Architecture achieved significant success in the 20s and 30s of the 20th century. The rapid growth of cities, industry, and the development of transport come into sharp conflict with the layout of old cities, with their narrow winding streets, which does not meet the new requirements. The need to solve the complicated problem of transport services and provide normal sanitary and living conditions for the population gives rise to urban planning projects and new forms of human settlement. They are characterized by the desire to soften social contrasts in cities and eliminate excessive concentration of the population. Around large cities in some countries, garden cities with individual residential buildings, industrial cities, workers' settlements, etc. arise with a strictly functional division of the territory. The architects' attention was drawn to the tasks of not only industrial, but also mass housing construction, the development of residential complexes with economical standard apartments designed for the middle and low-paid category of people. More attention is paid to the design of areas and the architectural design of landscapes. A universal classification of streets and principles for their combination are being developed, networks of urban highways are being created, independent of transition streets and dissecting the city into a number of separate spaces. In the design of new types of cities and large industrial enterprises, the principles of the functional-constructive system, which originated at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, are increasingly being established. This style of architecture is called constructivism. The harbinger of a new stage in the development of architecture was the Eiffel Tower (height 312 m), erected from prefabricated steel parts for the Paris World Exhibition of 1889 according to the design of engineer Gustav Eiffel as a sign of the entry into a new era of the machine age. Devoid of utilitarian meaning, the openwork tower soars easily and smoothly into the sky, embodying the power of technology. Its dynamic vertical plays an important role in the city's skyline. The grandiose arch of the tower’s base seems to unite the distant vistas of the city landscape visible through it. This building had a stimulating effect on further development architecture.
Eiffel Tower
1889, Gustav Eiffel
Paris, France
Museum of Archeology
1929-1933
Toronto, Canada
House of Culture named after Rusakov,
1928, K.S. Melnikov,
Moscow, Russia
The development of the American city and its face were determined by the multi-story skyscrapers of New York, Chicago, etc. By the beginning of the 20th century, architects of the so-called Chicago school, which arose at the end of the 19th century, developed designs for skyscrapers with overhanging walls. American cities, such as New York, maintain a sharp contrast between skyscrapers (the Empire State Building, early 1930s, 102 floors, 407 m high, and Rockefeller Center, 72 floors, 384 m high, 1931– 1947) and many other buildings of various sizes. In the history of Russian constructivism, professional architects designed all kinds of modular structures of residential units, interconnected into large complexes, elevators moving along external walls, etc.
Konstantin Melnikov is considered the luminary of Russian (Soviet) constructivism. Having started with the construction of Russian pavilions at International Exhibitions in the style of traditional wooden architecture, thanks to which he gained international fame, Melnikov moved on to designing very current buildings of a new (revolutionary) type and purpose - workers' clubs. The Rusakov Club, built by him in 1927-1928, has nothing in common either with the architecture of the previous century or with the architecture of Art Nouveau. Here, purely geometric concrete structures are organized into a structure, the shape of which is determined by its purpose. The last remark applies to almost all modern and 20th century architecture and is defined as functionalism. In constructivist architecture, functionalism leads to the creation of dynamic structures consisting of fairly simple formal elements, completely devoid of the usual architectural decor, connected in accordance with the organization of the internal space and the operation of the main structures. The language of architectural forms is thus “cleared” of everything unnecessary, decorative, and non-constructive. This is the language of a new world that has broken with its past. The emerging architectural image clearly conveys the dynamics of artistic processes and life in post-revolutionary Russia, the intoxication with modern technical capabilities.
Constructivism is an outstanding achievement of Soviet architecture, a new movement and a unique view on the form and functionality of buildings. As an architectural movement, constructivism arose in the 1920s in the Soviet Union and was characterized by rigor, geometricism, laconic forms and functionality of buildings. The leaders of constructivism are considered to be the architects Vesnin, Ginzburg, Golosov, Melnikov, Leonidov.
The development of architecture is inextricably linked both with the development of society - the historical context and rethinking of the functions of buildings, and with technical progress - the invention of new materials and mechanisms. Both of these factors influenced the emergence of a new style in architecture - constructivism. Firstly, the new ideology did not recognize the attributes that personified a person’s certain social position in a class society; luxury goods were seen only as wasted labor and the desire to show off one’s wealth. Ostentatious luxury was contrasted with consciously cultivated asceticism, which became the ethical and aesthetic norm for the country's ruling class - the proletariat. Secondly, the industrial revolution and technical progress have already contributed - inventing new building materials First of all, it made it possible to implement new forms that would have been impossible before.
Constructivism is a direction of exclusively Soviet architecture (in the West, functionalism is closest to it). After the proletariat came to power, after the devastating civil war, the country began to recover and build, and this had to be done in a new way, rejecting the old canons. One of the first projects that personified a new approach to architecture was the project of the Vesnin brothers. In 1923, a competition was announced for the design of the Palace of Labor for Moscow, third place in this competition was taken by the project of A. A., V. A. and L. A. Vesnin, which stood out for its innovative approach to the layout of premises, the use of building materials and the aesthetics of everything building. he spoke about this event and this project later: “Let them remember 1923, when a turning point took place in architecture, let them remember how they argued then that Vesnin could not be given a prize for the Palace of Labor, because architecture would go down the wrong path, then they gave a prize to the architect Trotsky - however, in spite of everything, architecture took a new path." It is characteristic that before this the Vesnins designed mainly industrial buildings, that is, buildings in which the main thing is function, their aesthetics follows from functionality, decoration is not such an important element.
This approach to building design turned out to be internally very consonant with the slogans of the new country, the rejection of “art for art’s sake,” and also close to “industrial art, which called on artists to “consciously create useful things.” “Productive art” was only a concept, but the term “constructivism” itself was proposed by ideologists of this particular direction: they often used the words “construction”, “constructive”, “construction of space”. The two main ideas of the theory of industrial art were also shared by constructivist architects - the denial of specificity artistic work(every work is an art, not just the work of creating paintings and music) and reducing the problems of shaping to the production of a useful thing (only things that bring real benefits should be created, things only need not be created for beauty). Also, the formation of constructivism was influenced by innovative art movements of the early 20th century: futurism, suprematism, cubism, purism.
Early Constructivism
Talking about early period constructivism, researchers emphasize two characteristic features of it. Firstly, this is originality in artistic issues of form-building: at that time, Western architecture and its latest trends had practically no influence on constructivist architects; they developed in their own direction, with virtually no contact with Western colleagues. Secondly, this is the desire to find architectural means of expressiveness: having abandoned architectural decoration, the constructivists did not replace it with painting or sculpture, did not strive to decorate the building with them, but experimented and looked for new possibilities precisely in architectural techniques. Although, of course, a synthesis of architecture and the surrounding space - signs, shop windows, city clocks, etc. - was. Constructivism includes not only an architectural movement, but also the general direction in Soviet art of those years; Brik, Rodchenko, Mayakovsky considered themselves constructivists, and they sought to create a common aesthetics of both buildings and other elements of the urban environment.
The basic principles of constructivism as an architectural movement were formulated in the speeches of A. A. Vesnin and M. Ya. Ginzburg, under whose leadership the public organization OSA - the Association of Modern Architects - was created in 1926. This official creative organization of constructivists developed its own design method, based on an analysis of the characteristics of the functioning of buildings: each function corresponds to the most rational space-planning structure, that is, the form corresponds to the function. The OSA association published the magazine “ Modern architecture", exhibitions, congresses, and conferences were held. In 1930, OSA was transformed into SASS (Sector of Architects of Socialist Construction) under the All-Union Architectural and Scientific Society and existed until 1932, when the Union of Architects of the USSR was created.
Artistic means of constructivism
From project to project, a set of tools and techniques of constructivism was gradually formed: increasingly free handling of the frame structure - from subordinating it to using all its constructive capabilities to solve various problems; the tendency to create an increasingly laconic composition - enlarging the form, eliminating small divisions, simplifying the facade. In the mid-1920s, the constructivists were somewhat influenced by Le Corbusier, who came to the Soviet Union, whose original means and techniques were close to the ideology of the Soviet avant-garde. But by the end of the decade, constructivism again moved away from Western ideas and continued to develop in its own original direction, which was facilitated by the emergence of new bright constructivist architects - I. Leonidov, the Golosov brothers, M. Barshch, V. Vladimirov.
New ideas for organizing work and life Soviet people were directly reflected in the buildings that were erected at that time. Constructivists design cultural centers, clubs, industrial buildings and residential buildings that correspond to the spirit of the times. The most ambitious project of the house of culture was the project of the Vesnin brothers, which was not implemented in full, but nevertheless became one of the iconic works of constructivism: the house of culture of the Proletarsky district of Moscow (Palace of Culture ZiLa). It was built in 1931-1937; when creating the project, Le Corbusier's five principles were used: pillars instead of walls, free layout, free facade design, elongated windows, flat roof. The shape of the building was determined by the functions inherent in the palace of culture and the internal layout of its individual cells.
Communal houses
A separate interesting phenomenon was the commune house built in line with the Soviet ideology. In 1930 - 1931, on Ordzhonikidze Street in Moscow, a dormitory-commune of the Textile Institute was erected according to the design of I. Nikolaev. The concept of the project was to streamline and typify the lives of students; each period of the daily routine had to correspond to a separate room - a sleeping cabin, a sanitary building, a gym, etc. Accordingly, the architectural design of the building was subordinated to this mode of functioning of students: transitions from one building to another, the area of various rooms and internal communications serving them, the shape and area of windows.
