s description, itself dependent on Pliny’s style, determines the images and grammatical forms of depicting nightingale singing in the Russian lyrical style of the 18th century.
The description of the nightingale's singing was one of the favorite themes of the poetic language, and rare among the poets of the 18th and early 19th centuries. did not undertake the solution of this stylistic task. Yes, Mich. Popov in his “Leisures” includes in the parable “The Nightingale” the following verses depicting the singing of a nightingale:
Rumbled, crushed, squealed, curly, thick, thin,
Equally, inertly suddenly, suddenly languidly, tenderly, loudly,
Moaned, wheezed, clicked, creaked, pulled, wiggled,
And with such difference he captivated people and birds.
It is easy to notice in the style of this description the same tendency as in Lomonosov, to designate the “thousand modes” of nightingale singing with professional verbal designations or a cluster of emotional adverbs. At the same time, except for squealing, creaking, pulling, wagging, all other verbs are taken from Lomonosov’s description, as well as all adverbs, except inertly, languidly, heavily, loudly.
Thus, Derzhavin borrows only four verbs from Lomonosov’s description:
You click, twist, move […] and moan […]
The epithet “abstract” and “swiftness, pleasantness” also go back to Lomonosov’s style. But Derzhavin owns a lyrical, figurative representation of the effect of nightingale singing on man and nature. And in general, Derzhavin’s entire description of the nightingale’s singing takes on a more abstract character (cf. “loudness, liveliness, clarity”, “swiftness, pleasantness, brevity”).
Derzhavin twice more in his lyrics depicts the singing of a nightingale. In the Anacreontic song “A Nightingale in a Dream,” Derzhavin dispenses with words with the sound r, trying to show “the abundance, flexibility, lightness of the Russian language and its ability to express the most tender feelings.”
Here the nightingale's voice is sung like this:
It sounded and then echoed,
Now he groaned, now he grinned,
In hearing from afar he, -
And in the arms of Calista Songs, sighs, clicks, whistles Delighted the sweet dream.
In the play “The Abode of Virtue,” when describing the singing of the nightingale, Derzhavin uses some of the same images and expressions that are found in his poem “The Nightingale”:
... It sounds abrupt
Behind the thunder the thunder rolls,
And he forces himself to listen to nature;
Then, tired,
Its quieter, quieter voice As if it descends sedately And, moaning sweetly, falls silent in delight
Y.K. Grotto compared it with Derzhavin’s verse:
And forces himself to listen to nature -
verses of Krylov's fable:
Everyone then listened to Aurora’s favorite and singer.
One of the poets, Radishchev, I.I. Chernyavsky, the poem “Error” also describes the singing of a nightingale. The description style mixes Lomonosov’s expressions with the phraseology of the sentimental-lyrical style:
The sweet-voiced singer of nature,
He fell silent, calmed down, sighed, whined,
Hidden in the density of branches,
It will rattle and whistle again;
The anthem is harmonious, sonorous and consonant
Rumbles, whistles, rattles, clicks,
The nightingale sang to the children.
Twists, crushes, sorts out -
It languishes, it sighs, it groans,
In the forests, in the darkness of the night of idle Spring, a diverse singer rumbles, and whistles, and thunders...
Clearly starting from the stylistic resolution of the theme of the nightingale, which was proposed by Lomonosov, struggling with the forms of Lomonosov’s language, Karamzin eliminates from the description of the nightingale’s singing all professional and everyday designations of its knees and modes. In 1793, Karamzin wrote the poem “To the Nightingale” in trochaic tetrameter. Here it is depicted in an elegiac style, as “feelings ache and languish from the harmony” of the nightingale’s singing. Emotional epithets are attached to the nightingale. There is no image of the singing itself at all.
Sing in the darkness of a quiet grove,
Tender, meek nightingale!
Sing in the light of the moonlit night!
Your voice is dear to my soul 5 ().
This poem by Karamzin had a huge influence on the style of sentimental-elegiac lyrics associated with the theme of the nightingale. The development of the same style, but with the introduction of a contrasting theme, is observed, for example, in the poem by A. V...a (A. Voikov) “To my nightingale”
Don’t torment your hearts with your languid song, nightingale!
It's sad for you to live in captivity,
It's sad for me to live without friends...
In a bitter and ill-fated fate, You are not dear to my soul.
It is difficult to doubt that the poem by I.A. is also a variation of the same style, the same meter and rhythm, but with an emphasis on Russian motifs. Krylov “To the Nightingale”:
Why is this whistling sad?
Dweller of groves, friend of fields?
Not from the city, my dear,
Have you arrived, nightingale?
Prof. G.A. Gukovsky pointed out that in “Hippocrene” there is a poem “To the Nightingale”, close to Krylov’s.
But Karamzin also has another poem, “The Nightingale” (1796). This poem is written in iambic tetrameter. It is clearly opposed to Derzhavin’s “Nightingale”. It also describes the singing of a nightingale - without using at least one professional, everyday term:
What wonderful art!
Like waves rushing after wave,
At first like a distant pipe
Easy, free, without barriers,
You begin to sing quietly, tenderly,
Your roulades are so fast
And you incline everything to attention;
They merge into one another;
First a pleasant whistle and trill
You thunder... and suddenly you weaken;
You babble like a languid stream;
And reviving the feeling with feeling,
With kind meekness you sigh
You rush your song like a river:
Like a gentle May breeze.
Krylov includes in his style both the Karamzin word art and a comparison with a distant pipe. The following verses echo Karamzin’s style:
Then gently he weakened
And the languid sound of the pipe sounded in the distance.
But Krylov also retains the verbs that go back to Lomonosov, adopted by Derzhavin: clicked, whistled. He uses the verb “pulled” used by M. Popov, introduces the verb “shimmered” (cf. in Derzhavin “rolls”; in Derzhavin and Karamzin also “murmur”). In addition, the verb “split” found in Lomonosov, Popov, Chernyavsky and others to denote one of the modes of nightingale singing was replaced in Krylov with a poetic image:
Then it suddenly scattered in small shot across the groves.
It is clear that Krylov excluded the Karamzin roulades, and instead the popular expression “in a thousand frets” appeared.
Krylov's free iambic served as a flexible instrument for distributing expressive power. The shortening and lengthening of different-footed iambic verse corresponded to the variety of expressive flow of speech. V.A. Zhukovsky found that in the fable “The Hermit and the Bear” the verses
flies “fly with the fly”:
A fly landed on a friend's nose -
He fanned his friend -
Looked -
And the fly on the cheek - he drove away - and the fly again
On a friend's nose.
Here the consonance and conciseness of the syntagmas, instantly replacing one another and moving in intonationally related pairs, convey the circling and flight of a fly.
Immediately after these verses “follow others depicting the opposite, the slowness of the bear. Here all the words are long, the poems drag on:
Here is Mishenka, without saying a word,
He grabbed a heavy cobblestone into his paws,
Squatted down, doesn’t take a breath,
He himself thinks: shut up, I’ll blow your mind!
And, on a friend’s forehead, there was a fly lying in wait,
With all the strength you have, grab a friend in the forehead with a stone.
All these words: Mishenka, weighty, cobblestone, squat, translates, thinks, at a friend’s, lay in wait perfectly depict slowness and caution: five long, heavy verses are quickly followed by a hemistich:
Grab a friend on the forehead.
This lightning, this strike. This is true painting and what is the contrast between the last picture and the first.”
Gogol pointed out the same property of Krylov’s language, its expressive figurativeness:
“You can’t grab his verse either... It sounds where the subject sounds; moves where an object moves; it grows stronger where thought grows stronger, and suddenly becomes light where it gives in to the frivolous chatter of a fool. His speech is submissive and obedient to thought and flies like a fly, now appearing suddenly in a long, six-fingered verse, now in a quick one-foot verse, calculated by the number of syllables, it palpably betrays its most inexpressible spirituality. It is worth remembering the majestic conclusion of the fable “Two Barrels”:
A great man is only visible in his deeds,
And he thinks his thoughts firmly Without making noise.
Here, from the very placement of words, one can hear the magnitude of a person who has withdrawn into himself.”
According to P.A. Pletneva, Krylov, in order to depict an object and embody ideas, “selects with amazing legibility and accuracy only expressions, turns of speech, arrangement of words, even their sounds.”
Krylov, with extraordinary clarity in the style of his fables, showed all the diversity and richness of the visual and expressive means of the living Russian language.
Very subtle and artistic in Krylov's style are the techniques of expressive sound expression of natural phenomena and the language of animals. In the fable “Leaves and Roots,” the whispering and babbling of leaves, or rather sheets, is conveyed by a skillful selection of words with noisy - dental, whistling phonemes:
“Who are you there,
The leaves on the tree rustled noisily.
In the fable “The Fly and the Roadies,” not only the rhythm of the fussy tossing of the fly, but also its buzzing is reproduced in the syntax and euphony of speech.
