The perception of space in traditional Chinese culture is so significant and comprehensive that it could not but affect the formation of architecture and the arts. The traditional Chinese city exactly repeats the structure of the cosmogonic structure of the universe.

The cosmogonic map of China is symbolized by “ Five Palaces" in which the Five Dragons rule. Four of them symbolize the cardinal directions ( Red Dragon rules in the south (which is located at the top of the map), he is in charge of summer and the element of fire. Black dragon rules the north, commanding winter and the element of water. Blue Dragon– the east, spring and flora. White - the west, autumn and the elements of metals). Fifth - Palace of the Yellow Dragon - Divine Emperor Huang Di - deity of the center, in fact the supreme celestial deity and the first Emperor of the Celestial Empire. Also, the Four Dragons symbolize the natural elements, and the Middle Emperor is their ruler and coordinator. It was Huang Di who invented and gave people many tools and technologies, clothing and writing.

China- (from Tatar kytai from Turkic, kytan – “middle”). The art of this largest of the ancient states has evolved over many centuries from a variety of ethnic sources, and is a symbiosis of many cultures.

In the 4th millennium BC. e. in the river basin On the Yellow River, a group of tribes of the Mongoloid race formed (self-named “Hanren”). There are assumptions about the Tibetan origin of the Chinese and about the “Sino-Caucasian” linguistic relationship. In a clash with tribes of southern origin, the Shang civilization (1765-1122 BC) with its center in the city of Anyang arose. At the end of 2 thousand BC. e. The Shans were conquered by the Zhou tribes. The unification of the ancient kingdoms took place during the Qing (632-628 BC) and Han (206 BC - 220 AD) dynasties. At the stages of formation of the ethnic community, the Chinese, thanks to their natural receptivity, easily absorbed the achievements of other cultures - Mesopotamia, Persia of the Sassanid era, Buddhist India, Asian nomadic peoples, Hellenized Middle Eastern tribes. In the IV-VI centuries. China found itself divided into North and South. Ancient authors called the northern tribes sers (Greek serikon, lat seres - after the name of the silk fabrics exported from this country), and the southern ones - sines (cf. Latin sinae - after the name of the dynasty of Qin rulers). On the world map published at the end of the 16th century. by the Jesuit Order to educate the Chinese, their country is placed in the middle (etymologically, the word “middle” is explained by the Chinese name for the Manchu people K "itan).