Neoclassicism vs Constructivism
In the early 1930s, the political situation in the country changed, and in architecture the influence of architects who preached styles completely opposite to constructivism—Shchusev, Zholtovsky—increased. In 1932, Zholtovsky built his famous house on Mokhovaya, completely designed in the spirit of neoclassicism, which was immediately called “the nail in the coffin of constructivism.” Influential admirers of richly decorated buildings supported precisely this style; the ascetic romance of constructivism became less in demand. Avant-garde trends in architecture began to be sharply criticized, and then were completely banned as bourgeois. Constructivism fell into disgrace; many young architects, who began as constructivists, revised their views in favor of neoclassicism. Some constructivist architects, for example I. Golosov, the Vesnin brothers, were able to fit into the conjuncture of the 1930s and continue their activities, but they no longer had the same authority as before.
After constructivism
Constructivism greatly influenced the entire Soviet architecture, even though it gave way to neoclassicism and
Constructivism is a movement in Soviet art of the 1920s. (in architecture, design and theatrical decorative art, posters, book art, artistic design). Proponents of constructivism, having put forward the task of “designing” an environment that actively guides life processes, sought to comprehend the formative capabilities of new technology, its logical, expedient designs, as well as the aesthetic capabilities of materials such as metal, glass, and wood. Constructivists sought to contrast the ostentatious luxury of everyday life with the simplicity and emphasized utilitarianism of new object forms, in which they saw the embodiment of democracy and new relationships between people (the Vesnin brothers, M. Ya. Ginzburg, etc.). The aesthetics of constructivism largely contributed to the formation of Soviet artistic design (A. M. Rodchenko, V. E. Tatlin, etc.). Applied to foreign art the term is conditional: in architecture - a movement within functionalism, in painting and sculpture - one of the directions of avant-gardeism. In architecture, the principles of constructivism were formulated in the theoretical speeches of A. A. Vesnin and M. Ya. Ginzburg, practically they were first embodied in the project of the Labor Palace for Moscow created by the brothers A. A., V. A. and L. A. Vesnin (1923 ) with its clear, rational plan and the structural basis of the building (reinforced concrete frame) revealed in the external appearance. In 1924, a creative organization of constructivists—OSA—was created, whose representatives developed the so-called functional design method, based on a scientific analysis of the functioning features of buildings, structures, and urban planning complexes. Along with other groups of Soviet architects, the constructivists (the Vesnin brothers, Ginzburg, I. A. Golosov, I. I. Leonidov, A. S. Nikolsky, M. O. Barshch, V. N. Vladimirov, etc.) searched for new principles plans for populated areas, put forward projects for the reconstruction of everyday life, and developed new types of public buildings (Palaces of Labor, Houses of Councils, workers' clubs, factory kitchens, etc.). At the same time, in their theoretical and practical activities, the constructivists made a number of mistakes (attitude to the apartment as a “material form”, schematism in the organization of life in some projects of communal houses, underestimation of natural and climatic conditions, underestimation of the role of large cities under the influence of the ideas of deurbanism). 
The aesthetics of constructivism contributed greatly to the development of modern artistic design. Based on the developments of constructivists (A. M. Rodchenko, A. M. Gan and others), new types of dishes, fittings, and furniture were created that were easy to use and designed for mass production; artists developed designs for fabrics (V.F. Stepanova, L.S. Popova) and practical models of work clothes (Stepanova, V.E. Tatlin). Constructivism played a significant role in the development of poster graphics (photomontages of the Stenberg brothers, G. G. Klutsis, Rodchenko) and book design (use of the expressive capabilities of type and other typesetting elements in the works of Gan, L. M. Lisitsky, etc.). In the theater, the constructivists replaced traditional scenery with “machines” for the work of actors, subordinate to the tasks of stage action (the work of Popova, A. A. Vesnin and others on the productions of V. E. Meyerhold, A. Ya. Tairov). Some ideas of constructivism were embodied in Western European (W. Baumeister, O. Schlemmer, etc.) fine arts.
In relation to foreign art, the term “constructivism” is largely conditional: in architecture it denotes a movement within functionalism, which sought to emphasize the expression of modern designs; in painting and sculpture, it is one of the directions of avant-gardeism, which used some of the formal searches of early constructivism (sculptors I. Gabo, A . Pevzner) Constructivism (from the Latin constructio - construction) is an artistic movement in the art of a number of European countries at the beginning of the 20th century, which was declared the basis artistic image not a composition, but a design. Constructivism found its fullest expression in architecture, design, applied design, theatrical decorative art, printed graphics, and the art of books; expressed in the desire of artists to turn to the design of things, the artistic organization of the material environment. In the artistic culture of Russia in the 20s, constructivist architects, the Vesnin brothers, and M. Ginzburg relied on the capabilities of modern construction technology. 
They achieved artistic expression through compositional means, juxtaposition of simple, laconic volumes, as well as the aesthetic capabilities of materials such as metal, glass, and wood. Artists of this direction (V. Tatlin, A. Rodchenko, L. Popova, E. Lisitsky, V. Stepanova, A. Ekster), joining the movement of industrial art, became the founders of Soviet design, where the external form was directly determined by the function, engineering design and material processing technology. In design theater performances Constructivists replaced the traditional pictorial decoration with transformable installations - “machines”, changing the stage space. Constructivism in printed graphics, book art, and poster art is characterized by sparse geometrized forms, their dynamic layout, limited color palette (mainly red and black), and widespread use of photography and typesetting typographic elements.
Characteristic manifestations of constructivism in painting, graphics and sculpture are abstract geometricism, the use of collage, photomontage, spatial structures, sometimes dynamic. The ideas of constructivism matured in previous directions of the Russian avant-garde. His program, formed in the post-revolutionary period, bore the features of a social utopia, since artistic design was conceived as a way of transforming social existence and consciousness of people, and designing the environment.
Constructivism. Abstract art movement that originated in Russia in 1913. Constructivism rejected traditional ideas about art in the name of imitation of the forms and methods of modern technological process. This was most clearly manifested in sculpture, where the structure was created directly from industrial products. In painting, the same principles were implemented in two-dimensional space: abstract forms and structures were located on a plane like an architectural drawing, reminiscent of elements of machine technology. Although constructivism existed in Russia only in the first post-revolutionary years, its influence was felt throughout the 20th century. see Gabo, Lissitzky, Moholy-Nagy, Popova, Rodchenko, Tatlin About the poetic movement By its principles, theoretical platform, the breadth of creative views of its participants and, finally, by the duration of its existence, constructivism could well lay claim to being considered an independent literary movement . The poetic principles declared (and implemented) by the constructivists in practice, in contrast to many pseudo-independent poetic groups of that time, were truly distinguished by their “uncommon expression.”
In addition, constructivism brought forward many famous names. And yet, it is usually not customary to distinguish constructivism into a separate poetic movement. Perhaps because it was too utilitarian (meaning “applied”) in nature. In contrast to the tasks of this direction in other areas of art, which put forward the idea of designing the material environment surrounding a person to create simple, logical, functionally justified forms (architectural projects of the Vesnin brothers, M. Ginzburg, I. Leonidov; posters, books, theatrical scenography by artists A. Rodchenko, V. Tatlin, L. Lisitsky), in poetry constructivism manifested itself in an orientation towards the rational “construction of material” instead of an intuitively found style. However, another explanation is possible. It was already said above that one of the “mandatory” conditions for the formation of a new poetic movement was the presence of an “external enemy” - a point of application of the creative efforts of group members, in the fight against which formation took place. The constructivists, by and large, had no one to argue with but themselves. Limp attacks on futurism could hardly deceive anyone, since the “construction” of a poetic text goes back to the principles proclaimed by the ideologist of futurism F. Marinetti, who sought to reflect the dynamism of modern machine civilization and technological progress. True, for this purpose the futurists used slightly different means, resorting more to experimentation with vocabulary and syntax. However, the methods were very similar - transferring the center of gravity from the image of a person to the image of his material and technical environment. 
Constructivists as an independent literary group first announced themselves in Moscow in the spring of 1922. Its first members were the poets A. Chicherin, I. Selvinsky and critic K. Zelinsky (the group’s theorist). Initially, the constructivist program had a narrowly formal focus: the principle of understanding was brought to the fore literary work as designs. In the surrounding reality, technological progress was proclaimed to be the main thing, and the role of the technical intelligentsia was emphasized. Moreover, this was interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. In particular, it was stated: “Constructivism as absolutely creative school asserts the universality of poetic technique; if modern schools, separately, scream: sound, rhythm, image, abstruse, etc., we, emphasizing and, say: And sound, And rhythm, And image, And abstruse, And every new possible technique in which the actual necessity when installing a structure Constructivism is the highest skill, deep, comprehensive knowledge of all the possibilities of the material and the ability to concentrate in it.” But later the constructivists gradually freed themselves from these narrowly defined aesthetic frameworks and put forward broader justifications for their creative platform. In literary and artistic life of the country, it was the representatives of modernism who took the most active part in those years, and many of them turned out to be by no means unwitting conductors of the dominant culture of that era. political ideology. Here, for example, is the opinion of the famous artist-illustrator from the association of the so-called “production book” O. Chichagova: “In essence, constructivism denies art as a product of bourgeois culture. Constructivism is an ideology that arose in proletarian Russia during the revolution, and like any ideology can be viable and not built on sand only when it creates a consumer for itself; and therefore, the task of constructivism is to organize communist life through the creation of a constructive person. The means to this are intellectual production - invention and improving production - technology." That is, a substitution of concepts occurred: the methodology of constructivism was now placed in direct dependence on ideological principles. Here the first disagreements arose, in connection with which Chicherin moved away from constructivism, and a number of authors grouped around Selvinsky and Zelinsky: B. Agapov, Dir Tumanny (N. Panov), V. Inber, E. Gabrilovich. In 1924, the Constructivist Literary Center (LCC) was organized. Later they were joined by N. Aduev, V. Lugovskoy, A. Kvyatkovsky, V. Asmus, E. Bagritsky, N. Ognev, N. Ushakov, as well as a group of young poets: V. Gusev, G. Kats, I. Koltunov, A. Kudreiko (Zelenyak), K. Mitreykin, L. Lavrov and others, jokingly called “konstromoltsy”. At first, meetings of the constructivists took place alternately in the apartments of one of the LCC members, and from 1927 they began to meet in the “Herzen House” on Tverskaya Street (25). The Declaration of the LCC first of all stated that “constructivism is thoughts and social attitudes organized into a system, which emphatically reflect the organizational onslaught of the working class,” and further spoke about the need for art to maximize close participation constructivists in the construction of socialist culture. This gives rise to a focus on saturating art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes. Declaration of the Constructivist Literary Center (LCC) Basic provisions of constructivism.