In the fable “The Pig”, with inimitable comedy, the grunting speech of the pig is symbolized by rhymes - consonances on r:
Sovronya grunts: Well, they’re really talking nonsense,
I didn't notice any wealth:
Everything is just manure and rubbish,
And, it seems, not sparing the snout,
I dug up the whole back yard.
In the fable “The Sea of Beasts,” the lowing of a humble ox consists of syntagmas instrumented with ы and у - with preceding dental or labial-nasal phonemes:
You're sinning. It's about five years old, when it's stern in winter. We were thin.
The evil one pushed me into sin;
I couldn’t find a loan from anyone,
I stole a clump of hay from the priest's haystack.
M. Lobanov noted about these verses: “In the speech of an ox we hear a lowing, and it is so natural that its words cannot be replaced by other sounds.” The expressiveness and figurativeness of Krylov's fable style is based not only on the variety of rhythm, not only on sound metaphors and onomatopoeia, but also on unique forms of syntactic symmetry. Krylov widely uses the technique of repetitions of the same word in correlative and rhythmically homogeneous neighboring syntagms or to reproduce tempo, rhythm, increase in action, or for expressive illumination actor and his changing attitude to action, or for an ironic demonstration of the alternation of different actions with the same subject or object, or for a contrasting comparison of actions. In these cases, the image becomes dynamic, and its reproduction reaches the power of almost direct perception, almost material tangibility. In compared syntagms, their grammatical structure is sometimes of the same type, sometimes symmetrically modified.
The fox sees the cheese, - The fox is captivated by the cheese...
("A Crow and a fox*)
The lion turns his head, the lion shakes his mane:
But our hero bears his own:
Either it will get into Leo’s nose, or it will bite Lev’s ear.
Leo got mad...
("The Lion and the Mosquito")
The horse is pushed back, The horse is thrown to the side;
The Horse set off on all four legs for glory.
And finally, my poor man turned grey,
My poor man has lost weight;
Like his gold, my poor man turned yellow.
(“Poor rich man*)
The fox became well-fed,
The fox has become fatter,
But things didn’t become more honest.
("The Peasant and the Fox")
The snake crawled up the tree and settled on it,
My snake sang like a beautiful nightingale.
I could force the cuckoo to honor the Nightingale,
But I couldn’t make the Cuckoo Nightingale.
("Cuckoo and Eagle")
Why, without fear of sin,
Does the Cuckoo praise the Rooster?
Because he praises the Cuckoo.
("The Cuckoo and the Rooster")
With such a wealth of phonetic and intonation-rhythmic techniques of artistic expression, the expressive consonances of words in Krylov’s verse cannot be perceived as a poetic accident. By punning convergence of homonymous expressions, acute semantic effects are achieved. Here, both the surprise of the semantic comparison and the novelty of the morphological awareness of the elements are effective and significant. In some cases, consonances enhance the reproductive, visual function of a verbal image:
"Have mercy!" says: “By your command I am called a nightingale in the forest here;
But they dare me to laugh with singing.”
("Cuckoo and Eagle")
Boreas roars and tears the Sails into shreds.
("Guns and Sails")
And so tightly it cracked into the kingdom,
That along the way the state became a quagmire.
("Frogs Asking for the Tsar")
But by nightfall my madness wandered into the thicket,
That he could not move either backwards or forwards.
("Owl and Donkey")
This also includes punning combinations of words of the same root, which have already diverged somewhat in their meanings:
I read everything
And I read
Which is better: dig them up with a spade, a plow, or a plow.
("Gardener and Philosopher")
A pig once found its way into the manor's yard;
There were stacks of stables and kitchens all around;
She was lying in litter, in manure;
I bathed up to my ears in slop:
And from the guests, a pig came home like a pig.
("Pig)
But besides these diverse and stylistically sophisticated means of poetic expressiveness and inventiveness in Krylov’s language, the innermost semantic forms of artistic metamorphosis are also original.
Pushkin also noted how characteristic feature Krylov's style is bold in expression. In the drafts of the article “There are different types of courage,” Pushkin cited bold expressions from the works of Derzhavin, Zhukovsky, Calderon and Milton. And next to them from Krylov’s fable “The Ant”: “Krylov says about the brave ant that:
He even walked alone on the spider.”
Krylov's language is very rich in such bold expressions. The structure of Krylov’s image always rests on a witty, new, unexpected, but deeply justified convergence of seemingly dissimilar meanings and concepts. At the same time, this boldness of expression stems from the fabulist’s deep penetration into the figurative element of the folk language. Krylov's bold expressions are alien to sophistication. They seem to be a natural, albeit unforeseen, result of the semantic merging of familiar, but previously unrelated words and phrases. For example, in the fable “The Donkey” about a donkey with a bell:
Wherever my noble lord goes,
A new rank rings incessantly around the neck...
And in moralizing
But an important rank on a rogue is like a bell:
The sound from it is both loud and distant.
In the fable "Parnassus"
And the new choir of singers brought such wildness,
It’s as if the convoy started moving,
In which there are a thousand unoiled wheels.
No less original and profound in Krylov’s fables is the stylistic use of grammatical forms of folk speech, and no less artistically expressive are the new formations based on the Russian folk model.
In the language of Krylov's fables, the expressive play of tense forms of the Russian verb was revealed with hitherto unprecedented freedom and breadth. The effects of stylistic replacement of some tense forms by others, subtle semantic shades associated with transitions and transfers of verb tenses, the wide inclusion of colloquial, folk forms of expressing verb tense give the language of Krylov’s fable liveliness, figurativeness and dramatic poignancy. This is especially clearly revealed when comparing Krylov’s fables with their relatives from other writers. For example, A.E. Izmailov in the fable “The Decrepit Lion” the entire story consists of a chain of forms of the past tense of the perfect form to depict actions of a non-duration and imperfect form - to represent actions and states of long-term or multiple:
In the cave, the decrepit Lion lay before the end...
Suddenly the murderers came running towards him with fury,
The half-dead man was attacked:
A huge, terrible bull Stabbed him with its horns;
The horse beat with its hooves, and the wolf bit with its teeth...
Not so in Krylov’s fable “The Aged Lion.” Here, in the narrative, the plane of the past (represented by perfect past tense forms with a hint of effectiveness) emotionally merges with the pictorial present. In the description itself, the perspective of the past continuous is delimited from the present according to the principle of contrast:
Mighty Lion, thunderstorm of the forests,
Overtaken by old age, deprived of strength.
There is no strength in the claws, there are no sharp teeth,
How did he terrify his enemies?
And he himself can barely drag himself along with his frail legs.
And what hurts most
Not only is he now harmless to animals,
But everyone, for the old grievances of Leo, in revenge,
He insults him when he competes.
Here the verbs, sometimes associated with animate, sometimes inanimate producers, take on the meaning of either an active action or a state (“And the sickly legs can hardly drag themselves”). They are paired with emotional adjectives (“more painful”, “fearless”), expressing a qualitative state. And then new expressive variations of time forms arise: the future of the perfect form to denote an instant and repeated action and the unexpected present with a particle like:
Then the proud horse hits him hard with its hoof,
Then the wolf will tear his teeth,
Then the ox gores with a sharp horn.
Poor lion in such great grief,
Squeezing his heart, he endures everything and awaits the death of the evil one,
Only expressing his murmur with a dull and languid roar,
As soon as he sees that the donkey has settled there, they will strain their chest,
He's going to kick him
And he only looks at the place where it would be more painful.
Against this background, the aoristic meaning of the past perfect appears especially impressive and poignant:
"Oh Gods!" Then the Lion cried out, groaning:
“So as not to live to see this shame,
Better send me one end soon!
No matter how bad my death is,
Anything is easier than being insulted by a donkey.”
It is easy to notice that such figurative use is combined with a variety of modal shades in verb forms, alien to the language of A.E. Izmailova.
In order to make it clearer to what depths in the history of the Russian literary language the stylistic tradition of fable narration, destroyed by Krylov, went, we can also cite V.K. Trediakovsky “The Elderly Lion”:
Having come to old age, Leo became immensely weak:
And having lost strength, he was almost dragging his limbs.
Then the beasts not only despised him,
But they themselves had already attacked him;
And so that the donkey was already among the cattle of all, like a slave, he was not ashamed to lay down his hoof on the forehead.
Krylov uses all the variety of colloquial and folk descriptive techniques for expressing forms of the past tense.
In the fable “Frogs Asking for the Tsar,” the range of forms of expressing the past tense is even wider and more diverse. Here, to express the daring arbitrariness of actions, folk descriptive forms of dai and infinitive are boldly used.
Then they dared to crawl up to the King with devotion:
First, face down before the Tsar;
And then, whoever is braver, let him sit sideways to him;
Let me try to sit next to him;
And there, who are still further away,
They sit with their backs facing the Tsar.
The king endures everything out of his mercy.
A little later, you'll see who wants it,
He will jump on him...
In Krylov’s fable structure, a wide variety of forms of expression of temporal and modal shades of the Russian verb are used and the expressive possibilities inherent in them are revealed. Here is a selection of descriptive forms of the past tense from the particle and the infinitive to express a rapidly started and impetuously proceeding chaotic action.