The worldview and attitude of the Chinese is significantly different from that of Europe. In this country there was no consistent development and change of artistic trends and styles, as in European art. The very concept of history in China has no signs of “duration”, and art has no signs of evolution. Artistic movements do not follow one another, and “styles” and “schools” are associated not with differences in creative methods, but with technical techniques and materials. In China “... we find an unusually stable, thoughtful and aesthetically processed way of life to the smallest detail, a coherent and consistent worldview, a complex but strong fusion of artistic styles... The stylistic unity of Chinese art is the result not only of the deep penetration of Chinese masters into the nature of things ..., but above all their sincere and impeccable trust in life in all its diversity.” While rationalism was born in Western European civilization, mysticism was born in the Middle East, a special culture of following the flow of life was formed in Central Asia. In China, the “measure of all things” turned out to be not man, but nature, which is infinite and therefore unknowable. In art, there was not a reflection of life, but its continuation in brush movements and ink strokes. On this unique basis, the “self-typing” of Chinese art was carried out, the subject of which was not the image of a human hero and not spiritual ideals, but the life of nature. Hence the special aesthetic taste and artistic tact of traditional Chinese art. In the ancient beliefs of the Chinese, any objects of nature were deified: trees, stones, streams, waterfalls (however, this tendency is more clearly expressed in Shintoism). Religion was considered the art of life, and a contemplative attitude required complete and humble fusion with nature. The sages of the East like to repeat that if for an active European, overwhelmed by the idea of ​​​​conquering nature and demonstrating strength, there is no greater pleasure than climbing to the top of a high mountain, then for the Chinese the greatest happiness is contemplating the mountain at its foot. Buddhism, which spread in the countries of Southeast Asia from the 5th century. BC e., contributed to the strengthening of the pantheistic worldview in China. Therefore, the central place in Chinese art is occupied by landscape - a sophisticated technique of painting mountains, waterfalls, and plants with brush and ink. The traditional genre of Chinese landscape is called Shan Shui (“mountain-water”). Mountain (shan) represents Yang (the light, active principle of nature), water (shui) – Yin (feminine, dark and passive). The philosophy of Chinese landscape painting is revealed in the interaction of these two principles, which is conveyed by looking at the landscape from above, from a high point of view, by alternating plans: mountain peaks, stripes of fog, waterfalls. The philosophy of Chinese landscape is set out in the treatise of the painter Guo Xi (c. 1020 - before 1100) “On the High Essence of Forests and Streams.” The object of the image in this form of art is not even the landscape itself in the European sense of the word, but the subtly changing state of nature (compare impressionism) and the experience of this state by man. Therefore, the person himself, even if he is depicted in a landscape, never occupies the main place in it and looks like a small figure, an outside observer. The mood of poeticized reality is conveyed by two “manners”: gongbi (Chinese “careful brush”), based on the finest graphic elaboration of details and clarity of lines, and sei (Chinese “expression of thought”), a manner characterized by pictorial freedom, washes of ink that create a feeling of “scattered perspective”, stripes of fog and endless distances. The landscapes of the wen-ren-hua school (Chinese: “painting of people of written culture”) were complemented by exquisite calligraphy - poetic and philosophical inscriptions that do not directly reveal the content, but create an “expression of thought”, as well as tibs - epigrams. They are written by fans of the artist at different times on free areas of the image. The symbolism of Chinese painting also differs from European symbolism; it is revealed in poeticized concreteness. For example, on the landscape there may be an inscription: “In spring, Lake Xihu is not at all the same as at other times of the year.” It is difficult to imagine such a name in European painting. Chinese architecture merges with nature. Due to the abundance of rain, high roofs with steep slopes have long been used in China. A house in several tiers with roofs one above the other testified to the nobility of the owner. Using curved rafters, the Chinese created original forms of curved slopes with raised corners. Short pieces of wood were placed under the rafters, creating stepped console projections. Boards with carved ornaments and silhouettes of dragons were attached to them. The wood was covered with bright red or black varnish with gilding and mother-of-pearl inlay. Chinese pagodas are not tectonic, but organic in unity with the surrounding landscape; they grow out of the ground as simply and naturally as trees, flowers or mushrooms after rain. The silhouettes of Tibetan temples are similar to the shapes of the mountains or gentle hills on the slopes of which they are located. All this beauty is not so much construction in the European sense of the word (as a way of sheltering from the elements), but, on the contrary, the creation by means of art of the best conditions for contemplating nature.

In China, to immortalize oneself meant not so much to leave a material monument about oneself, but to glorify one’s name “written on bamboo and silk.” Chinese art has never directly followed the interests of religion, philosophy or politics. If religion and philosophy are the art of living, then life is an art. In the teachings of the ancient philosophers Lao Tzu and Confucius, it was argued that the nature of art is not determined by the material conditions of life, but, on the contrary, the artistic attitude teaches work, philosophy, morality and law (a separate concept of “artistry” did not exist in China; it dissolved in life). For this reason, the European category of morphology of art, the division of art into genera and types, easel and applied, fine and technical, or artistic crafts, is not applicable to traditional Chinese art. In China, as in the traditional art of Japan, all types of art are both easel and applied, fine and decorative. The Latin word “decor” or the name “Chinese decorative art” is completely inappropriate here. For example, in Chinese art there is no framed easel painting at all - one of the main achievements of European artists. The Chinese master (painter, graphic artist, calligrapher, poet and philosopher at the same time) paints walls, silk scrolls, paper screens and fans. The Chinese tradition does not know the gap between the rational and the expressive, the sensual beginning of creativity, “ideological” and “ideologicalless” art, realism and formalism - those troubles that the European exaltation of man brings with it. Therefore, in China there were no separate artistic movements - Classicism and Romanticism, or the struggle of ideological movements. There is a tradition based on thoughtful contemplation of nature, and styles differ not by the ambitions of the artists, but by the state of the landscape depicted: “a running stream,” “a bamboo leaf in the wind,” “the skies cleared after a snowfall.” There were the “angular brush” and “splattered mascara” styles. Theoretical treatises speak of eighteen types of contour lines and sixteen types of strokes in the depiction of mountains. The detachment of the artist’s personality determines another important feature of traditional Chinese aesthetics: the master does not reflect on the frailty of his life, but contemplates and aestheticizes the frailty of material things. The unfinished form or patina of time acquires value, in comparison with which the symbolism of the “Eight Immortals” and the “Eight Jewels” is comprehended. Any everyday object has a symbolic meaning (this attitude towards things can only be conditionally correlated with the European concept of decorativeness). Therefore, works of traditional Chinese art are elegant and colorful, but do not seem pretentious. In Chinese literature, there are constant themes of sleep, dreams and miraculous transformations, revealing the highest meaning of simple things. The body is not perceived as a material form, it is a continuation of conceivable space. Therefore, in particular, in Chinese art, even in erotic pictures, there is no “nudity” or aestheticization of physicality. The symbolic relationship to form is well illustrated in the parable of the Chinese artist who ultimately reduced the image of a dragon to a single line. The esotericism of aesthetics, philosophy and the art of living inevitably led the country to isolation from the outside world. From the 3rd century BC e. China was fenced off from the north by the Great Wall of China, and then the name “inner China” appeared. Beijing also has its own “inner” or “Forbidden City”. Geographically, China is not a continental country, but a coastal country. Having in the XIV-XV centuries. navy, the Chinese gradually abandoned sea travel. They were unnecessary. Amazingly, gunpowder, invented by the Chinese in the 10th century, came to nearby Japan only in the 17th century. with the help of Dutch sailors! This is the fate of many other inventions. China closed in on itself (in 1757 the country was officially closed to foreigners) and from the outside seemed in a state of immobility. Therefore, the periodization of Chinese art is also very peculiar - it is counted not by years, but by reigning dynasties, and their change does not mean progressive development. The main advantage in art has always been the repetition of the work of old masters and fidelity to tradition. Therefore, it is sometimes quite difficult to determine, say, whether a given porcelain vase was made in the 12th century. or in the 17th century. Chinese art is also characterized by a special attitude towards the material, its natural properties, careful processing and clarity, purity of technical technique.