1. The nature of modern production technology, rapid, economic and capacious, also influences the methods of ideological ideas, subordinating all cultural processes to these internal formal organizational requirements.
Constructivism is an expression of this increased attention to technical and organizational issues.
2. Here, in the USSR, constructivism acquires a broad socio-cultural meaning, due to the need in a relatively short time to cover the distance separating the proletariat, as a culturally backward class, from modern high technology and the entire developed system of cultural superstructures, which, in an increasingly aggravated situation, throughout the world of class struggle, are used by the bourgeoisie, also as technical weapons of struggle.
3. The organizational form of this task is constructivism.
4. Thus, constructivism is thoughts and social attitudes organized into a system, which emphatically reflect the organizational onslaught of the working class, forced in a peasant country, after gaining power, to build an economy and lay the foundation of a new socialist culture.
5. This onslaught in the field of culture is directed primarily at its technology in all areas of knowledge and skill, starting with the simple acquisition of literacy.
6. The bearer of the constructivist (i.e., assertive-organizational) and cultural movement should be, first of all, the proletariat, and then intermediate social groups that are under the ideological and political influence of the proletariat.
7. Constructivism, transferred to the field of art, formally turns into a system of maximum exploitation of the theme, or into a system of mutual functional justification of all components artistic elements, i.e. In general, constructivism is motivated art.
8. In formal terms, such a requirement rests on the so-called principle of loadification, i.e., an increase in the load of needs per unit of material.
9. Right-wing social strata, intellectual and petty-bourgeois groups adapt the formal requirements of constructivism as aesthetic trenches for hiding in them from the onslaught of revolutionary modernity, seeking to gain a foothold in artistic theme. Then constructivism turns into a special easel genre, that is, an unmotivated demonstration of a technique. This is equally true of painting and poetry. For the left social strata, this demand for maximum exploitation is naturally merged with the search for a large epochal theme and a narrow form for it, which, through the logic of the plot, introduces prose techniques into the realm of poetry.
10. The principle of cargoification, when applied to poetry, turns into a requirement for constructing poems in terms of local semantics, i.e., developing the entire texture of the verse from the main semantic content of the topic.
11. The Literary Center of Constructivists (LCC), which has made the above-mentioned provisions its banner, is an organizational association of people welded together by the common goals of communist construction and which sets its task, through joint, practical study of the formal, technical and theoretical sides of constructivism, to give literature and, in particular, poetry, effective meaning in today's cultural environment. Constructivists consider it necessary in their literary creativity to actively identify revolutionary modernity both thematically and in its technical requirements.
To give this topic maximum effectiveness, constructivists put forward the principle of “loadification” of the word, i.e., its maximum “densification.” This is achieved with the help of “local semantics”, which consists in concentrating all the visual and expressive means of the verse around the main semantic content of the topic “[in B. Agapov’s poem “Typist Topchuk” comparisons, epithets, etc. are taken from clerical life: “eyebrows” , as the signature of the director of the trust"; in N. Panov’s poem about General Kornilov, the rhythm imitates a drum march, etc.], as well as by “introducing prose techniques into the realm of poetry,” if this is dictated by the logic of the plot (for example, “Report” by Selvinsky, or his series calculations and technical terms in Pushtorg). It also sharply criticized “the right-wing social strata, intellectual and petty-bourgeois groups that adapt the formal requirements of constructivism as aesthetic trenches for hiding in them from the onslaught of revolutionary modernity.” Such a slide from the sphere of art to the field of ideology could not but affect the fate of constructivism as a poetic movement.
And although the LCC still claims a leading role, declaring: “Constructivism is replacing futurism both as a literary school and as a nihilistic worldview. Futurism has done its job. He was the gravedigger of bourgeois decadence in the pre-revolutionary years. In its new guise - LEF, futurism continues its old work - the fight against the rotten rump. But new literature, a new socialist culture will no longer be created by his hands. This new culture creates its own new style, its own new methods, and these are the methods of constructivism,” but in recent years the program of the constructivists was in many ways reminiscent of the program of LEF, which they criticized.
Constant sharp criticism of constructivists from Marxist theorists led in 1930 to the liquidation of the LCC and the formation of the “Literary Brigade M. I”, which became part of the Federation of Associations of Soviet Writers (FOSP), which carried out the “unification of various writer groups wishing to actively participate in the construction of the USSR and who believe that our literature is called upon to play one of the responsible roles in this area.” In 1930, the Constructivist Literary Center, sensing the impending harsh changes, dissolved itself. In the early 1930s, the political situation in the country, and, consequently, in art, changed significantly. Innovative movements were at first subjected to sharp criticism, and then were completely banned, like... bourgeois ones. As the constructivist M. Ginzburg correctly wrote, each era has its own style of art. Romantic-utopian, strict and revolutionary asceticism was replaced by curvaceous totalitarian baroque and the arrogant excess of Stalinist neoclassicism. The following fact seems strange: in the USSR there was a struggle against “right angles”, against “bourgeois formalism”, against “Leonidism”, and palaces in the style of Louis XIV began to be considered completely proletarian. The constructivists found themselves in disgrace. Those of them who did not want to “rebuild” eked out a miserable existence until the end of their days (or even found themselves repressed). However, Ilya Golosov, for example, managed to fit into the conjuncture of the 1930s and was able to create truly interesting buildings. The Vesnin brothers also participated in creative life The USSR, however, no longer had the same authority as before. According to some authoritative scientists in the USSR in 1932-1936. There was a “transitional style”, conventionally called “post-constructivism”. In the 1960s, when the fight against “architectural excesses” began, they again remembered the achievements of the constructivists. Studying their heritage has become mandatory for young architects. And since the beginning of the 1990s, many unrealized ideas of the 1920s have become a reality. An example is the “Three Whales” shopping complex on the Minskoe Highway (designed in the spirit of the twenties), luxury housing of various types in Moscow and other buildings of the modern metropolis. constructivism soviet art avant-garde
IN beginning of XXI century, constructivism returns to architecture again. Now it is called Scandinavian, as its roots lie in the country house construction of the Scandinavian countries. Scandinavian constructivism is characterized by an abundance of space and sunlight, functionality and simplicity, naturalness and naturalness. It has a given rhythm of lines and strict geometry. He is characterized by the aesthetics of expediency, the rationality of strictly utilitarian forms. Today, Scandinavian constructivism has taken root most widely in Russia, in St. Petersburg. The architectural concept of Scandinavian constructivism is considered the most organic for country houses near the Northern Capital.
In St. Petersburg, the predominance of cloudy weather leads to a lack of sunlight. This problem is resolved due to the large areas of glazing and volumetric rooms in houses characteristic of Scandinavian constructivism. The rhythmicity of lines and the emphasized rigor of geometry give houses made in the style of Scandinavian constructivism their unique appearance, and simplicity and naturalness, coupled with the use of natural materials, ensure the attractiveness of the architectural solution. Such houses fit organically into the suburban landscape and are close in spirit to aristocratic St. Petersburg residents.
2. Constructivism in architecture
Significant successes in the 20s and 30s. 20th century architecture has reached. The rapid growth of cities, industry, and the development of transport come into sharp conflict with the layout of old cities, with their narrow winding streets, which does not meet the new requirements. The need to solve the complicated problem of transport services and provide normal sanitary and living conditions for the population gives rise to urban planning projects and new forms of human settlement. They are characterized by the desire to soften social contrasts in cities and eliminate excessive concentration of the population. Around large cities in some countries, garden cities with individual residential buildings, industrial cities, workers' settlements, etc. arise with a strictly functional division of the territory. The architects' attention was drawn to the tasks of not only industrial, but also mass housing construction, the development of residential complexes with economical standard apartments designed for the middle and low-paid category of people. More attention is paid to the design of areas and the architectural design of landscapes. A universal classification of streets and principles for their combination are being developed, networks of urban highways are being created, independent of transition streets and dissecting the city into a number of separate spaces. In the design of new types of cities and large industrial enterprises, the principles of the functional-constructive system, which originated at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, are increasingly being established. This style of architecture is called constructivism. In the history of Russian constructivism, professional architects designed all kinds of modular structures of residential units, interconnected into large complexes, elevators moving along external walls, etc. Konstantin Melnikov is considered the luminary of Russian (Soviet) constructivism. Having started with the construction of Russian pavilions at International Exhibitions in the style of traditional wooden architecture, thanks to which he gained international fame, Melnikov moved on to designing very current buildings of a new (revolutionary) type and purpose - workers' clubs. Club named after Rusakova, built by him in 1927-28, has nothing in common either with the architecture of the previous century or with Art Nouveau architecture. Here, purely geometric concrete structures are organized into a structure, the shape of which is determined by its purpose.