The monkey decided to work:
I found a block of wood and tinkered with it.
("Monkey")
When you see an Elephant, well, rush at it and bark, and squeal, and tear.
("Elephant and Moska")
And new friends, well, hug,
Well kiss;
They don’t know with joy who to compare themselves to.
("Dog Friendship")
In the fable "The Monkeys":
The beauties have come down. For our dear guests, there are a lot of networks spread out below.
Well, in them they tumble, roll, and wrap themselves, and curl.
In the fable “The Frog and the Ox”:
The frog in the meadow, seeing Ox, -
She decided to match his stature herself:
She was envious.
And well, puff up, puff and pout.
In the fable “The Shadow and the Man”, infinitive forms from verbs of motion are widely used to denote rapid attacks on past actions, their sudden occurrences and changes - along with elliptical, verbless constructions with the same meaning:
Some naughty guy wanted to catch his shadow:
He is towards her, she is moving forward, he is adding a step,
She finally ran there;
But the faster he was, the faster the shadow ran,
Everything without giving in, like a treasure.
So my eccentric suddenly started running back;
Exactly the same with extraordinary art Krylov uses folk forms of the past tense of instantly voluntary action, homonymous with the imperative mood and interjection forms of the “ultra-instantaneous type”:
If Mukha happened to be here.
("Fly and Roadies")
And then there’s even more trouble:
If bad weather happens then.
("Hunter")
It happens, however, that the comb is lost.
(“Grebenye”)
No matter what, Moska will meet them.
("Elephant and Moska")
But Skvorushka hear that they praise the Nightingale -
And Skvorushka was envious, unfortunately...
("Starling")
And then the warden quietly walked to the Brahmin’s cell.
(“Wrong”)
Everyone dozed off here, some lying down, some sitting,
When suddenly a bear came out of the forest towards them, its mouth open.
("Dog, Man, Cat and Falcon")
The monkey, seeing his image in the mirror,
Quietly kick the bear.
(with Mirror and Monkey")
What strength do you have - to grab a friend in the forehead with a stone.
("The Hermit and the Bear")
And there’s plenty of logs in them.
("Miller")
Then the knight jumped into the saddle and threw away the reins.
("Knight")
Particularly diverse and rich in subjective expressive shades in Krylov’s language are the methods of using the present imperfect and future perfect tense to denote past actions.
For example:
There was no more urine for the poor girls:
Weekdays or holidays don’t matter to them;
There is no calm against the old woman.
During the day she won’t let the spirit translate for yarn.
Dawn, where they are still sleeping, and for a long time now their spindle has begun to dance.
Perhaps sometimes the old woman would be late:
Yes, there was a rooster in that damned house:
As soon as he sings, the old woman gets up,
He will throw on himself a fur coat and three hats,
The fire blows up at the stove,
He wanders, grumbling, to the spinners in peace,
Pushes them aside with a bony hand,
And they become stubborn - with a stick,
And the sweet dawn interrupts their sleep.
What will you do with her?
("Mistress and Two Maids")
Wed. in the fable “The Shadow and the Man”:
So my eccentric suddenly started running back.
He looks around: and the shadow has already begun to chase him.
In the fable “The Peasant and the Robber”:
The robber ripped the man off like a stick.
“Have mercy,” the peasant will cry: “I’m lost.”
Due to the richness and diversity of temporal and specific forms and meanings in Krylov’s language there is freedom and sharpness in the combination of verbal stems with prefixes to denote spatial and quantitative modifications of action. Much later V.I. Dahl pointed to the richness of prefixed verbal word formation as a great advantage of Russian folk speech, as the source of its artistry and figurativeness.
Even before Dahl, Krylov was able to appreciate the expressive power of this feature of the Russian spoken language and with extraordinary skill used the techniques of prefixal verbal word creation for figurative and visual-tactile transmission of movements and states.
In the fable “The Lion,” the differences in prefixed verbs express the difference in attitude to tribute on the part of the lion and the nobles:
So, no matter how heavy the poor or the rich,
I should collect wool,
So as not to sleep on bare rocks?
Deer, chamois, goats, fallow deer,
They pay almost no tribute;
Collect wool from them as quickly as possible:
This will not reduce them;
On the contrary: it will be easier for them.
He hung on it and did not unclench the tooth.
("Dog, Man, Cat and Falcon")
He, taking his gun with him,
I set off home without a soul.
Krylov's style is unusually diverse. Another P.A. Pletnev noted one characteristic feature of this style - the absence of self-repetition in it. Even an old thought, “which appeared several times among his predecessors,” clothed by him in new images, appears “like a creature trembling with the freshness of being.”
The style of Krylov's fables still continues to be an unsurpassed example of the laconic, picturesque and quickly dramatically reproducing Russian fairy tale style.
“The glory of Krylov,” according to Belinsky, “everything will grow and flourish more magnificently until the sonorous and rich language in the mouth of the great and mighty Russian people falls silent.”
ANNOTATION
Kazak Oksana Nikolaevna Nazarovo, municipal educational institution secondary school No. 3, 5A class
“The Image of the Wolf in the Fables of I.A. Krylov”
supervisor: Oksana Leonidovna Kabasheva, teacher of Russian language and literature.
The purpose of the scientific work: to show how in various fables, through the images of a wolf, Krylov portrayed representatives of various social levels: kings, nobles, officials, etc., what human vices, ridiculed in the image of a wolf, have survived to this day.
Research methods: study, analysis, synthesis
Main results scientific research(scientific, practical): a comparison of several fables was carried out, on the basis of which different tempers and images of an allegorical character - the Wolf.
INTRODUCTION
Relevance(slide No. 2). Back in Ancient Greece, the fable genre was glorified by the witty Aesop. In Russia in the 18th century, the fable became one of the most beloved genres in literature. Idioms from the fables spread among the people. The moral of the fable always taught unobtrusively, passed on wisdom from older generations to younger ones. Ivan Andreevich Krylov became a famous fabulist. Of most children's fairy tales and poems, Krylov's fables are always the best, because they are etched in the memory and arise throughout life when encountering human vices. People can often say that Krylov did not write for children at all, but is the meaning of his fables really not at all clear to children? The moral is clearly and competently spelled out, which is why Krylov’s fables can be read with great benefit Absolutely any child can do it. Nowadays, satirists often use fables to ridicule any vices in society or their political rivals.
The purpose of the work (slide No. 3) is to show how in various fables, through the images of a wolf, Krylov portrayed representatives of various social levels: kings, nobles, officials, etc., what human vices, ridiculed in the image of a wolf, have survived to this day.
Hypothesis (slide No. 4). The wolf in Krylov's fables is the personification of greed, stupidity, injustice and other vices of people.
Tasks (slide No. 5):
analyze the selected fables,
generalize allegorical images, draw conclusions,
Methods (slide No. 6): study, analysis, synthesis.
Object of study – fables by I.A. Krylov.
Subject of study – the image of the Wolf in Krylov's fables.
Chapter I. ALLEGORY AS A MEDIUM
EXPRESSIVENESS IN A FABLE
We have loved reading Krylov's Fables since childhood. Our memory stores various Krylov images, which often arise in our memory in completely different life situations, and, turning to them, we never cease to be amazed at Krylov’s talent.
What is a fable? According to explanatory dictionary, this is a “short, mostly poetic, moralizing text,” that is, a fairy tale containing a teaching that is directly related to the internal spiritual qualities of a person, based on such moral ideals as goodness, responsiveness, duty, justice and others. Heroes in fables can be anything or anyone: people, animals, objects or plants that are endowed with various human qualities.
As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and fables. The main way to depict an allegory is to generalize human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects and acquire figurative meaning.
Chapter II. THE IMAGE OF THE WOLF IN KRYLOV'S FABLES
"Wolf and Lamb"
2. “Wolf in the kennel”
3. "The Wolf and the Crane"
4. "Wolf and Sheep"
5. "The Wolf and the Fox"
Let us select for analysis several of the most famous fables.
1. Krylov's fable "Wolf and Lamb"( slide number 9) , at first glance, it represents a fairly traditional interpretation of the well-known plot. The fable has two main characters, whose images are equally important and cannot exist one without the other. If you remember the plot of the work, then already in its elements you can see a clearly expressed author’s principle: the “hungry Wolf” prowls near the stream, hoping to somehow satisfy his hunger, and at this time the Lamb comes to the same stream, who wants to drink. .. A “hungry” predator simply cannot refuse the food that appears! Shouldn’t he really go look for some other “food” if it has already appeared? The worst thing about his behavior, according to Krylov, is not this. The author probably would not have found why he should have condemned the Wolf if the predator had immediately eaten the unfortunate Lamb? Then, strictly speaking, there would be no fable. To show not just strength, but immoral, hypocritical force and in this way, especially terrible in moral terms, Krylov portrays the Wolf, who persistently strives to justify his attitude towards the defenseless Lamb on some, if not moral, then at least “legal” grounds. It is through the use of the epithet “legitimate” that Krylov’s moral and aesthetic position is revealed. The very meaning of this word, the very “legitimacy” implies that the Wolf wants, with the help of high motives, to justify his behavior in the eyes of... the same Lamb. After all, no one will ever know what exactly happened between the Wolf and the Lamb, no one will care that the Wolf ate the latter - another victim of a ferocious predator... And if anyone found out, would any of that I would dare to condemn the environment in which the heroes of the fable live.