Quite conventionally, satisfying the need for analogies with the history of European art, the Tang era (VII-IX centuries) can be compared with the early Middle Ages, the Song (X-XIII centuries) can be called the era of classical Chinese art (late Middle Ages), the Ming (XIV-XVII centuries), chronologically correlated with the European Renaissance, more closely fits the definition of the period of mannerism and academicism. The art of China had a decisive influence on the formation of national artistic traditions in Korea and Japan. Chinese products have always been of interest to Europeans; they attracted people with their special aesthetics, the beauty of the material and the thoroughness of its processing. Chinese porcelain and silk were worth their weight in gold in the literal sense of the word. The products of Chinese porcelain makers were imitated by Delft faience masters in Holland. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. in Holland and England, furniture made of Chinese lacquer was in fashion. The “Chinese secret” of porcelain production was unraveled in Europe only by 1710. Woodcut - woodcut - was developed in European art eight centuries after its development in China (1st century AD).

Features of Chinese architecture.

The history of the development of Chinese architecture is inextricably linked with the development of all types of Chinese art and especially painting. Both architecture and painting of this era were various forms of expression of general ideas and ideas about the world that had developed in ancient times. However, there were even more ancient rules and traditions in architecture than in painting. The main ones retained their significance throughout the entire Middle Ages and formed a completely special, solemn and at the same time unusually decorative artistic style, unlike other countries, which reflected the cheerful and at the same time philosophical spirit inherent in the art of China in general. The Chinese architect was the same poet and thinker, distinguished by the same sublime and heightened sense of nature as the landscape painter.

The Chinese architect is like an artist. He selects a place and fits one object into another, trying not to disturb the natural harmony. He will never build a building if it does not fit in with the surrounding area. One of the landscape painters, in his poetic treatise on painting, conveyed that feeling of the natural relationship between architecture and landscape, which is characteristic of this time: “Let the temple tower be up in heaven: no buildings should be shown. As if there is, as if not. When temples and terraces rise out of the blue, it would be necessary for a row of tall willows to stand opposite human dwellings; and in the famous mountain temples and chapels it is very worthy to give a fancy spruce that clings to houses or towers. Picture in summer: ancient trees cover the sky, green water without waves; and the waterfall hangs, breaking through the clouds; and here, by the nearby waters, is a secluded, quiet house.”

Architectural features of a Chinese house.

Unlike the ancient civilizations of the Middle East, China has not preserved architectural monuments from the distant past. The ancient Chinese built with wood and clay bricks, and these materials are quickly destroyed by time. Therefore, very few monuments of ancient and early art have reached us. Cities consisting of light wooden buildings burned down and collapsed; the rulers who came to power destroyed old palaces and erected new ones in their place. At present, it is difficult to show a consistent picture of the development of Chinese architecture before the Tang period.