The last remark applies to almost all modern and 20th century architecture and is defined as functionalism. In constructivist architecture, functionalism leads to the creation of dynamic structures consisting of fairly simple formal elements, completely devoid of the usual architectural decor, connected in accordance with the organization of the internal space and the operation of the main structures. The language of architectural forms is thus “cleared” of everything unnecessary, decorative, and non-constructive. This is the language of a new world that has broken with its past.
The emerging architectural image clearly conveys the dynamics of artistic processes and life in post-revolutionary Russia, the intoxication with modern technical capabilities. Architects of the constructivist style believed that all elements of the building should take part in creating the architectural image of a modern building, even such as signs, clocks, billboards, loudspeakers, elevator shafts, etc., so all of them should also be designed by an architect. Soviet constructivists focused their efforts on two major tasks: designing an exemplary socialist city and communal apartment housing for workers - communal houses. Meeting the new needs of the socialist state, constructivists were engaged in the design and construction of such types of buildings as offices, department stores, sanatoriums, printing houses, research centers, factories and factories, workers' clubs and hydroelectric power stations. The young Soviet architecture of the first post-revolutionary decades was really at the forefront of world architecture, implementing or creating on paper the most daring projects, including the famous Palace of the Soviets, which could not be built on the site of the destroyed Cathedral of Christ the Savior. With the onset of Stalinist totalitarianism in the 30s, Russia gradually lost its position in architecture, and it has still not been possible to restore it. An important milestone in the development of constructivism was the work of talented architects - brothers Leonid, Victor and Alexander Vesnin. They came to understand a laconic “proletarian” aesthetic, already having solid experience in building design, painting and book design. (They started their careers back in the Art Nouveau era).
For the first time, constructivist architects loudly declared themselves at the competition of designs for the Palace of Labor building in Moscow. The Vesnins' project stood out not only for the rationality of the plan and the conformity of the external appearance with the aesthetic ideals of modernity, but also implied the use of the latest building materials and structures. The next stage was the competition project for the building of the Leningradskaya Pravda newspaper (Moscow branch). The task was extremely difficult - a tiny plot of land was intended for construction - 6x6 m on Strastnaya Square. The Vesnins created a miniature, slender six-story building, which included not only an office and editorial premises, but also a newsstand, a lobby, reading room(one of the tasks of the constructivists was to group the maximum number of vital premises in a small area). The closest ally and assistant of the Vesnin brothers was Moisei Yakovlevich Ginzburg, who was an unsurpassed theorist of architecture in the first half of the 20th century. In his book “Style and Epoch,” he reflects on the fact that each art style adequately corresponds to “its own” historical era. The development of new architectural trends, in particular, is due to the fact that “... the continuous mechanization of life” is taking place, and the machine is “... a new element of our life, psychology and aesthetics.” Ginzburg and the Vesnin brothers organized the Association of Contemporary Architects (OSA), which included leading constructivists. Since 1926, constructivists began publishing their own magazine, “Modern Architecture” (or simply “SA”). The magazine was published for five years. The covers were designed by Alexey Gan. At the end of the 20s, constructivism began to spread beyond the Soviet Union, becoming most widespread in Germany and the Netherlands. In the mid-60s - 70s, the traditions and ideas of constructivism found an unexpected continuation in the architecture of the so-called “high-tech”, a direction that demonstratively reveals not only the work of architectural structures, but also engineering communications.
3. Constructivism in design and photography
Constructivism is a direction that is primarily associated with architecture, however, such a vision would be one-sided and even extremely incorrect, because, before becoming an architectural method, constructivism existed in design, printing, artistic creativity. Constructivism in photography is marked by the geometrization of composition, shooting from dizzying angles with a strong reduction in volume. Alexander Rodchenko, in particular, was involved in such experiments.
In graphic forms of creativity, constructivism was characterized by the use of photomontage instead of hand-drawn illustrations, extreme geometrization, and subordination of the composition to rectangular rhythms. The color scheme was also stable: black, red, white, gray with the addition of blue and yellow. In the field of fashion, there were also certain constructivist tendencies - in the wake of the global fascination with straight lines in clothing design, Soviet fashion designers of those years created emphatically geometric forms. Among the fashion designers, Varvara Stepanova stands out, who since 1924, together with Lyubov Popova, developed fabric designs for the 1st calico-printing factory in Moscow, was a professor at the textile department of VKHUTEMAS, and designed models of sports and casual clothing. The most famous fashion model of those years was the well-known Lilya Yuryevna Brik. 
Of all the minimalist (or international) styles, constructivism took root especially firmly on the territory of the Soviet Union. In his ideology, he extols the concept of the utilitarianism of art, creativity for benefit, and harmony.
Heritage of Art Nouveau
In the history of architecture, design, and decorative arts, a new movement does not arise out of nowhere. In this regard, modernity became the starting point for constructivism; they were united by the desire for a clearly designed compositional basis.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, supporters of Art Nouveau chose a wavy line as the fundamental form, representatives of Art Nouveau from England and Austria - a square and a rectangle. Improved production technology and increasingly popular materials - concrete, iron, glass - strengthened the position of constructivists in architecture.
The first objects in the new style can be called the glass pavilion for the London World Exhibition (1851) and the Eiffel Tower, erected for the same event in Paris in 1889.
The direction had been started, but only Soviet architects in the 1920s fully formalized the idea into theory, implemented it in construction and introduced the term name into use. Therefore, the style of constructivism is considered to have been created in Russia. This is what, for example, the design of the Soviet Union pavilion at the Paris exhibition in 1925 looked like.
New design method
The country lived in a transition period between war communism and the NEP. Social stratification manifested itself, among other things, in aesthetic ideas: the proletariat class contrasted the feigned Nepman luxury with conscious asceticism of clothing, home furnishings, and the appearance of buildings.
Simple forms evoked associations with a new style of relations between people - democratic. In the theory of constructivism, the utility of a thing that is a bare structure “without the ballast of representation” (the words of the architect A. Vesnin) was declared paramount. Works of art, on the contrary, were considered only objects of unnecessary luxury and the result of wasted labor. Naturally, the usual spatial compositions and external decor have faded into the background.
Constructivist architects - the Vesnin brothers, Moses Ginzburg, Konstantin Melnikov, Ilya Golosov, Ivan Leonidov, Vladimir Tatlin - formulated a functional design method. It was based on a thorough analysis of the functioning of residential and industrial buildings. The most rational form (space-planning solution) was selected for each function. Workers' clubs, bus depots, department stores, and communal houses were built in this concept.
Two directions of architectural constructivism
In the wake of enthusiasm for the new trend, the most incredible projects of urban structures were created, glorifying the aspiration of the Soviet state to the future. Among them, two approaches stood out.
Proponents of radical constructivism proposed extravagant and experimental work, rarely reaching implementation.
Such are the hanging restaurant of Vasily Simbirtsev, the flying city of Georgy Krutikov, the glass pavilions of Konstantin Melnikov, the towers of El Lisitsky, crowned with wide “horizontal skyscrapers”. Project of the Institute named after. Lenin by Ivan Leonidov combined a spherical auditorium for 4,000 people and a vertical parallelepiped of a book depository.
The project of the monument to the Third International became famous, but never realized - its architect Vladimir Tatlin proposed building a tower 400 meters high, consisting of inclined metal spirals and beams, and inside the composition there were suspended rotating rooms in the form of a glass cube, pyramid and cylinder.
As fantastic as these works were, although they remained on paper or in the form of models, they inspired other constructivist architects to new ways of using steel, concrete and glass.
On the other hand, there were practitioners who directed their creativity in a direction that was more utilitarian and as close as possible to the requirements of modern life.
The main task of the adherents of classical constructivism was comfort for Soviet citizens at work, at home and in leisure. Of course, with an eye on the dominant ideology of socialization and rejection of individuality. It was in the traditional approach that the differences in architectural style emerged, which we will talk about in more detail.
Features of constructivism
Among the international (minimalist) trends, constructivism stood out for its desire to combine the functionality of a building with artistic means expressions. And this problem was solved not with the help of decor, but by working with materials and form.
This is the main difference from the similar-in-spirit functionalism, which also professed exceptional practicality and simple presentation. Functionalist architects turned to restrained, spare volumes and materials because they were convenient; but the Vesnin brothers and others saw in them a method of expressive art.
- Solidity
TO characteristic features Constructivism refers, first of all, to the visual integrity of the image of the building. The skill of the designers of those times was that geometric segmentation did not violate, but rather emphasized the compositional unity.
- Segmentation
We are talking about a clear architectural division into separate figures and sections, characteristic of almost all minimalist styles. But if functionalism allows for the visual disintegration of the facade into components, then here the fragmentation was carried out in the context of the integrity of the building.
- Scale
Among the signs of constructivism, this is perhaps the most recognizable. In contrast to the emphasized man-made nature of buildings, popular among the Nepmen, the architecture of the proletariat relied on size. Palaces of culture, editorial offices of central newspapers, and garages of government agencies were built multi-story, stretched horizontally and upward. In the modern city they still give the impression of being huge.