Wolf character:
- Characterizes a person who has power and takes advantage of his position.
In his own words he shows his disregard for the rules and his understanding of his own impunity.
Shows rudeness and anger when addressing the Lamb, calling him both a dog and an unclean snout.
He turns his essence inside out with just the words “It’s your fault that I want to eat,” showing arrogance and undisguised shamelessness.
Moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb"
“The strong always have the powerless to blame”... The Wolf and the Lamb is one of the rare fables that begins with a moral. Krylov immediately sets us up for what will be discussed. The prevailing opinion that he who is stronger is right is shown in all its glory. Well, in fact, what can the Lamb prove to the hungry Wolf? But for the Wolf, on the contrary, it would be worth thinking that at any moment a power greater than his would be found. How will he speak then? How's the Lamb?
What conclusions can be drawn?
Krylov in the fable “The Wolf and the Lamb” describes his favorite theme - the lack of rights of the common people. The human vices ridiculed in the fable must be eradicated from human society and corrected. Krylov understands that a force that acts as it pleases is difficult to stop. People like the Wolf don’t even need to justify themselves to anyone! I wanted human power to work to restore justice.
In a fable "Wolf in the kennel"( slide No. 10) we can already talk not so much about allegory as about metaphor. In this fable, the image of a wolf refers to Napoleon. We can say for a long time that Napoleon was cunning, dexterous, intelligent, and knew how to quickly and deftly adapt to the situation. But he did not calculate his capabilities and ended up “in the kennel” instead of the “sheepfold”...
Moral of the fable “Wolf in the kennel”
Krylov’s fable “The Wolf in the Kennel” is a patriotic work about significant historical events of 1812. The Hunter is Kutuzov, the Wolf is Napoleon, but even a detailed knowledge and understanding of history with a comparison of the behaviors of these individuals does not completely cover the deep moral of the fable “The Wolf in the Kennel.”
In Krylov's fable, much attention is paid to conveying the picturesqueness of all the pictures and the moods of the participants. The anxiety in the kennel is excited by the use of vivid and figurative expressions: “the dogs are eager to fight”... Moreover, the dangerous cunning of the wolf and resourcefulness are especially clearly described: “I did not come to make peace with you for the sake of a quarrel.” The wolf's behavior is hypocritical, hiding his evil essence, he tries to flatter.
Krylov very easily conveys the mind of the Hunter, showing that he does not even listen to the end of the wolf, because his hypocrisy in trying to save his own skin is already clear. Comparing the wolf and the dog, the author gives preference to the second, whose words become the beginning of the emerging morality: “You are gray, and I, my friend, am gray.”
Correlating the image of the wolf with the entire allegorical meaning of the fable, we immediately recognize the conqueror Napoleon in him. But at the same time, the image of a wolf is in no way narrowed to the image of a specific person; it is so broad and comprehensive that the fable does not lose its value even outside the context of the era.
In the fable “The Wolf and the Crane” there are two main characters. The wolf in this fable is cunning and treacherous. And the crane is stupid because it fell for such a trick.
Moral of the story:
Sometimes it happens that instead of gratitude, insidious people say that it is not they who owe it, but we owe it to them that everything ended so well. Indeed, under other circumstances, the crane could become dinner for the wolf. Therefore, when helping such people, you should not count on their gratitude. The moral lies much deeper, since the fable says that the crane not only took his nose, but was also able to save his stupid head from the wolf’s mouth. Listeners need to learn the lesson that when faced with an insidious and evil person in life, you should not help him, expecting to receive a reward. The wolf in this fable is the personification of deceit and cruelty.
The fable “The Wolf and the Sheep” says that the government of animals decided to protect the sheep and passed a law:
How soon will the Wolf begin to rage among the herd,
And he will offend the Sheep,
Then the Wolf is ruled by the Sheep,
Can't make out faces
Grab him by the collar and immediately present him to the court,
To the neighboring forest or to the forest.
But the wolves still dragged the sheep.
Moral of the story: In the time of Krylov there were many laws that protected the rights of only the powerful class, and those who were in serfdom had absolutely no rights. This fable ridicules a law that is impossible to fulfill, and everyone understands that it will not protect the powerless. Strong, i.e. wolves can do as they please, despite the fact that the law is weak, i.e. the sheep could deal with the offenders themselves. IN real life this is impossible to implement, i.e. such a law is just hypocrisy. The wolf in this fable is the image of a landowner, a nobleman who understands that everything is allowed to him.
The fable “The Wolf and the Fox” talks about how the fox, having had its fill in the chicken coop, also grabbed some in reserve. Suddenly a hungry wolf comes to her, the cunning fox doesn’t say a word to him in reserve, but offers him some hay to eat. Confused by the fox's kind words, the Wolf left, fooled and hungry.
Morality:
We gladly give
What we don’t need ourselves.
We'll explain this with a fable,
Because the truth is more tolerably half-open.
The wolf in this fable is the personification of a loser, a naive and stupid person who is easily fooled. He will buy any kind word or flattery.
CONCLUSION
The writer has many plots borrowed from the works of other fabulists. But Ivan Andreevich’s connection with folk art, with the language of folk tales was so close that even these borrowed fables do not sound like translations. After all, Krylov’s bright, accurate, lively Russian language could not be borrowed from anyone (slide No. 11).
Krylov's poems, easily remembered, became proverbs and entered the golden fund of popular speech. There are many such proverbs and sayings from his fables that remain in the Russian language: “And the casket just opened” (“Casket”), “It’s your fault that I want to eat” (“The Wolf and the Lamb”), “Your stigma is covered in fluff.” "("The Fox and the Marmot"), "Ai, Moska! She is strong to know that she barks at the Elephant” (“Elephant and Moska”), “And Vaska listens and eats” (“Cat and the Cook”) and many, many others no less wonderful and expressive.
Krylov - authentic people's writer, an artist of enormous power, and his influence on Russian literature was profound and positive.
In Krylov's fables, the vices of people are unobtrusively ridiculed through the images of animals. In folk tales, the Wolf is most often the personification of evil. Following the tradition of folklore, Krylov also attributes various atrocities, deceit, and cruelty to the Wolf. But Krylov’s Wolf is also stupid and naive.
So, in Krylov’s fables there is an image of the Wolf - greedy, insidious, cunning, cruel, naive, stupid, and there is even a Wolf in the image of Napoleon.
Research Institute
Appendix 1. Fables by I.A. Krylov
Wolf and Lamb
The powerful are always to blame for the powerless:
We hear countless examples of this in history.
But we don't write history,
But what they say in fables...
On a hot day, a lamb went to a stream to drink:
And something must happen,
That a hungry Wolf was prowling around those places.
He sees a lamb and strives for the prey;
But, to give the matter at least a legal look and feel,
Shouts: “How dare you, insolent, with an unclean snout
Here is my pure drink, muddied
With sand and silt?
For such insolence
I'll rip your head off." -
"When the brightest Wolf allows,
I dare say that down the stream
From the Lordship of his steps I drink a hundred;
And he deigns to be angry in vain:
There’s no way I can make him drink worse."
"That's why I'm lying!
Waste! Never heard of such insolence in the world!
Yes, I remember that you were still last summer
Somehow he was rude to me here;
I haven’t forgotten this, buddy!” -
“For mercy, I’m not even a year old yet.” -
The lamb speaks. - “So it was your brother.” -
"I have no brothers." - “So this is godfather or matchmaker.
And, in a word, someone from your own family.
You yourself, your dogs and your shepherds,
You all want me harm
And if you can, then you always harm me;
But I will clear away their sins with you." -
"Oh, what is my fault?" - “Be quiet! I’m tired of listening.
It’s time for me to sort through your faults, puppy!
It’s your fault that I want to eat.”
He said and dragged the Lamb into the dark forest.
Wolf at the kennel
The wolf at night, thinking of getting into the sheepfold,
I ended up at the kennel.
Suddenly the whole kennel yard rose up -
Smelling gray so close to the bully,
The dogs are flooded in the barns and are eager to fight;
The hounds shout: “Wow, guys, thief!”
And instantly the gates are locked;
In a minute the kennel became hell.
They run: another with a club,
Another with a gun.
“Fire!” they shout, “fire!” They came with fire.
My Wolf sits with his backside pressed into the corner.
Teeth snapping and fur bristling,
With his eyes, it seems he would like to eat everyone;
But, seeing what is not here in front of the herd
And what finally comes
He has to pay for the sheep, -
My cunning man set off
In negotiations
And he started like this: “Friends! Why all this noise?