From the feudal era and even from the Han, no structures have reached us, with the exception of tombs hidden under burial mounds. The Great Wall, built by Qin Shi Huang Di, was repaired so often that its entire upper layer was created much later. In place of the Tang palaces of Chang'an and Luoyang, only shapeless hills remained. The first Buddhist buildings, such as the Baimasy monasteries in Luoyang and Dayansi, near Chang'an, are still located in the same place, but they were often rebuilt. In general, with the exception of some Tang pagodas, the existing structures are Ming creations.

This gap is partly filled by written sources and archaeological finds (especially the discovery of Han clay dwellings and bas-reliefs depicting buildings). These finds show the character and style of Han architecture, because the “models” created were supposed to provide the soul of the deceased with an existence in the afterlife that was no different from the earthly one. The bas-reliefs depict classic houses of that era, the kitchen, the women's quarters and the reception hall.

Clay samples prove that, with a few exceptions, Han domestic architecture is similar in both layout and style to modern architecture. The Han house, like its current descendant, consisted of several courtyards, on each side of which there were halls, which in turn were divided into smaller rooms. The high and steep roof rested on columns and was covered with tiles, although the characteristic curved ends of the roofs were previously less curved. This is a significant change, although it is not worth relying entirely on “clay evidence” either.

In small features and details of ornamentation, clay houses from Han burials are also very similar to modern examples. The main entrance is protected by a "spirit screen" (in bi), a wall built directly opposite the main entrance to prevent the courtyard from being visible from the outside. She was supposed to block the entry of evil spirits into the house. According to Chinese demonology, spirits can only move in a straight line, so such a trick seemed very reliable. As evidenced by Han finds, similar beliefs and customs of building a wall to protect against spirits were already widespread at least by the 1st century. n. e.

The type of house did not undergo major changes primarily because it perfectly suited the social conditions of Chinese life. The Chinese house was intended for a large family, each generation of which lived in a separate courtyard, which provided both the necessary separation to avoid possible strife, and the achievement of the ideal of unity under the auspices of the head of the family. Therefore, all houses, both large and small, are planned this way. From peasant dwellings with a single courtyard to huge and spacious palaces called “palace cities,” the same layout was maintained everywhere.

Clay "samples" and bas-reliefs give some idea of ​​the richer Han houses, but we can only learn about the splendor of the imperial palaces from written sources. The site of the Qin Palace has been discovered Shi Huangdi in Xianyang (Shaanxi), but no excavations have yet been carried out. Sima Qian gives a description of the palace in his work. There is no doubt that it, although written a hundred years after the fall of the Qin dynasty and the destruction of Xianyang, fairly accurately depicts him: “Shi Huang, believing that the population of Xianyang was large and the palace of his predecessors was small, began to build a new reception palace in Shanlin Park south of the Wei River. The first thing he did was build the main hall. From east to west it was 500 steps, from north to south 100 steps. It could seat 10,000 people and raise standards 50 feet high. A road was built around the hill. From the entrance to the hall, a direct road led to Mount Nanshan, on the ridge of which a ceremonial arch was built in the form of a gate. A paved road was built from the palace to Xianyang across the Weihe River. It symbolized the Tianji Bridge, which goes across the Milky Way to the constellation Yingzhe.”

Sima Qian also says that along the banks of the Weihe River, Shi Huang Di built copies of the palaces of all the rulers he conquered and defeated. In these palaces were the concubines and wealth of the conquered rulers, everything was prepared for the arrival of the emperor. Not content with these luxurious apartments, Shi Huangdi built several more summer palaces and hunting estates in the vicinity of Xianyang and connected them with secret roads and passages, so that he could find himself in any of them unnoticed.

Perhaps the description of Shi Huangdi's palaces is not without exaggeration, but there is no doubt that under the empire, architecture received a new impetus for development, and buildings were built on a previously unknown scale. Shi Huangdi found his ancestral palace too small and built another one to suit his power and ambition. Copies of the palaces of the rulers he conquered were, of course, more modest. The story told by Zhuangzi two centuries before Shi Huangdi indicates that the palaces of the rulers were quite simple. This is the story of Prince Wenhui Wang's cook who applied Taoist principles to his household when he cut up the carcass of an ox. The prince, admiring his art, watched him from the hall of his palace. If so, the cook prepared the meat in the main courtyard in front of the audience hall. The prince's palace thus closely resembles the house of a wealthy peasant. Even if Zhuangzi made up the story for the sake of a moral, it is clear that for the people of that era it did not seem so impossible for a prince to oversee the household directly from the audience hall.