- Volume solutions
The architectural forms of constructivism are distinguished by their greater diversity compared to functionalism. The style is characterized by massive supports, flat roofs, and elongated window openings. Parallelepipeds turn into cylinders and cubes, large window circumferences dilute the plane of the square facade, complex protruding volumes are interspersed with smooth partitions, rectangular projections complement streamlined semicircular balconies. When building houses in the constructivist style, sections of different geometries were not piled up chaotically: one form logically flowed into the neighboring one, creating a solid exterior image.
- Materials
The leading ones are concrete, glass, metal. Their use was limited by the then level of construction technology, but even the available resources made it possible to create objects that were unusual in appearance and internal layout. Rough surfaces and transparent glazing work as artistic techniques.
- Expressive means
One of the noticeable characteristics of constructivism is the rejection of decoration. Architects of the new wave denied historical continuity, and therefore easily abandoned the embellishment of classical styles. The verticals and horizontals of the structure, the rhythm of the building structures themselves, became tools of expression. At the same time, small divisions were eliminated, volumes were enlarged, and the appearance of the facade was simplified.
- Color spectrum
The ascetic perception of decor affected not only plastic decoration, but also color. The main features of constructivism include a smooth, muted palette. Most of the buildings are designed in gray, light beige, and white colors. The exception is the buildings of car park garages, made of red brick.
Examples of constructivism in Moscow architecture
The innovative principles of work and leisure of Soviet citizens were implemented in cultural palaces, residential buildings, and department stores under construction. Here are some typical objects.
The building of the newspaper "Izvestia"
1925-1927
The work of Grigory Barkhin and Arthur Loleit. Appearance the structure resembles a lattice assembled from supports and beams; the porthole windows at the top are the office of the editor-in-chief. Initially, the brick walls were plastered at the final stage to look like concrete, which was very fashionable at that time.
House of Culture named after. CM. Zueva
1927-1929
The workers' club was built according to the design of Ivan Golosov. One can feel the influence of cubism and the author’s desire to give it a resemblance to an industrial facility. In the center of the composition is a glass cylinder with a ladder inside. The windows overlook the tram park.
House of Culture named after. I.V. Rusakova
1927-1929
Among the buildings in the constructivist style, the design of Konstantin Melnikov stands out. The structure looks like a gear with three protruding parts on the front side - these are balconies adjacent to auditorium. In the original layout, five rooms were arranged inside, which were combined into one large one using movable partitions.
Mostorg on Krasnaya Presnya
1927-1928
The first constructivist building by the Vesnin brothers. Big square facade glazing performed not only a utilitarian, but also an ideological task: it demonstrated to the Soviet people the abundance of goods produced in the country. The architects placed ventilation shafts on the roof, blowing air through the display case and protecting the glass from frosty frost.
The fourth floor was allocated for technical and warehouse premises, and on the outside there were huge letters “Mostorg. Department Store”.
Palace of Culture of the Likhachev Plant
1931-1937
Another example of the implementation of constructivism in architecture by the Vesnin brothers. They used Le Corbusier's theory in their work and used a free layout, made the roof flat, elongated windows, and installed support pillars in place of load-bearing walls. The palace included several large buildings (exhibition, lecture, cinema and concert halls, an observatory, classrooms for study groups, winter Garden, library on three floors). The external forms were repeated internal layout separate sections.
Garage for cars VAO "Intourist"
1934
Work on the main facade was entrusted to Konstantin Melnikov. He created a composition of geometric shapes: circle, triangle, rectangle. Inside the building, behind a glass screen, like behind a shop window, cars were flashing along a spiral ramp.
Communal houses of the constructivist era
The projects whose idea reflected the architects’ views on the theme of community life, equality and freedom deserve special mention. Residential buildings in constructivism were seen as communes, where the sleeping area was combined with a dining room, laundry, gym, and even a kindergarten.
Students were among the first to experience the advantages and disadvantages of this approach. The hostel building of the Moscow Textile Institute, located on the street. Ordzhonikidze (design by Ivan Nikolaev, 1930-1931), was a long parallelepiped. There were 1000 sleeping cabins inside. In each such cell with sides 2.3 x 2.7 m there were two beds and two bedside tables, and only sleeping was allowed here.
In the morning, after getting up, the student went along the conveyor belt: to the shower room, the room for physical exercises, cleaned himself up in the locker room, then came to the dining room. It was possible to prepare for studies in individual cubicles. A library and an assembly hall were also placed inside the dormitory, and the flat roof was occupied by an open terrace. How convenient it was to live like this is not known for certain.
But it is known that in the 1960s the layout of the building was reconstructed, and the “conveyor” way of life was abandoned. Today, students still live here, and the exterior and interior have been updated.
The communal house for Narkomfin employees is also in the constructivist architectural style. Project 1930 by Moses Ginzburg and Ignatius Milinis. The idea is based on a multifunctional complex consisting of living rooms, a factory-kitchen, reading and sports halls, and office premises.
But the main value of this facility is the use of innovative materials and designs. The building's frame is made of monolithic reinforced concrete (a first in Soviet residential construction), three rows of concrete pillars run through all floors and support the floors. It turns out that the walls do not bear the load, and it became possible to install continuous strip glazing on the facade. The internal partitions were built from fiberboard and bentonite hollow stones.
Most Moscow buildings built in the constructivist style have survived to this day in deplorable condition without proper maintenance. But they are trying to restore a number of objects to their former glory. This is what it should look like former house Narkomfin after restoration.
Revival of ideas
The rise of constructivism as an architectural movement took one decade. In the early 30s of the last century, the political situation in the country changed, and innovative movements were recognized as bourgeois. Avant-garde architects fell into disgrace, and proletarian asceticism was replaced by the opulent design of Soviet neoclassicism.
In the 60-70s, the ideas of functional design returned again in the wake of the political struggle against excesses. And we are experiencing another appeal to style today, not in an urban context, but in private suburban construction.
Modern constructivism: residential buildings with an emphasis on convenience
Details about modern country houses, about their design.
CONSTRUCTIVISM (from Latin con-structio - construction, structure) - right-le-nie in Russian (later also in inter-native) avan-gar-diz-me late 1910s - early 1930s.
Constructivism was based on the idea-li-zi-ro-van-nye ideas about the engineering and design-manufacturer of the project -different, about the rationality of science and technology, which the con-st-hand -ti-vi-sta-mi es-te-tich. "pre-ras-court-cam." In an effort to introduce scientific and technical achievements of the 19th-20th centuries into the sphere of artistic creativity (fundamental research -the development of the structure of ma-ter-rii, the development of in-same-non-rii and mass-so-in-go pro-iz-va), constructivism truck-to-val hu- creative activity as a form of scientific-technical creativity, directed towards pro-ek-ti-ro-va-nie and con-st -rui-ro-va-nie subject-met-but-country-st-ven-noy environment. As a method of project activity, as a system of views on art, technology and society, constructivism merges with the pro -from-the-water-st-ven-art-art, where the real thing was pro-made for the purpose of all artistic creation -va (O.M. Bri-k and others). Constructivism oh-you-valid all spheres of project-no-hu-dovestvogo-che-st-va: art-hi-tech-tu-ru, iso-bra-zi-tel-noe and de -co-ra-tiv-but-applied art, literature, graphic art, photo-graphy; the tendencies of constructivism also appeared in te-at-re, ki-no-is-kus-st-ve, music.
The formal-no-compositional language of constructivism was formed in the course of ab-st-rakt-no-geo-metric ex-peri-men-tov in life -si, graph-fi-ke or voluminous com-po-zi-tsi-yah and was later transferred by its creators into the sphere of design , where the graphic or volumetric design was displayed. The style-for-measures of constructivism were op-re-de-la-la with a specific material of this or that area of creativity. st-va. In design and art-hi-tech-tu-re, there was a rectangular frame and the definition of volumes, connected -zan-nyh with various functions, as well as all-possible technical. details.
Constructivism in the graphic arts no-com-po-si-tion of straight-coal rhythm-moms of a modular mesh, wide-ro-kim using-no-elements na-bor-noy graph-fi-ki - font-tov, ak-tsi-den-tsii, li-ne-ek. In cinema, constructivism was associated with the principle of montage and the pre-ob-la-da-nie of educational personnel over games -mi; in photo-graphy - geo-met-ri-za-tion of com-po-zi-tion, on-ro-chi-taya shooting in ra-curs-s with a strong spatial st-ven-nom so-kra-sche-nii ob-ek-tov. At the same time, constructivism gave an op-re-de-line stylistic goal for the benefit of the second-re-not-to- rich established arch-typical schemes common to various types of arts: a simple transfer of elements under direct angle (cross-shaped pattern), with multiple repetitions, giving a spatial or graphic shape -shet-ku; zig-zag line and dia-go-nal pattern; the use of several of the most frequently encountered sim-metry techniques (mirror, mouth-to-mouth noah, re-re-no-sa). There was a stable and color range of constructivism: black, red, white, gray with a little extra. how many primary colors (blue and yellow). Form-mal-but-hu-do-zhestvennye techniques of constructivism are sometimes closer to the su-pre-ma-tiz of K.S. Ma-le-vi-cha, one-on-one constructivism has its own st-ven-us, the first of all, the identification of a kar-ka-sa and a rigid geo-met -rich. structures of buildings, pre-ob-la-da-nie of linear elements, creation of com-po-zi-tions that have bright you-ra-zhen-noe internal space-country.