I, your old matchmaker and godfather,
I came to make peace with you, not at all for the sake of a quarrel;
Let's forget the past, let's establish a common harmony!
And not only will I not touch the local herds in the future,
But I’m happy to fight for them with others
And I affirm with a wolf’s oath,
What am I..." - "Listen, neighbor, -
Here the hunter interrupted in response, -
You are gray, and I, buddy, are gray,
And I have long known your wolfish nature;
Therefore, my custom is:
There is no other way to make peace with wolves,
Like skinning them off.”
And then he released a pack of hounds at the Wolf.
Wolf and Crane
Everyone knows that wolves are greedy;
Wolf, eating, never
Doesn't understand bones
2) G.K. Paustovsky said: A writer can only be someone who has something new to say to people, who sees a lot that others do not notice (Golden Rose). Can you name episodes, descriptions of nature that amazed you, surprised you , told you about something that you had not noticed before, although perhaps you saw it in the life around you?
3) “I am convinced that the main thing for a writer is to express himself with the greatest completeness and generosity in any thing, even in such a small story, and thereby express his time and his people,” writes K. Paustovsky in “Golden rose."Can you give an example of this from the works you read in seventh grade?
4) What new did you learn about proverbs and sayings? Did you use them when studying literature in 7th grade? Which ones were useful when talking with people around you? Why are proverbs interesting? different nations?In what cases did you have to use proverbs? Check out other proverbs. What attracted your attention about them? Explain them.
figure out the episode when Ochumelov constantly asks Eldyrin to take off and then put on his coat
3) Remember Chekhov’s stories studied in 6th grade. artistic detail played a significant role in them. This artistic device is also found in the story you read. Give examples of its use. Why does the author focus on details?
Final control of knowledge, skills and abilities of students in the literature course, grade 5Part 1. Works you have read.
1. An entertaining story about unusual, fictional events and adventures:
a) fairy tale;
b) story;
c) story.
2. Short poetic or prose story of a moralizing nature, having an allegorical, allegorical meaning:
a) poem;
b) fable;
c) tale
3. A poem, which is most often based on a historical event, legend, with a sharp, intense plot:
a) fairy tale;
b) fable;
c) ballad.
4. A small narrative work, united by a plot and consisting of one or more episodes:
a) tale;
b) story;
c) fairy tale.
5. A type of epic work (middle form), which tells about people, events, more than a story, but less romance:
a) story;
b) poem;
c) ballad.
6. The epic genre, based on folk legends and legends; It is characterized by a combination of accurate sketches of folk life and customs with the fabulous and fantastic world of folklore:
a) tale;
b) ballad;
c) story.
7. A literary work intended for production on the theater stage:
a) story;
b) story;
c) play.
Part 2. Do you know literary terms?
8. Allegorical depiction of an object or phenomenon in order to most clearly show its essential features:
a) allegory;
b) antithesis;
c) analysis.
9. Research reading of a literary text:
a) allegory;
b) antithesis;
c) analysis.
10. Contrasting images, pictures, words, concepts:
a) allegory;
b) antithesis;
c) analysis.
11. An event that marks the beginning of the development of action in epic and dramatic works:
a) climax;
b) beginning;
c) denouement.
12. The moment of highest tension in a work of art:
a) climax;
b) beginning;
c) denouement.
13. One of the elements of the plot, the final moment in the development of action in a work of art:
a) climax;
b) beginning;
c) denouement.
14. The figurative meaning of a word, based on the similarity or opposition of one object or phenomenon to another:
a) comparison;
b) metaphor;
c) epithet.
15, Image of one phenomenon by comparison with another:
a) comparison;
b) metaphor;
c) epithet.
16. A figurative definition of an object, expressed mainly by an adjective:
a) comparison;
b) metaphor;
c) epithet.
Part 3. Recognize the hero of a literary work by portrait (description of appearance).
17. “White-faced, black-browed, / Such a meek character”:
a) stepmother;
b) young princess;
c) Vasilisa the Beautiful.
18. “In the features of a tired face / Still the same humility without end”:
a) barge hauler from N. A. Nekrasov’s poem “On the Volga”;
b) colonel from M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Borodino”;
c) the hunter from I. A. Krylov’s fable “The Wolf in the Kennel.”
19. “...A man twelve inches tall, built like a hero and deaf-mute from birth”:
a) Stepan from P. Bazhov’s tale “The Mistress of the Copper Mountain”;
b) Gerasim from the story by I.S. Turgenev "Mumu";
c) Ivan Tsarevich from the Russian folk tale “The Frog Princess”.
20. “...He was silent, distrustful... he answered in an angry bass voice...”:
a) Nikita from the story of A.P. Platonov;
b) Vasyutka from the story “Vasyutkino Lake” by V.P. Astafiev;
c) Filka from the fairy tale by K. G. Paustovsky “Warm Bread”.
H Part 4. Are you an attentive reader?
21. Which hero is not in the fairy tale “The Frog Princess”:
a) miracle Yudo;
b) Ivan Tsarevich;
c) Vasilisa the Beautiful.
22. In M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Borodino”, the day after the battle the Russian army was ready:
a) retreat;
b) continue the fight;
c) strengthen your position.
23. In the fairy tale “Warm Bread” by K. G. Paustovsky, Filka realized that he had committed a disgusting, evil act when:
a) offended the horse;
b) the frost intensified;
c) heard my grandmother’s story.
24. The hero of the story by L. N. Tolstoy “ Prisoner of the Caucasus", Russian officer Zhilin, being captured by the Tatars:
a) constantly thought about escaping;
b) was sad, bored and waiting for redemption;
c) did not hope for a successful release.
25. What words of his grandfather and father did Vasyutka, the hero of V. P. Astafiev’s story “Vasyutkino Lake,” remember when he got lost in the taiga:
a) “You have to be friends with the taiga!”;
b) “Taiga doesn’t like flimsy people!”;
c) “There is nothing to do alone in the taiga!”
Criteria for evaluation:
“5” - no more than 1 error was made in the work;
“4” - 2-4 errors were made in the work;
“3” - 5-10 errors were made in the work;
“2” - more than 10 errors were made in the work.
DECIDE WHAT YOU CAN!!!☺
Functions and features of allegorical images of fables in world literature
Abdullaeva D.Z.
Andijan State University named after. Z.M.Babura, Andijan, Uzbekistan
e-mail: rodlid@
Poets and writers were not always able to openly criticize shortcomings in their works social life. They conveyed their socio-political views to the people through allegorical images.
Allegory, which has existed since ancient times, is considered the basis of the fable, one of the types of symbolism.
Allegory (from Greek allos-other, agoreo-say) is one of the forms of allegory, the conditional transmission of an abstract concept or judgment through a specific image
The allegory entered literature from folklore - from fairy tales about animals: the wolf is an allegory of greed, the fox - cunning, the lamb - helplessness.
Through allegorical images, fabulists expose the universal human vices and shortcomings of people. These fable motifs were similar to real life. Fables, parables, morality plays, apologies and some types of fairy tales were created on the basis of allegorical images. Only, in a genre created on the basis of allegories of images - a fable, the author expressed his educational thoughts, instructions, critical views in a figurative sense. The fable has been known for a long time. Disadvantages of social life, vices and shortcomings are exposed through conditions or events involving objects, living insects, natural phenomena, birds.
Allegorical images are found in the works of different peoples.
The clumsiness of a bear, the cowardice of a hare, the fearlessness of an eagle, the aristocracy of a lion: all these images are embodied in a solid concept. But there are also images that in the artistic thinking of the people are interpreted as national allegorical expressions.
Aesop's fables were widely known ancient Greece. In Aesop's fables, plots associated with allegorical images are widespread among other peoples. Fabulists of different times turned to such “wandering plots.” The created allegorical images of different peoples have similar features: the fabulist describes his era, his time and way of life. In this way he teaches the student.
In Aesop's fable "The Fox and the Monkey" during the dance, the monkey presents himself as a ruler. The author showed that the mobility of the monkey corresponds dance movement. The moral of this story is that if you hurry, you will make people laugh.
In the works of the Russian fabulist Krylov, the allegorical image of a monkey, due to its stupid actions and lack of intelligence, finds itself in different situations. The fable “The Monkeys” describes the confused movements of monkeys caught in a net, which must be separated from each other. In the fable “The Monkey and the Glasses,” the image of a monkey shows an ignorant man who does not know the value of things.
Unfortunately, that's what happens to people,
No matter how useful a thing is, without knowing its price.
The ignorant person is making everything worse about her
And if the ignorant is more knowledgeable,
So he also drives her away.
In both fables there is a hint of the image of a person who does everything in a hurry, without thinking.
This same main topic is close to the theme of the fable of the Uzbek fabulist Muhammad Sharif Gulhaniy (XVIII century) “Zarbulmasal”. The moral of the story is “don’t do what you can’t do, otherwise you’ll get into trouble.” Gulkhani presents this plot in an expanded, poetic, enriched form, using artistic, visual and expressive means.