Religious buildings are much better preserved - pagodas.

The arrival of Buddhism in China did not have a significant impact on the style of Chinese temples. Both Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same Chinese house plan, modified for religious purposes. The arrangement of the courtyard and side halls is exactly the same as in residential buildings, the main halls in the center are intended for the worship of Buddha or other gods, and the domestic apartments behind the temple served as dwellings for the monks. However, some motifs in the decoration and ornamentation of the main halls are clearly of Buddhist origin and bear traces of the influence of Greco-Indian art (for example, the caryatids supporting the roof of the temple at Kaiyuansi Monastery, in the city of Quanzhou, Fujian province). The current buildings in Kaiyuansi are from the Ming period (1389), but the monastery was founded under the Tang. It is quite possible that the caryatids were copied at one time from Tang samples, because during the Tang the influence of foreign cultures was especially great.

Considered the quintessential Chinese structure, the pagoda was supposed to be of Indian origin. However, there is very little resemblance between the Indian stepped monument, resting on a low base, and the tall Chinese pagoda. And although now the latter have been preserved only in Buddhist monasteries, their true predecessor, most likely, is the pre-Buddhist Chinese multi-story tower, which can be seen on Han bas-reliefs. Such towers were most often located on the sides of the main hall of the building.

Han towers were usually two stories high, with projecting roofs similar to those of today's pagodas. On the other hand, they are very thin at the base, and most likely were monolithic columns. Although the true size of such buildings cannot be clearly judged from the bas-reliefs (after all, the artist emphasized what he considered the most important), they were hardly much higher than the main hall itself, on the sides of which they were located. This means that the pagoda became tall and powerful only in subsequent centuries.

The difference between the two styles of Chinese architecture is especially clear in temples and pagodas. Often these two styles are called northern and southern, although their distribution does not always follow geographical boundaries. For example, in Yunnan the northern style predominates, while in Manchuria the southern style is found. These exceptions are due to historical reasons. In Yunnan under the Ming and early Qing, northern influence was very strong, and southern Manchuria was in turn influenced by the south (via sea routes).

The main difference between the two styles is the degree of curvature of the roof and the ornamentation of the ridge and cornice. Southern style roofs are very curved so that the overhanging eaves rise upward like a forge. The roof ridges are often strewn with small figures depicting Taoist deities and mythical animals, in such abundance that the lines of the roof itself are lost. The cornices and supports are decorated with carvings and ornamentation, so that there is almost no smooth and “empty” surface left. The most striking examples of this passion for decoration, which influenced the European style of the 18th century, can be seen in Canton and the southern coastal regions. However, they do not cause special admiration, for although the subtlety of carving and decoration in themselves is sometimes admirable, in general the lines of the building are lost, and a general impression of artificiality and overload is created. The Chinese themselves gradually moved away from this style. Even in Canton, many buildings, such as the Kuomintang Memorial Hall, are already built in the northern style.

The northern style is often called palatial, for its best examples are the magnificent buildings of the Forbidden City and the imperial tombs of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The swirl of the roof is softer and more subdued, reminiscent of a tent roof. However, the assumption that this style originates from the famous tents of the Mongol emperors is unfounded. The ornamentation is restrained and less lavish. Small and more stylized figures compared to the southern style can be seen only on the roof ridges. A successful compromise between the overload of the southern style and the stylization of the palaces of Beijing is especially clearly visible in Shanxi. Here the roof ridges are decorated with small but graceful and lively figures of horsemen.

The origins of these two styles are shrouded in mystery. From Han examples and bas-reliefs (the earliest known depictions of buildings) it can be seen that the roofs of that era were only slightly curved, and sometimes there was no curve at all (it is unknown, however, whether this is a consequence of imperfections in the material or the sculptor, or whether it actually reflects the style that time). In Tang reliefs and Song painting, the curvature of the roof is already visible, but it is not as significant as in modern southern buildings. On the other hand, this feature is characteristic of Burmese and Indo-Chinese architecture. Perhaps the Chinese borrowed it from their southern neighbors. In Japan, which inherited the architectural tradition from Tang China, the bend is also insignificant and resembles that inherent in the northern style.