For-ro-zh-de-nie artistic language and creative concepts of constructivism in the art-bra-zi-tel-nom art-st-ve pro-is-ho-di-lo in 1914-1922 in the course of the evolution of the Russian avant-garde from ku-biz-ma and fu-tu-riz-ma to ab-st-rac-tsio-niz-mu. Instead of traditional techniques, living-pi-si and sculptures by V.E. Tat-lin introduces in “counter-rel-e-fah” (1914-1915) the principle of “ma-te-ri-al-no-go under-bo-ra”, collection of com-po -zi-tions from various kinds of elements and materials (pro-vo-lo-ka, glass, tin, wood, wallpaper), under -black-ki-vaya fak-tour-nye and pro-country-st-ven-nye ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ki. Tat-li-na’s model “Monument of the III In-ter-na-tsio-na-lu” (1919-1920) became a symbol of constructivism blah-da-rya under -rob-functional-functional pro-work (division of a public building into separate volumes, use of elements) ment-tov di-na-mi-ki and in-for-ma-tion) and open-framed os-no-ve (according to the type of engineering and technical con-st-hands -tions). In 1919-1920 A.A. Ves-nin (see Vesnin), L.S. Po-po-va, A.M. Rod-chen-ko creates ab-st-rakt-living and graphic productions, calling them “con-st” -ruk-tsiya-mi" (Rod-chen-ko), "living-in-writing ar-hi-tek-to-ni-koy" (Po-po-va); One thing that was decisive was the appearance of spatial regulations. In life, the pictures of the objects of the ab-st-ra-gi-ro-va-were replaced by com-bi-na-tions geo-met-rich. shapes, planes, lines, dots, colors and textures.
The scientific center of constructivism in the 1920s was the Institute of Cultural Culture (In-khuk) in Moscow, where, under the leadership of V. IN. Kan-din-sko-go studied the problems of the syn-the-arts, for-the-measurement of the viewer's perception of color , rhythm, forms. The term “constructivism” itself was first mentioned in the programs of the First Work Group of constructivists, created by noah in Moscow in December 1920 A.M. Rod-chen-ko, V.F. Ste-pa-no-voy and A.M. Ga-nom (later they were joined by brothers V.A. and G.A. Stenberg, K.K. Me-du-netsky and K.V. Io- gan-son) and joined In-hu-ka in March 1921. The first stage was completed in 1921 when you became “5×5=25” (A.A. Ves-nin, L.S. Po-po-va, Rod-chen -ko, Ste-pa-no-va, A.A. Ex-ter; -go eta-pa and per-re-ho-de to uti-li-tar-no-mu creative-che-st-vu) and Society of young-lo-dykh hu-dozh-ni- cov. The ab-st-rak-t-spatial spatial design-st-hands presented on them under-go-tav-li-va-li-iso-bre-te-nie mini-small van-to-core-ne-vy systems (Io-gan-son), sometimes they used the idea of bridge farms (the Sten brothers berg-gi), use-so-va-li principle of re-di-made (com-po-zi-tion from welded technical de-ta-leys Me-du-nets- who), re-re-vo-di-li lo-gi-ku structure-tur-no-go geo-met-rich. construction in space (Rod-chen-ko); all of them were united by the principle of “in-the-not-riz-ma” as an ac-tu-al-noy theme of art: artistic activity should-la be-re-ras-ti in in-tel-lek-tu-al-noe pro-from-water-st-vo. The general result is expressed in the books “Con-struct-ti-vism” by A.M. Ga-na (1922) and “From mole-ber-ta - to ma-shi-ne” by N.M. Ta-ra-bu-ki-na (1923). For the first time, constructivism as a unified platform for visual arts announced itself in the magazine “Ki-no-phot” (1922).
Early constructivism originated from the agi-ta-tsi-on-no-ofor-mi-tel-skoy on-right-linen-ness: a series of projects “Ra-dio” -ora-to-ditch” G.G. Klu-tsi-sa (1922), based on the collection-but-disassembly of van-to-in-core con-st-hands, with- me-not-nie mont-ta-zha for ac-ti-vi-za-tion of re-acceptance in do-ku-men-tal-nom and gaming ki-ne-ma-to-gra -fe (D. Ver-tov, E.I. Shub, L.V. Ku-le-shov). Bla-go-da-rya from-da-nu in Ber-lin in 1922 no-va-tor-sko-go by design and typ-on-gra-fi-ke magazine “ Thing" L.M. Li-sits-kim and I.G. Eren-bur-gom term “constructivism”, as well as the ha-rak-ter-nye pro-iz-ve-de-niy and the name of the hu-dozh-ni-kov st-but-vyat-sia from-west-ny-mi and on Za-pas-de.
The next stage of constructivism (1922-1929) is associated with the reality of his ideas in the subject environment, in design and art-hi-tech -tu-re, with the co-creation of “schools of con-st-ru-ti-vis-ma.” For production. fa-kul-te-tah Vhu-te-ma-sa - Vhu-tei-na teach-li-rational-me-to-dam pro-ek-ti-ro-va-niya function-tsio- cash from de-liy for mass production from water-st-va; pro-ek-ti-ro-va-li is not just furniture, ki-os-ki, utensils, but collecting and disassembling things-schi-ap-pa-ra-you with different ki-not-ma-ti-koy and shape, from-kro-ven-but-as-you-know-the-principle of their design va. In the projects, the formality was especially valuable. and technical invention, often ak-tsen-ti-ro-va-was precisely technical details: springs, ry-cha-gi, ru- ko-yat-ki, z-zhi-we, fi-sa-to-ry, etc. The subject-matter environment was considered as an in-st-ru-ment for -mi-ro-va-niya socio-listical way of life, art - as a means of ag-ta-tion and life-structure. “Kon-st-ru-ti-vism must become the highest formal in-spirit of all life,” he proclaimed in 1st no. “LEF” (1923), from the literary and artistic group “Left Front of the Arts.” Even more acute so-ci-al-naya direction of production. lawsuit about-sound-cha-la in 1928 in December-la-ra-tion of the “Ok-Tiber” (P.I. Novitsky), where ar-hi-tech-to-ry and hu-dozh-ni-ki entered (A.A. and V.A. Ves-ni-ny, M.Ya. Ginz-burg, G.G. Klu- cis, S.Ya. Sen-kin, A.M. Rod-chen-ko, V.F. Ste-pa-no-va), as well as ki-no-re-jis-syo-ry (S M. Eisenstein and E.I. Shub).
Formal-no-sti-listical foundations of constructivism in modern art-hi-tech-tu-re for-lo-li-li-pro-ek-you A.A. and V.A. Spring of the first half of the 1920s; The first milestone was the competition project of the Palace of Labor in Moscow (1922-1923). The symbol of the architectural constructivism was the project of the mi-nia-tyur-no-go for its construction of the building of the newspaper “Lenin-gradskaya pravda” "(1924) - an art-ti-stich-but pictorial, light-in-proportion building with a glass-lined fa-sa-house (on which introduced information graphics), transparent bouquets. The architectural image was born from the re-os-mys-len-no-go ab-st-rakt-no-geo-met-rich. na-cha-la, based on the contrasting co-ordination of volumes and their proportions.
In the second half of the 1920s, art-hi-tech-tu-re received special attention. In December 1925, ar-hi-tech-to-ry A.K. Bu-rov, G.G. Wegman, A.A. Ves-nin, V.N. Vla-di-mirov, M.Ya. Ginzburg, I.A. Go-lo-sov (see Go-lo-so-you), Ya.A. Kornfeld, P.A. Kra-sil-ni-kov and others are creating the Society of Contemporary Ar-hi-Tech-to-Rats (OSA) in Moscow, from in 1926-1930, the magazine “Modern ar-hi-tek-tu-ra” was published. G.B. also joined the OSA. Barkhin, M.O. Barshch, A.M. Gan, I.I. Le-o-ni-dov; originated from de-le-niya in Lenin-gra-de, Ba-ku, Tom-sk, Khar-ko-ve, Kiev, Odessa, Ka-za-ni, Sverd -lov-ske. The art-hi-tech-tu-ra of constructivism is, as a rule, a complex plan, which is revealed on the fa-sa-de kon-st-ru-tiv-noy basis -you are buildings, a functional approach to the block and zoning of spaces. Ar-hi-tek-ry develop-ra-ba-you-va-li pro-ek-you new in the social-no-no-she-niy types of buildings: workers' clubs (club named after S.M. Zuev in Moscow, 1927-1929, architect I.A. Go-lo-sov), com-mu-nal ny houses (house-com-mu-na on Or-dzhoni-kid-ze street in Moscow, 1928-1930, I.S. Niko-la-ev), industrial facilities ec-you (Dnep-ro-ge-sa complex, 1927-1932, V.A. Vesnin and others). In the house of Nar-kom-fi-na in Moscow (ar-hi-tech-to-ry M.Ya. Ginz-burg, one of the leaders of those-che-niya, and I .F. Mi-li-nis) found from the principles of modern times. ar-hi-tek-tu-ry, close ra-bo-there Le Cor-busier of the same time: free ter-ri-to-ria (house on opo -rah), used roof, lined windows, two-level residential premises.