“Kalila and Dimna” sets out the idea that carpentry is not a monkey’s job: everyone should mind their own business. Based on this idea, Gulhaniy enriches the idea of the fable with the motif: craft and charity are the main thing for a person. In this fable, allegorical images perform an important function in revealing the main didactic idea.
The Russian critic Belinsky noted: “the story and the goal are the essence of the fable; satire and irony are its main qualities.” When creating allegorical images, dialogue plays an important role: it reveals the character of the heroes, reflects the era and life.
In the fable, which gives a moral lesson about the consequences of stinginess, the image of a chicken plays a peculiar role, in which the main idea of the work is revealed.
Aesop's fable "The Widow and the Hen" tells how a widow, in order to get a lot of eggs at once, began to feed the hen more. But as a result, the hen became fat and stopped laying eggs altogether. . The plot of Krylov’s fable “The Miser and the Chicken” is close in content and conclusions to Aesop’s fable. It says that every day a chicken lays one, not an ordinary, but a golden egg. But this does not satisfy the stingy man and he slaughtered the chicken. In the fable, the author ridicules the greed of the miser, carrying the motif of the golden egg, i.e. greed for wealth.
That by cutting into the Chicken, he will get the treasure in it
And so, forgetting her good deed,
Ingratitude without fear of sin,
He stabbed her. And what? In retribution
He took out simple fucks from her. .
“Cutting up” the chicken enhances the drama of the work, and the golden egg detail is reminiscent of one of the Russian fairy tales, “The Ryaba Hen.”
The fable “The Greedy Old Woman,” which was included in “Kalila and Dimna,” tells the story of an old woman who had only one chicken. She laid one egg every day, but the old woman wanted to get all the eggs at once. Having slaughtered the chicken, the old woman was left with nothing.
So, fables are characterized by an ironic or satirical allegory. The similarity of plots and fable allegorical images suggests that at all times writers and poets wanted to see their era without shortcomings. Fabulists reflected the social problems of their time, hiding their views and thoughts in allegorical images.
Used sources
Babaev T. Fundamentals of literary criticism. – Tashkent, Uzbekistan, 2002.
Daniyarov Kh., Mirzaev S. Reflections on the fable genre // Problems of Uzbek literature. – Tashkent, Uzadabiynashr, 1959. – p. 190.
Kalila and Dimna. – Tashkent, Literature and Art, 1977.
Brief literary encyclopedia. - M., 1962.
Krylov I.A. Fables. Dramaturgy. – M., 1982.
History of Uzbek literature. – Tashkent, Fan, 1978.
Gulhaniy. Zarbulmasal. – Tashkent, Katartal, 19
Aesop. Fables. (Translated by D. Kuranov). – Tashkent, Chulpan, 2001.
Adeyanov A.O., Kravtsova O.A., Fadina D.Yu.
Branch of Samara State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering in Belebey, Russia
(Faculty of Engineering and Economics, 2nd year)
Scientific hands: V.V.Varlamova, candidate of philol. Sc., Associate Professor
Human verbal and mental activity is determined by interrelated functions - communicative, cognitive, nominative, interpretive. The named functions of language are characterized by its very nature and essence, that is, they act as the main functions of the existing language, functioning in the transmission of any type of utterance.
The communicative function has been studied in linguistics throughout its history, but currently it is filled with deeper content in connection with the appeal to the study of language in its real functioning.
What comes to the fore is, first of all, the knowledge of the driving forces, the causes of linguistic phenomena that emanate from man. Isolating and limiting the range of linguistic phenomena associated with the study of the human factor in language leads to the need to distinguish between the biological, social and individual plane of existence of the person himself. The highlighting of the first plan when considering a person is due to the fact that he is a representative of the entire human race, endowed with a set of biological, physical, and psychological characteristics. In the second plane, a person acts as a social being, connected by close ties with his people, his civilization and with certain social groups. The third level of consideration of a person is associated with understanding him as a specific unique personality. In addition, a speaking person is considered as a manager of speech activity, capable of transmitting and perceiving certain information. The minimum unit of communication is a speech act in which a specific speech intention related to the topic and communicative attitudes of the interlocutor is realized.
The main types of literature include messages, orders, requests, questions, comparisons, etc. The act of speech communication as a dynamic system determines the functions of all its components.
It should be noted that in connection with the cognition of various objects and phenomena enshrined in a linguistic nomination, as well as with the defeat of communicative acts, the unity of nominative and communicative means of language is manifested. “The subject-predicate structure simultaneously captures both the act of nomination and the act of communication, for it turns nomination into a message.”
The nominative function combines the communicative and cognitive functions, since, on the one hand, the conditions of communication dictate the choice of one type of nomination or another, and on the other hand, the choice of the naming principle is carried out on the basis of the cognitive work of thinking. It should be noted that there is a special type of thinking - “linguo-creative” thinking. According to V.A. Serebrennikov, linguistic creative thinking has a dual focus: “It, on the one hand, reflects the reality surrounding a person, and on the other hand, is most closely connected with the available resources of the language.”
The specificity of linguo-creative thinking is determined by the interpretive function of language, that is, the ability to designate the fact of extra-linguistic reality in different ways. It is closely related to cognitive and communication functions.
The interpretive function is revealed in the implementation of the global intention of the utterance (text), when the speech subject develops the main theme. The speaker's creation of a rough outline of the utterance indicates the process of cognitive processing of information.
Cognitiveness is understood as the property of language to represent in a generalized form phenomena and properties known by man. outside world. The cognitive function contributes to the creation of a certain fund of knowledge. By transferring his knowledge to another, an individual separates himself from both the other individual and the world about which he is transmitting knowledge.
The category of quantity is “universal, that is, a logical category, a necessary step in the knowledge of reality, since quantity is a reflection of one of the most general properties existence itself. It is no coincidence that the mental category of quantity is considered as a result of reflecting the quantitative certainty of being. Quantity is such a certainty of a thing, thanks to which it can be divided into homogeneous parts and put the parts together, that is, homogeneity, similarity, similarity of parts or objects - hallmark quantities.
In the light of cognition, the functional semantic category of quantity should be considered as a category that conveys a certain mental content, reflecting various layers of human experience and having a variety of formal means of expression at both the lexical and grammatical levels.
The category of number is possessed by nouns with objective and personal meaning. For most nouns, the singular form is the functional dominant, that is, the singular acts as original form when determining quantity. These are nouns that name household objects (sofa, table), animals (squirrel, fox), persons (girl, teacher), clothes (skirt, suit), plants (spruce, birch), etc. For certain groups of nouns, the functional dominant is the plural form, which is characterized by a higher degree of frequency when denoting quantity. These are nouns denoting paired objects (shoes, socks), varieties of vegetables and fruits (peaches, tomatoes); naming people by nationality, profession, occupation (Poles, pilots, generals), etc.
Quantitative relations are realized in the oppositions of collectiveness - universality, the collective category is considered as an integral, indivisible set of homogeneous objects, which, following O. Jespersen, is called “unity of the highest order,” emphasizing that from a logical point of view, the collective category combines the features of individual and general concepts.
In language, this is reflected in the fact that the collective category closes, on the one hand, with the grammatical category of number, and on the other, with the lexical category of mass, non-discrete substance (such as “oil”, “copper”) or a non-discrete idea of the set of realities ( students, foliage).
The category of universality has not been sufficiently studied in linguistic literature. The meaning of universality is divided into two types: generalized (generalized) and event-related universality. Generalized universality covers the totality of all class units, for example: nobility, peasantry, the connection of collective nouns with the category of generalized universality extends only to those collective nouns that denote a set of people united on some basis: nobility - on the basis of belonging to a certain class; teaching - by profession, etc. For example: The Russian nobility was distinguished by its nobility, intelligence, desire to defend its homeland, talent... (V. Zakrutkin). Evental universality is associated with the names of objects and the totality of persons included in the speaker’s field of vision, that is, it is situationally oriented universality, conditioned by reality: Marya Kirillovna listened to the noise of leaves on the trees (A.S. Pushkin).
The category of quantity interacts with the subjective factor, that is, with the speaker’s intentions that determine the choice linguistic means to indicate quantity. Human factor included in all evaluative quantitative words (majority, minority).
It should be noted that the category of quantity is associated with an excretory function that allows one to isolate, separate a single denotation or part of denotations from the general whole. Wed. : This machine stood out from all others from the very first second (A. Likhanov). Near Lida, they joined the group of a major from the army headquarters, which included several people from the rear of their defeated regiment... (V. Bykov).
The excretory function is also expressed using the pronouns someone, some, some, in which the meaning of quantity is intertwined with the semantics of uncertainty. For example: “One of the two is still the boss, and most often it’s the woman,” muttered the driver (E. Yevtushenko). Some of those present tried to talk to him... (A. Pinchuk).
Used sources
Basics of constructing a functional grammar of the Russian language for non-Russians. – Ufa: BSU Publishing House, 1991 – 182 p.