In the calm and austere brick pagodas of the Tang period, everything breathes monumental simplicity. They are almost devoid of any architectural decoration. The protruding corners of numerous roofs form straight and clear lines. The most famous pagoda of the Tang period is Dayanta (Big Wild Goose Pagoda), built within the then capital of Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in 652 - 704. Situated against the backdrop of a mountain range, which seems to frame the entire city, Dayanta is visible from a great distance and towers over the entire surrounding landscape. Heavy and massive, resembling a fortress up close (its dimensions: 25 m at the base and 60 m in height). The weather, thanks to its harmony and elongated proportions, gives the impression of great lightness from a distance. Square in plan (which is typical for this time), Dayanta consists of 7 identical tiers, evenly tapering towards the top and repeating each other, and correspondingly decreasing windows, located one in the center of each tier. This arrangement creates for the viewer, captivated by the almost mathematical rhythm of the pagoda’s proportions, the illusion of an even greater height. Sublime spiritual impulse and intelligence seemed to be combined in the noble simplicity and clarity of this structure, in which the architect, in simple, straight lines and repeating volumes, so freely directed to the top, managed to embody the majestic spirit of his time.

Not all Chinese pagodas are like Dayantha. The more refined and contradictory tastes of the Sung times reflected a tendency toward more refined and lighter forms. Song pagodas, usually hexagonal and octagonal, are also amazingly beautiful. To this day, located on the highest points, they crown with their slender peaks such picturesque cities, drowning in greenery and surrounded by mountains, as Hangzhou And Suzhou. Very diverse in their shapes and architectural ornaments, they are either covered with glazed slabs, or decorated with a pattern of brick and stone, or decorated with numerous curved roofs that separate tier from tier. They combine elegance and harmony with amazing simplicity and freedom of form. Against the background of the bright blue of the southern sky and the lush green foliage, these huge, forty and sixty-meter light structures seem to be the embodiment and symbol of the radiant beauty of the surrounding world.

Urban planning of Beijing in feudal times. Street layout. "Forbidden City". Palace ensemble Gugun.

The same logical clarity is felt in the architecture of Chinese cities and the layout of urban ensembles. The largest number of wooden urban structures have survived to this day from the 15th to the 17th centuries, when, after the expulsion of the Mongols, intensive construction and restoration of destroyed cities began. From that time on, Beijing became the capital of China, which has preserved many of the architectural monuments of antiquity to this day. By the way, Beijing - Beijing in Chinese (Northern Capital) - has existed for more than 3,000 years. And he didn't change the layout. The growing capital was conceived as a powerful fortress. Massive brick walls (up to 12 meters high) with monumental tower gates surrounded it on all sides. But the symmetry and clarity of the plan did not introduce dryness or monotony into the appearance of Beijing. Beijing has the correct layout of streets. In the form of a grid. The symmetry technique of Chinese city planning is also inherent and has not changed over time. Artificially dug lakes are symmetrical to each other. Houses in Beijing are built with a facade to the south, and a highway runs from north to south, ending at the northern border of the city. Huge fortress walls with mighty stone gate towers and gates in the form of long tunnels enclosed the city on all sides. Each main street crossing the city abutted against similar gates, located symmetrically opposite each other. The oldest part of Beijing is called the “Inner City”, which in turn is separated from the “Outer City” located to the south by a wall and gates. However, a common highway connected both parts of the capital. All major structures are built along this straight axis. Thus, the entire vast space of the capital was united, organized and subordinated to a single plan.

The main ensemble located in the center " Inner city", was huge " Imperial City", stretching for many kilometers, closed by a ring of walls with mighty gates. Inside it was located " Forbidden City"(now converted into a museum), also walled and surrounded by a moat. This was the Imperial Palace, where only a select few could enter. The palace was not one building, it was divided into several parts. Wide squares paved with light stone, curved canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn pavilions raised onto terraces revealed their fabulous splendor before the eyes of those who, passing through a series of massive fortress gates, starting from the gate Taihamen (« Gate of Heavenly Peace"), penetrated the palace. The front part of the ensemble consisted of a suite of squares connected to each other by stairs, gates, and pavilions. The entire “Forbidden City” with its multi-colored roofs of palaces, shady gardens and courtyards, corridors and gazebos, countless passages and side branches was a kind of city within a city, in the depths of which were hidden the chambers of the imperial wives, entertainment facilities, a theater stage and much more.