In the field of technical art, the principle of “mass” was put forward before -co-action." “Bio-me-ha-ni-ka” V.E. Me-er-khol-da - rational-sist-te-ma movement ak-tyo-ra for the expression of emotions - has become a manifestation -no constructivism in re-gis-su-re and te-at-ral-noy pe-da-go-gi-ke. Di-na-mi-che-skaya, often a multi-tiered stage. us-ta-new-ka-instead of de-co-ra-tion and ass-not-allowed ak-to-ru to show his tricky ways-but- sti, ki-ne-ma-ti-ku gestures and poses, and also yes-va-la the possibility of you not being seen on the streets and squares di. Theatrical constructivism most clearly manifested itself in the scenography of the performance of the early 1920s: “Ve-li-to-soul ro-go-no-sets” by F. Krom-me-lin-ka (L.S. Popova) and “The Death of Ta-rel-ki-na” by A.V. Su-ho-vo-Ko-by-li-na (V.F. Ste-pa-no-va) in the theater of Mei-er-khol-da (both 1922); “Fed-ra” by J. Ra-si-na (1922) and “The Man Who Was Thursday” by G. Ches-ter-to-nu (1923) in the Kamer-nom te-at-re (both - A.A. Ves-nin); “Lake-ro Lyul” A.M. Fai-ko in Te-at-re Re-vo-lu-tion (1923, V.A. Shes-ta-kov); in es-ki-zakh kos-tyu-mov A.A. Ex-ter to ba-let-nym in-sta-nov-kam K.Ya. Go-ley-zov-skogo (everyone is in Moscow). About the influence of the ideas of constructivism sv-de-tel-st-vu-et ha-rak-ter-ny on-bor of stage-no-graphy elements: pan-du-sy and le-st- ni-tsy; moving-zhu-sya va-go-net-ki, tro-tu-ar, so-fi-you and fo-na-ri; com-bi-na-tion lift-tov; rotating lifting crane; light river-la-ma, etc. Te-at-ral-ny kos-tyum created-da-val-sya as a va-ri-ant for all-day-functional-tsio-nal -noy worker's clothes or as pro-zo-de-zh-da (pro-manufacturing clothes) ak-ter-ditch.
From theatrical constructivism not-from-de-lim musical constructivism, which manifested itself first of all as a style of stage music -zy-ki. Kon-st-ruk-ti-vi-st-skie and ur-ba-ni-stic ba-le-you pi-sa-li S.S. Pro-kof-ev (“Steel Leap”, 1927), A.V. Mo-so-lov [suite from the music of the non-osu-sche-st-v-len-no-go ba-le-ta “Steel” (1927) includes sim-pho -nic episode “Za-vod (music-ka ma-shin)”]. Thea-t-ral-naya iz-ra-zi-tel-nost ur-ba-ni-sti-che-sko-go and kon-st-ru-k-ti-vi-st-s-sense po-lu-chi-la development in piano music (play “Rails” by V.M. De-she-vo-va, 1927). More tra-di-tsi-on-ny in the language of the ba-let “Bolt” D.D. Sho-sta-ko-vi-cha (1931) - a tribute to the Soviet in-du-st-ri-al-noy te-ma-ti-ke and at one time sharp-smart sa -ti-ra at her.
No-va-tor-skie pro-iz-ve-de-tions of constructivism in poly-graphy were created by A.M. Rod-chen-ko, G.G. Klu-tsi-som, L.S. By-by-howl, V.F. Ste-pa-no-voy, A.M. Lavinsky, M.Z. Le-vi-nym, etc. The covers are from-da-niy, pla-kat-ness, maximum filling of the format with font and ac- qi-den-qi-ey, hand-drawn bru-sk font, introduction of photo-mon-ta-zha and photo-graphy instead ri-so-van-noy graph-fi-ki, frequent use of elements, ak-tsen-ti-ro-vav-shih attention (arrows, exclamation marks, rectangular dies, etc.). Book ki-os-ki pro-ek-ti-ro-va-las as multi-functional, often folding structures (Rod-chen- ko, Lavinsky, A.M. Gan). Group hu-dozh-ni-kov-kon-st-ruk-ti-vi-stov ra-bo-ta-la over the river-la-moy Mos-selp-ro-ma, GUM, Re-zi-not -re-sta, Mos-po-li-gra-fa and other state-owned companies, texts to something written by V.V. Ma-ya-kov-sky. The appearance of Mo-sk-you from-me-nil-sya bla-go-da-rya bright river-la-me to-va-ditch, behind-my-nay-sya ki-but -pla-ka-there brothers V.A. and G.A. Sten-ber-gov, N.P. Pru-sa-ko-va, S.V. Se-myo-no-wa.
In li-te-ra-tu-re constructivism was formed in 1923; in 1924, the Literary Center of Con-st-ru-ti-vis-stov (LCK) was established (I.L. Selvinsky, V.M. Inber, V.A. Lugov -skoy, B.N. Agapov, A.N. Chi-cherin, etc.). The theory of literary constructivism has become a critic K.L. Ze-lin-sky, as well as sti-ho-ved and poet A.P. Kvyatkovsky (however, the head of the group, Selvinsky, was also inclined to theorize). Were there any collective collections: “Me-at-all” (1924), “State-plan-li-te-ra-tu-ry” (1925), “Business carried" (1929). In addition to fu-tu-ri-stam-le-fov-tsam, kon-st-ruk-ti-vi-sty tried to reflect the realities of modern life, ex- pe-ri-men-ti-ro-va-li with za-umyu (Chi-che-rin), dia-lek-tiz-ma-mi and heat-go-niz-ma-mi, beyond-drya-li principle “kon-st-ruk-tiv-no-go ras-pre-de-le-niya ma-te-ria-la”, “gro-zi-fi-ka-tion words” (according to su -ti, under-ra-zu-me-val-xia la-ko-nism) and yes-same (coming from po-ni-ma-niya sti-hotv. pro-iz-ve-de- niya as sounding speech, orally used text) a special type of poetry - “pa-uz-nik” or so-and-so-vik. Sel-Vinsky in early poems even designated with a special sign the place where the dek-la-ma-tor must for co-observation of such-and-such -take a pause. In 1930, the group of literary constructivism itself was dissolved.
Russian constructivism as the right-le-nie in ar-hi-tek-tu-re, design-not-me-be-li and in-ter-e-ra, also tech-sty-la and the clothes were presented to Me-zh-du-nar. you-stav-ke de-co-ra-tive arts and artistic industry in 1925 in Paris (designed by K.S. Mel-nikova voz-ve- day you-sta-voch-ny pa-vil-on). Project “Ra-bo-che-go club” A.M. Rod-chen-ko (multi-functional space-country with a trans-forming arrangement) has become, perhaps, the most complete you-ra-the-same con-st-hand-ti-vis-st-me-to-log-gy. Text-style based on geometrized drawings by L.S. was produced at the 1st textile factory in Moscow. Po-po-howl and V.F. Stepano-howl and their fashion-de-li-clothes op-re-de-li-the first Soviet fashion, based on the principles of gra- physical mi-ni-ma-liz-ma. Constructivism is wildly concentrated in forms, the contrast of colors and textures in sportswear, about on the design of the cut, under-drawing of functional and technical details (pockets, belts, for-stitch) in pro-zo-de-zh-de (A.A. Ekster and others). The models' projects were based on formal-geometric structural structures; N.P. La-ma-no-va design-ra-bo-ta-la sis-te-mu for the construction of braid-ty-ma according to planes and cutting according to a rectangular pattern -me.
Late constructivism of the late 1920s - early 1930s began with a more subtle pro-portional approach -niy, on-yav-le-ni-em skru-le-niy, ras-shi-re-ni-em pa-lit-ry ma-te-ria-lov. In graphic design, no more attention is paid to the purely functional issue of convenience of perception of information -ma-tion. Despite the style change that marked the end of the 1st five-year period (1932), the transport -gla-she-nie so-tsia-li-sti-che-sko-go-go-lis-ma, control of party organs for the development of cultures, res- to the ot-ri-tsa-tel-noe of artistic cri-ti-ki and creative org-ga-ni-za-tion, the idea of constructivism in the presence of in one form or another in the functional under-ways of the design-ditch of the 1930s, in the style of the pre-about-la-da-nii directly -coal-frame-cass forms in art-hi-tech-tu-re and technology, in conjunction with the storage of a modular mesh in poly-gra- fii and with-me-ne-nii fo-to-mon-ta-zha, use-pol-zo-vav-she-go-xia in ka-che-st-ve vi-zu-al-no-go about -pa-gan-di-st-weapon. The period of the early 1930s can be designated in art-hi-tech-tu-re as “po-stkon-st-ruk-ti-vism” (term by S.O . -ra, work I.A. Go-lo-so-va and concept of “pro-le-tar-class-si-ki” I.A. Fo-mi-na.
Constructivism can be considered an early Russian version of a functional-on-liz-ma with the only difference that it has more weight and consistency yang-on a purely es-te-tical composition. As an artistic idea, constructivism revived in Russia in the 1960s, not only in the deprived Ukrainian design style and terms -not “hu-dozh-nik-kon-struk-tor” (di-zai-ner), but also in the ki-ne-ti-chesk art-kus-st-ve. Kon-st-ruk-ti-vi-st-skaya idea of structural-tur-no-geo-met-rich. the pre-formation was preserved in the experiments of the artists who built their companies on the basis of trans - formation of a flat sheet. The principles of respect-zhi-tel-no-go from-no-she-niya hu-dozh-ni-ka to you-ra-zi-tel-no-sti ma-based by constructivism te-ria-la, the clarity of the structure of things, its de-mo-kra-tic-but-sti-now-do-not-keep-the-meaning in fashion, graphic design, pro-ek-ti-ro-va-nii environment.