Metzler A. A. Pragmatics of communicative units. – Chisinau: Shtinta, 1990. - P. 3
Serebrennikov B. A. On the materialistic approach to the phenomena of language - M.: Nauka, 1983. - P. 76
Philosophical Encyclopedia. – M., 1962. – P. 552.
Panfilov V.Z. Epistemological aspects of philosophical problems of linguistics. – M., 1982. – P. 227.
Espersen O. Philosophy of Grammar. – M., 1958. – P. 98.
Ali Mugergansky and the era: an appeal to conscience
Alieva H.A.
Dagestan State Pedagogical University, Makhachkala, Russia
(Faculty of Dagestan Philology, 1st year master’s student)
e-mail: Khankhanumalieva@
Scientific hands: F.I. Kazimagomedova, candidate of philol. Sc., Associate Professor
Looking into the development of the literary process of the twentieth century, it can be noted that the 20s and 30s were one of the most terrible pages in the history of Russia. These years cost the country millions of victims, and the victims, as a rule, were talented people V different areas, leaders, scientists, poets. The “price” of faith and struggle for a “happy future” became higher and higher. The country's leadership sought to get rid of all free-thinking people.
Today there is an acute lack of understanding of the literary process Soviet period, incompleteness of its coverage. New facts, names, events associated with these names are revealed. This is especially true of the initial stage, the formation of which sometimes took place in the most acute, going beyond the literary ideological struggle. For a long time, for obvious reasons, the literary process of the 20s - 50s of the last century was interpreted extremely tendentiously and one-sidedly, from the point of view of the so-called party literature. At the same time, many phenomena, names and even entire movements were subjected to devastating criticism or kept silent.
The literature of this era was divided, as it were, into official, emigrant and secret (created, but not passed by censorship or declared an “enemy of the people”).
When characterizing the modern literary process, it should be noted that the attitude towards it is far from equal. However, the fact is indisputable that due to the specific literary twentieth century, when the field of literature was combined with the field of power, so-called “returned” literature became part of modern literature, especially in the first post-perestroika decade (in the 80-90s, the novel returned to the reader E. Zamyatin “We”, story by M. Bulgakov “ dog's heart", "Requiem" by A. Akhmatova and many others. other texts).
One of the “hidden” but still not returned poets is Ali Mugergansky.
In 1930 of the last century, riots broke out in Southern Dagestan against politics Soviet power, which forcibly separated one people into two states... The region, driven to poverty and lawlessness, took up arms.
Among the participants in the uprising were both ordinary people and representatives of governing bodies. The uprising did not last long, it was brutally suppressed, many were sent to hard labor, the leaders were hanged or shot. Magomed Sheikh Shtulsky, a well-known educator and organizer of the uprising in Southern Dagestan, was shot without trial.
These events were reflected in the work of the above-mentioned Ali Mugergansky, namely in the poem “The Uprising of 1930,” which had 18 stanzas. The author acts here both as a geographer and as an analyzer of events, pointing out that the uprising covered many Lezgin regions, as well as the villages of Tabasaran. The poet was able to briefly and concisely, but clearly and accessiblely, explain to the reader the goals of the uprising. And although A. Mugergansky did not openly show his antipathies or sympathies for the events, they were visible through the lines, especially since the author by that time was already known for his frank creativity, his artistic courage in assessing reality. In Lezgin literature, among the works dedicated to this event, there is no equal to A. Mugergansky’s poem in terms of breadth of coverage and depth of depiction.
There is no doubt that the uprising of 1930, the brutal reprisal against the rebels, the exile and death of its participants, as well as other upheavals in the lives of acquaintances, friends, fellow villagers, and personal life were of no small importance in the subsequent formation of the poet’s work.
The frank expression of one's ideals and feelings, the bold support of the rebels in the poem could not go unnoticed by the relevant authorities, which entailed certain punishment.
(Similar facts of the history of Lezgin literature were already known. Let us recall at least the classic of Dagestan literature Etim Emin, who at one time also had the courage to support the rebels, as evidenced by the poems “The Riots of 1877”, “Naibu Hasan”, etc.)
The fate of A. Mugergansky was repeated by a number of poets and writers of the 60-80s of the twentieth century.
Among them, without a doubt, “one can include A. Saidov, Z. Rizvanov, Sh. Kaflanov and many others”: . The facts of their biography, in our opinion, are that stage in literary process twentieth century, which is still subject to careful research and study.
Being the son of a mullah, Ali Mugergansky grew up in an atmosphere of deep spirituality and faith in the Almighty. At the beginning of the last century, he himself was a mullah in upper Mugergan, and in the 20s he served as imam in a mosque in Lower Mugergan. In the first years of Soviet power, A. Mugergansky, like many others, hoped that under the new government there would be more opportunities for spiritual enlightenment. But hopes were not justified. In addition, an attack on religion began, up to the desire for its complete destruction.
In the 30s, the process of closing mosques began, intimidation and threats against believers, especially clergy. Sometimes they were classified as kulaks with all the ensuing consequences. Famous theologians were sent to prison and exile.
In August 1929, by a special government decree, the Ajam script, which was based on Arabic graphics and on which highly artistic works of the peoples of Dagestan were created over many centuries, was replaced with Latin.
At the same time, official government intervention in the management of religion increased.
In the created conditions, religious organizations were forced to agree to all the conditions of the new government. It is known that even the appointment of new muftis and imams was carried out with the consent of the competent authorities or with their direct instructions. The state already demanded that religious leaders accept the philosophy and ideology of the new government.
In the second half of the 20th century, the complete victory of socialism in the USSR was announced, claiming, among other things, its victory over religion. At the same time, it was announced that a new method was emerging in literature - socialist realism, complete socialist romanticism and idyll.
In July 1925, the Central Committee of the RCP (b) adopted a resolution “On the party’s policy in the field of fiction,” which played a fundamental role in the history of the development of Soviet culture - this is the generally accepted point of view of historians. Soon after this, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) was created, which, through the so-called “tactful and careful attitude(to writers who have not fully accepted socialist ideology) would provide all the conditions for the fastest possible transition to the side of communist ideology”: .
Under these conditions, artists like Ali Mugergansky, who realistically depict reality without embellishing it, pointing out both the positive and the negative (in a word, poets who did not accept the method of socialist realism), were not welcome.
An interesting fact is that Ali Mugergansky’s close friend S. Stalsky, when dying, could not openly indicate in his will that he should be buried facing the South, that is, facing the Kaaba, according to the Muslim religion. He replaced the name of this place with Shalbuzdag, also located in the south and revered by Muslims as sacred.
A. Mugergansky was an eyewitness to how the old foundations of his fathers and grandfathers collapsed. They were deprived of centuries-old spiritual values, and new ones were not created, and even those that were created did not satisfy the entire population (the poet outlined his thoughts about this fact in the poem “Mosque”).
For the poet, difficult, dark times are coming. In the poem “To Friend Suleiman” he says that it has become impossible to distinguish friend from enemy. The poet in the poem expresses concern that his letter may harm S. Stalsky and therefore suggests that he be careful.
The development of literature was hampered by the oppressive atmosphere totalitarian state, especially thickened in the late 30s. Repressions from above were complemented by mass denunciations from below, which A. Mugergansky did not escape. In the early 30s, following a false denunciation by the chairman of the village council, to whom A. Mugergansky refused the wedding ceremony, since he had not yet divorced his first wife, the poet was arrested until the circumstances were clarified. From this period the misadventures of the newly-made “enemy of the people” began.
After the second arrest in 1937, when he spent six months in inhumane conditions in the Anzhi fortress, where the living conditions of “enemies of the people,” often imaginary, were worse than those of repeat offenders, the seriously ill poet was returned home, where he lived for only a few days .
During his lifetime, Ali Mugergansky was known as a poet and educator. Corresponded with famous people. The favorite form was letters in verse. There are especially many similar letters written to S. Stalsky and received from him. However, not a single collection of poems by Suleiman Stalsky contains a single line where the name of Ali Mugergansky is mentioned, although Homer of the 20th century has many poems and messages received from him. Agree, it looks unnatural.
The main reason for this, it seems to us, is the fact that A. Mugergansky was arrested and declared an enemy of the people. The compilers of S. Stalsky’s poetry collections even removed the names of imaginary “enemies of the people” from his works, trying not to harm the author. And in subsequent editions they were completely forgotten. Thus, the poet A. Mugergansky moved from the category of “hidden” to the category of “forgotten”.
And the science: Reality and future Materials of the III International... annually International scientific and practical conference " The youth And the science: reality and future”, aimed at creating...
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DocumentAnnually International Scientific and Practical Conference " The youth And the science: reality and future”, aimed at creating... . Korchagina M. B. - M., 1998. – P. 48. Scientific publication The youth And the science: reality and future Materials of the III International...
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DocumentConferences of students, graduate students and young scientists " The youth And the science: reality and future". The first conference was held... Academy of Engineering and Economics, Russia 579 The youth And the science: reality and future Khodzhaev R.A. Tajik State...