Wide squares paved with light bricks, canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn palace buildings reveal their fabulous splendor before the eyes of those who, passing a series of massive fortress gates, starting from Tiananmen Square, penetrate the palace. The entire ensemble consists of spacious squares and courtyards connected to each other, surrounded by various ceremonial rooms, presenting the viewer with a succession of new and new impressions, growing as it progresses. The entire Forbidden City, surrounded by gardens and parks, is a whole labyrinth with countless side branches, in which narrow corridors lead to quiet sunny courtyards with decorative trees, where ceremonial buildings are replaced in the depths by residential buildings and picturesque gazebos. Along the main axis that crosses the whole of Beijing, the most significant buildings are located in orderly order, standing out among the rest of the buildings of the Forbidden City. These structures, as if raised above the ground by high platforms of white marble, with carved ramps and stairs, form the leading, solemn enfilade of the complex. With the bright rich varnish of their columns and double curved roofs made of golden tiles, the silhouettes of which are repeated and varied, the central pavilions form the overall solemn rhythmic harmony of the entire ensemble.

Still preserved Gugun palace ensemble, which served as the imperial residence during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This residence, also known as Purple Forbidden City» ( Zi jin cheng), was built in the 4-18 years of the reign of the Ming Emperor Cheng Zu, which corresponds to 1406-1420. The entire palace complex occupies an area of ​​72 hectares, surrounded on four sides by a wall about 10 m high and a moat 50 m wide. On the territory of the palace complex there are several dozen palace ensembles of various sizes, in total about 9 thousand rooms with a total area of ​​15 thousand square meters. m. This is the grandest and most complete architectural ensemble preserved in China. From the time the Ming Emperor Cheng Zu was installed here, until the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, swept away by the whirlwind of the revolution of 1911, 24 emperors ruled the affairs of the empire here for 491 years.

Palace ensemble Gugun is divided into two large parts: inner chambers and outer courtyard. The main structures of the outer courtyard are three large pavilions: Taihedian (Pavilion of Supreme Harmony),Zhonghedian (Pavilion complete harmony) And Baohedian (Pavilion for Preserving Harmony). All of them are built on 8-meter-high foundations, lined with white marble, and from a distance they look like beautiful fairy-tale towers. The most important ceremonial buildings of the Imperial Palace were located on the north-south main axis of Beijing. The halls alternated in orderly order, where the emperors of China held receptions and listened to reports. These were rectangular pavilions, raised onto terraces and topped with two-tier roofs covered with golden tiles.

Each of the buildings had its own name. The main one, Taihedian (“Pavilion of Supreme Harmony”), reflects all the most characteristic features of the wooden architecture of medieval China. Elegance, brightness, and lightness are combined in this structure with simplicity and clarity of form. Tall lacquered red columns mounted on a multi-stage white marble platform, beams crossing them and branched multi-colored brackets - dougong - serve as the basis of the entire structure. A huge two-tier roof rests on them. This roof with wide, curved edges is like the basis of the entire building. Its wide extensions protect the room from the merciless summer heat as well as from the heavy rains that alternate with it. The smoothly curved corners of this roof give the entire building a special festive feeling. Its solemnity is also emphasized by the beauty of the vast carved terrace, on which the next two main halls were erected one after the other. Light walls, consisting of openwork wooden partitions, serve as screens and have no supporting value. In the Taihedian Pavilion, like the rest of the central buildings of the palace, the curves of the roofs, as if lightening their weight and width, are distinguished by a smooth calm. They give the entire building a feeling of great lightness and balance, concealing its true dimensions. The grandeur of the scale of the structure is felt mainly in the interior of Taihedian, where the rectangular room is filled with only two rows of smooth columns and its entire length and clear simplicity appear in no way hidden from the eye.

For architecture and decoration Taihedian Pavilion is a unique example, unmatched not only in comparison with other Gugun pavilions, but, perhaps, in the entire collection of wooden structures of ancient China. The pavilion is 35.5 m high, 63.96 m wide, 37.2 m deep. The roof of the pavilion is supported by 84 wooden columns with a diameter of one meter, six of them surrounding the throne are gilded and decorated with carved images of writhing dragons. The throne stands on a two-meter-high pedestal, in front of which are installed elegant bronze cranes, censers, and tripod vessels; behind the throne is a finely carved screen. The entire decoration of the Taihedian Pavilion is distinguished by its ceremonial splendor and splendor. The rectangular courtyard, which is located in front of the Taihedian Pavilion, occupies an area of ​​more than 30 thousand square meters. m. It is completely naked - there is neither a tree nor any decorative structure. Whenever during palace ceremonies, rows of armed guards lined up in this courtyard in strict order, and civil and military dignitaries knelt in order of subordination. Incense smoke rose from numerous tripods and censers, adding to the already mysterious atmosphere surrounding the emperor.