Constructivism as an inter-national phenomenon of sfor-mi-ro-val-sya by 1922 under the influence of creative ex-peri-men of the Russian avant-garde -Yes. Developed primarily in Germany (M. Burharts, L. Moholy-Nagy, G. Richter, J. Chihold, etc.) with the participation member of the Dutch group "De Stijl" T. van Doesburg, okazal means. influence on the for-mi-ro-va-nie es-te-ti-ki Bau-hau-za; also in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary. The impetus for the emergence of this phenomenon was the Inter-people's Congress of Progressive Artists in Dus -sel-dor-fe in 1922 and its con-st-rukti-vi-st-skaya section, or-ga-ni-zo-van-naya van Dus-bur-gom (pre-stav-lyav- our magazine "De Stijl"), G. Rich-te-rom (it was stated that he comes from the con-st-hand-ti-vi-st-groups of Ru- we-nii, Scan-di-na-vii, Germany) and L.M. Li-sits-kim (from the magazine “Thing”, you-ho-div-she-go in three languages). After the publication of the de-la-ra-tion in the magazine “De Stijl”, a group from “Ma-ni-fest of the inter-people’s con-st-ruk- ti-viz-ma,” which is also under-pi-sa-li K. Ma-es from Belgium, artist and photographer M. Bur-harts from Ger -ma-nii, which in the 1920s became the center of international constructivism. It is here that es-te-ti-ku of “pure forms” is pro-pa-gan-di-ro-wa-li T. van Doesburg and the actions of Bau-haus, and in 1921-1925 Li-sitsky lived and worked, knowing the European public with the Russian avant-garde-dis-mom, incl. -de 1st Russian art exhibition in Berlin (1922).
Constructivism in the West, as well as in Russia, was influenced by progressive scientific, technical and social - ideas, however, there is an interaction between two ten-den-tions in it - the art of geo-metric ab-st-rac-tions and utility-li-tar -noe (applied) creativity. Throughout the 1920s, artistic ex-pe-ri-men-ta-mi in the region of las-ti space-st-ven-no-go for-mo-ob-ra-zo -va-niya for-ni-ma-lis N. Ga-bo and A. Pevz-ner (con-st-ru-tions and reliefs), L.M. Li-sits-kiy (“pro-uns”), K. Kob-ro (ab-st-rak-t sculptural com-po-zi-tions). Li-niya uti-li-tar-no-go-crea-che-st-va washed away with design and design-pe-da-go-gi-koy. The Hungarian artist L. Moholy-Nagy, for-ni -mav-shi-s-sve-v-form-o-ra-zo-va-ni-em, construct-ni-rit-mi-zi-rovannyh structured-tour in graphics , living-in-pi-si and sculpture-tu-re. From the point of view of artistic language, European constructivism represented a com-bi-nation of a flat geo-metric mini-nation ma-liz-ma of the “De Stijl” group, structural-tur-no-geo-metrical sub-ho-da and pla-ni-metrical language of “pro-uns” Li-sits-ko th. Just like the Russian con-st-ru-ti-vis-sty, A. Shtan-kov-ski (Germany) introduced the language of geo-metric ab-st-rac-tion into his graph -physical design and experimental photography.
Constructivism turned out to be a commercially usable style in applied graphics. The revolution in European polygraphy was carried out by the German designer J. Chihold, who created the theory of freedom processing with the font and with the printing of the sheet; he influenced a number of Russian artists' books of the 1920s (N.V. Il-in, S.B. Te-lin-ga-ter, N.A. Se- del-ni-kov). In the book “New Ti-po-gra-phi-ka” (“Die Neue Typogra-phie”, 1928), Chi-hold pro-pa-gan-di-ro-val at the modern ver- st-ki - asim-metric-rich-com-position of the page, refusal of paragraphs, etc. I have books and journals, J. Hart-field co-ed-nil tra-di-tions yes-dai-st-sko-th coll-la-zha and kon-st-ru-ti -vi-st-sko-go fo-to-mon-ta-zha.
In Che-ho-slovakia, the “De-vet-sil” movement (“Devĕtsil”, 1920-1931; J. Krei-tsar, K. Tei-ge, J. Fun-ke) , with the difference between sur-real-liz-ma and kon-st-hand-ti-vi-st-la-pi-dar-ness of forms, volume-e-di-nya -lo pre-sta-vi-te-lei different. types of art. In Poland, V. Strze-minski (Strzhe-minski), T. Tsar-no-ver, K. Kob-ro and H. Sta-zhewski were key fi-gu-ra-mi in the group, ob-e-di-niv-shay-sha around the magazine “Blok” (1924-1926). The problems of art were declared to be inseparable from the problems of society while preserving the principle “not for -in-te-re-so-van-no-sti” and freedom of creativity. At the same time, one mas-te-ra about-voz-gla-sha-li is the main one for-yes-whose uti-li-ta-rism in the spirit of Russian kon-st-ruk-ti-vis-sts (M . Shchu-ka and Tsar-no-ver - ar-hi-tek-tu-ra, po-li-graphy, photo-montage), others (Kob-ro and Strze-min-ski) - ex-pe-ri-ment and sis-te-ma-ti-za-tion of elements of art. In Hungary, in line with constructivism, the work of S. Bortnik, A. Kemen, L. Kash-shak, B. Uits.
After the 1920s, constructivism was difficult to distinguish among the general trend of abstract art. In Pa-ri-zhe ra-bo-ta-li N. Ga-bo and n-derl. mas-ter S. Do-me-la; here in 1930 T. van Doesburg created the organization “Concrete Art”, but under it there is no-fi-gu- ra-tive creativity, based on the influence of ele-men-tar-min-ma-li-st-skih com-po-po- zi-tion. In the 1930-1940s, Switzerland became the center of European constructivism. Back in the late 1920s, several Swiss artists (including M. Bill and T. Balmer) studied at the Bauhaus with P. Klee and V.V. Kan-din-sko-go. Bill, continuing the concept of “concrete art” and for ab-st-rakt-ny sculpture -mi, pro-ek-ti-ro-val furniture on a metal car-ka-se and rec-la-mu for the company “Wohnbe-darf”. There, the “Swiss-royal style” was introduced into graphics. design, which subsequently became the basis for the formation of “between-the-native style”. The ideas of constructivism in the field of art-hi-tech influenced many of those in the last third of the 20th century, including high-tech and -ben-no-sti na de-kon-st-ruk-ti-vism.
Additional literature:
Niko-nov Vl. Articles about kon-st-ruk-ti-vi-sts. Ul-ya-novsk, 1928;
Zelinsky K. Poetry as meaning. Books about kon-st-ruk-ti-vis-me. M., 1929;
Rickey G. Constructivism: origins and evolution. N.Y., 1967;
Štraus T. Kassak: ein ungarischer Beitrag zum Konstruktivismus. Köln, 1975;
Rotzler W. Konstruktive Kon-zepte: eine Geschichte der konstruktiven Kunst vom Ku-bismus bis heute. Z., 1977;
Moscow - Paris. 1900-1930. (Cat. you-bet-ki). M., 1981. T. 1-2;
Lodder Ch. Russian constructivism. New Haven, 1983;
Constructivism in Poland, 1923 to 1936. (Cat.). Camb., 1984;
Wechsel Wir-kun-gen: Ungarische Avantgarde in der Wei-ma-rer Re-pub-lik. Marburg, 1986;
Švácha R. Sovĕtský kon-struktivismus a česká architektura // Uměni. 1988. No. 1;
Art into life. Russian con-struc-ti-vism, 1914-1932. (Cat.). Seattle; N.Y., 1990;
Kon-struk-tivistische Interna-tionale sch ̈opfe-ris-che Arbeitsgemeinschaft, 1922-1927: Utopien für eine europäische Kultur. (Kat.). Stuttg., 1992;
Si-do-ri-na E.V. Russian kon-st-ruk-ti-vism: is-to-ki, ideas, practice. M., 1995;
Cooke C. Rus-sian avantgarde: theories of art, architec-ture and the city. L., 1995.
Illustrations:
V.E. Tat-lin. “Blue counter-rel-ef.” OK. 1914. Frequent meeting. BRE Archive;
L.M. Li-sits-kiy. “Le-nin-skaya tri-bu-na” (per-re-ra-bot-ka pro-ek-ta tri-bu-ny for the square, 1920). 1924. Tret-Yakovskaya Ga-Le-Rea (Moscow). BRE Archive;
V.A. and G.A. Sten-ber-gi. Poster for the film “A Man with a Ki-no-ap-pa-ra-tom” by D. Ver-to-va. 1929. BRT Archive;
L.S. Po-po-va. Project of stage design for the performance “Ve-li-ko-soul-ny ro-go-no-sets” based on the play by F. Krom-me-lin- ka (in the name of the theater V. E. Me-er-khol-da). 1922. Tret-Yakovsky Ga-Le-Rea (Moscow). BRE Archive;
A.M. Rod-chen-ko, V.V. Mayakovsky. Rek-lam-nyy poster for Rez-ino-tre-sta. 1923. BRT Archive;
The building of the State Trade in Moscow. 1927. Ar-hi-tech-to-ry M.O. Barsch, B.M. Ve-li-kov-sky and others. Photo by A. I. Nagaev;
In-ter-er ma-shin-no-go za-la Dnep-ro-ge-sa. 1927-32. Ar-hi-tek-ry V.A. Ves-nin, N.Ya. Kol-li and others. BRE Archive;
A.A. Ex-ster. Pro-ek-you are a lot of suit-ma and pro-clothes. OK. 1923. BRT Archive;
V.F. Ste-pa-no-va. Project ri-sun-ka for fabric-ni. 1924-25. BRE Archive.