The term "allegory" comes from a Greek word meaning "allegory." This concept is an expression of the abstract, abstract content of a thought (judgment, concept) with the help of a specific image. That's what allegory is. An example is the image of death as a skeleton with a scythe, as well as justice in the form of a woman whose eyes are blindfolded, with scales in one hand and a sword in the other.
In an allegory, therefore, a concrete image takes on an abstract meaning. It generalizes. The concept is contemplated through this image. This element of abstract content, which makes a specific image auxiliary in relation to the judgment or concept hiding behind it, constitutes an allegory’s characteristic feature. This meaning in itself is not an artistic element, and the fact that it is always present to one degree or another in an allegory, in the eyes of many, casts doubt on the latter’s belonging to an artistic device.
The dual nature of allegory
In fact, having a dual nature - logical association (connection of an image with a specific concept) and poetic correlation of the resulting concrete expression, allegory in its pure form should be classified as so-called applied poetry. But this does not mean, however, that an allegorical image in itself cannot be artistic. Everything depends on the degree of emphasis of its connection with the expressed object, on the degree of its independence. The more the allegorical meaning is emphasized, the more precise the correspondence between the expressed idea and the image, the more abstraction colors the image, detracting from its artistic value and independence. In such cases, the concrete expression is directed towards an idea, that is, the image has a certain tendency.
This is especially evident in various didactic poetic genres that use such a means as allegory. Examples: fable, parable. They are usually built entirely on this technique. This is also typical for other allegorical works, the basis of which is the intention to illustrate or explain something abstract in concrete terms.
Emotional coloring of abstract thoughts when using allegory
And vice versa, the more vivid the independence and concreteness of the image is, the more direct its action, the less consistent the logical correlation with the expressed idea, the more artistic the allegory is. In this case, the most abstract thought can receive an emotional coloring, acquire artistic perceptibility and the concrete visibility that an allegory receives. An example is the figurative allegory expressed in Tyutchev’s poem, in the last stanza (“Send, Lord, your joy”), developed over the remaining four stanzas. This is how Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin’s artistic translation of the abstract concepts of oblivion, inspiration and youth seems to be the “three keys”. It is also a means of allegory. We will give examples from fiction that are present in the works of other authors below.
Where can allegory be used?
This medium is very common in various fields of art. Allegory, examples of which we have given, as an allegory has the closest connection with metaphor, is often considered as a widespread, developed metaphor or as a whole series of images that are combined into a single closed whole. It is feasible not only in poetry, but also in various plastic arts. Such as sculpture or allegory in painting, examples of which are “Charity” by Charles Lebrun, “Allegory of Painting” by John Vermeer.
Allegory in literature
It is common for images artistic reality, is used traditionally both in book literature and folklore. Dictionary literary terms defines this means as an image through a concrete image of an abstract concept.
Allegory, examples of which will be discussed below from fiction, is very often used in fables and fairy tales. In them, under the guise of animals, various human vices can be implied. Important political and historical events may be depicted allegorically.
In Russian literature, the masters of using this tool were I. A. Krylov and M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Each in their own genre, they created magnificent examples of works (allegorical). The use of this technique by both authors is complex.
"The Wise Minnow"
There is always a philosophical, more deep meaning, allegory has several meanings for these writers. An example is the fairy tale “The Wise Minnow,” written by Saltykov-Shchedrin, in which a type of so-called moderate liberal is depicted under the guise of a small fish. This is a cowardly person who is always afraid for his life. He is not interested in anything else except his life. The gudgeon cut himself off from the world, deprived himself of all joys, and brought no benefit to anyone. He did not want to fight for his rights, for his life, preferring to vegetate for a whole century. Therefore, the outcome of the existence of this liberal minion is logical. The author concludes that such people cannot be called citizens, since they are just useless minnows. They give no one cold, no warmth, no dishonor, no honor. They just waste space and eat food. It is clear that the author of the work implies, by portraying the wise minion, supporters of liberalism - a political trend. Generalizing the image more broadly, we can say that we also mean other passive citizens who look at the lawlessness committed by the authorities and remain silent, fearing for their own lives. But, in addition to this meaning, contemporary to Saltykov-Shchedrin, one can also find an eternal one in this fairy tale: in order to live a bright, full life and not regret empty years in old age, one should live, meet fate halfway, be open to it, win, take risks , and not be afraid of everything.
"Wolf and Lamb"
Krylov's fables are no less multi-layered. Beneath the moment-to-moment, relevant meaning, they hide deep universal ideas that the allegory expresses. An example is the fable “The Wolf and the Lamb,” which depicts the relationship between the people and the authorities, contemporary to the author, - this is the interaction between the subordinate and the omnipotent. At the same time, we also mean the relationship between the weak and the strong in any area of our life. Often, unfortunately, a dishonest person, having met a weaker person on his way, tries to prove his power and strength to him, mocking the innocent creature in every possible way.
"Bear in the Voivodeship"
Both Krylov and Saltykov-Shchedrin follow the traditions of the people in their works. Most often, therefore, they depict human vices, as well as social events, depicting them in the form of animals, the lives of various animals and birds. But we easily recognize hints and understand from individual details what the author wanted to say. For example, in another tale by Saltykov-Shchedrin called “The Bear in the Voivodeship,” the author, by a series of Toptygins, means city governors who were sent to restore order. In folklore, the Bear is the personification of ignorance, brute force, and stupidity. Saltykov-Shchedrin also adheres to a similar interpretation. Its mayors are shown as stupid barbarians who destroy everything in their path. Their main concern is to curry favor with their superiors in every possible way - the authorities. These people don't care about the fate of the people.
In the image of the Bear, Krylov also portrays various bosses. For example, in the fable called “The Bear with the Bees,” an embezzler who was admitted to state property is depicted. Mishka took all the honey into his den. The bear is presented here as an “old rogue”, an unscrupulous thief.
Works depicting the helplessness of masters
Both of these authors also use another type of allegory. In their works, people quite often become heroes. Various human vices are exposed here through a specific situation. You can find more topical works in Saltykov-Shchedrin than in Krylov. This writer, as you know, actively fought against social vices, advocating the abolition of serfdom, ridiculing arrogant, arrogant gentlemen who could not take a step without “uneducated” and “dirty” men. Some of the most dedicated to this topic famous fairy tales, created by the pen of Saltykov-Shchedrin. This " Wild landowner" and "The story of how one man fed two generals."
The helplessness of the presented landowners is revealed in these fairy-tale situations. They are unable to survive without using the labor of peasants. Without peasant supervision in everyday life, landowners are doomed to become savage. The centuries-old life in which serfdom existed completely deprived them of all skills. These gentlemen turn out to be capable only of “eating”, playing “pulka”, and scolding “homespun” men.
The two fairy tales presented show in allegorical form the state of affairs that was characteristic of Russia at the time of the author, when the issue of abolition of serfdom was at the forefront.
"Wolf in the kennel"
In Krylov we can also find many relevant fables. Almost all of his works were written as a response to a social event in the field of art or politics. For example, everyone knows that the fable “The Wolf in the Kennel” allegorically depicts the events of 1812, the Patriotic War, or rather, Napoleon’s attempt to begin peace negotiations with Russia. Bonaparte is meant by the wolf, and M.I. Kutuzov is depicted as a gray-haired hunter. Once in Russia (at the kennel), the Wolf himself turns out to be not happy about this. The kennel became hell for him. This hero decides to enter into negotiations, but the cunning one does not fall for cunning tricks.
"Demyanov's ear"
Let's look at one more famous fable by this writer called "Demyanov's ear". This work ridiculed the meetings organized by “lovers of the Russian word.” Depicting an everyday scene in which Demyan, a hospitable host, treats his guest's fish soup so that he is then unable to get up from the table, Krylov meant by this the meetings of writers, in which the writers of the plays drove the listeners "to the point of white heat" with their various " creations." This sketch is an example of the use of such a device as allegory, examples of which we have already given from Krylov’s fables. The moral of the work says that if you do not know how to remain silent in time and do not feel sorry for your neighbor, you should know that the prose and poetry of such an author will be more sickening than Demyanova’s fish soup.
The use of folk allegory in works
The real virtuosos were I.A. Krylov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in the use of such a technique as allegory. The examples from literature created by these authors that we have given, as well as their other works, are included in the treasury of cultural heritage. These writers, using the tradition of allegory in popular imagination, complicated and developed it in their works. Both authors created both relevant, topical works and philosophical, deep creations of universal humanity. It is not for nothing that these creators of fairy tales and fables remain favorite writers to this day for readers of all ages.
We looked at such a concept as allegory. Only a few examples from the literature were presented in this article. In fact, there are many more of them. The 5 examples of allegory that we have highlighted in the headings are just some of the most striking works. It will be very interesting to get acquainted with other creations of Krylov and Saltykov-Shchedrin. Examples of allegory in the Russian language thanks to the work of these and other authors today are very numerous. This tool enriches our speech. Widely used today in oral speech allegory. Try to compose examples of sentences depicting such concepts as love, death, glory, justice as living beings yourself.