Zhonghedian Pavilion served as a place where the emperor rested before the start of the ceremonies, and rehearsals of the etiquette ritual were also performed here. The Baohedian Pavilion served as a place where on New Year's Eve the emperor held banquets to which vassal princes were invited. This pavilion, like the Zhonghedian Pavilion, is a structure made entirely of wood.

Inner chambers. The rear half of the Gugun palace ensemble housed internal chambers. Lined up along the central axis Qianqinggong Palaces,Jiaotaidan And Kunningong, on both sides of them there are six eastern and six western palaces. The chambers of the emperor, members of the imperial family, his wives and concubines were located here.

In terms of volume, the Qianqinggong, Jiao Taidian and Kunninggong palaces are significantly inferior to the three large pavilions of the outer courtyard. The emperor's bedchamber was located in the Qianqinggong Palace. Here the emperor was engaged in daily government affairs, looking through documents, making orders. On holidays, feasts were held here, to which the emperor invited his dignitaries. The Kunninggong Palace housed the empress's chambers. Jiao Taidian Palace, located between the Qianqinggong and Kunninggong palaces, served as a hall for family celebrations. During the Ming and Qing times, it was in this hall that celebrations on the occasion of the empress’s birthday were held. During the Qing Dynasty, the imperial seal was kept here.

Empress Dowager Cixi, who ruled China for more than 40 years, lived in Chuxiugong Palace, one of the six Western palaces. On the occasion of her 50th anniversary, she undertook the renovation of two palaces - Chushugun and Ikungun. 1 million 250 thousand lians of silver were spent on repair work and gifts to dignitaries and servants.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Gugong Palace served as the political center of the Chinese Empire. The emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, who lived in this palace for more than five hundred years, did not occupy the same apartments all the time. On a whim or believing that one or another part of the palace was unlucky, they moved to another place, and sometimes even abandoned and sealed the chambers of their predecessors. Darlin, one of the princesses close to Cixi, told how one day the Empress Dowager was making her rounds and saw buildings that were locked and unused for so long that the grass and bushes made it impossible to approach them. She was told that no one remembers why this palace was abandoned, but they suggested that one of the members of the imperial family had once died here from an infectious disease. No one from the palace ever visited the abandoned apartments.

Beijing Temples were also located in large complexes. Majestic Tiantan (« Sky Temple"), erected between 1420 and 1530 in the "Outer City", consists of a number of buildings lined up one after another over a wide area and surrounded by a ring of greenery. These are two temples and a white marble stepped altar on which sacrifices were made. The grandiose temple ensemble was associated with the ancient religious rites of the Chinese, who revered heaven and earth as givers of the harvest. This was reflected in the originality of the architectural design. The round terraces of the altar and the blue conical roofs of the temples symbolized the sky, while the square territory of the ensemble symbolized the earth. Despite the different form of the buildings than in the Forbidden City, the same enfilading principle of their location prevailed here too. The viewer, walking the entire long path from the gates to the temples through a row of white carved arches, gradually got used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending the beauty of each structure.

The highest building Qingyandian (« Temple of Prayer for a Rich Harvest"), topped with a deep blue three-tiered cone-shaped roof, is elevated onto a triple white marble terrace. A small temple with a single-tier roof seems to echo this structure, repeating its shape.

An unprecedented spatial scale is also felt in the burial complex of the Ming emperors Shisanling (“13 tombs”), built near Beijing in the 15th–17th centuries. The path to these burials was decorated with special solemnity. It started from afar and was marked by a series of gates and arches, which, in turn, led to the huge Alley of Spirits, 800 meters long, framed on both sides by monumental stone statues of the guardians of the deceased - twenty-four figures of animals and twelve figures of officials and warriors. The burials themselves included many structures: a burial mound with an underground palace full of treasures, temples, towers, arches. Situated at the foot of the mountains, the austere and monumental buildings were picturesquely included in the surrounding landscape.

Architectural styles of summer palaces.

Although the private quarters of the Forbidden City were vast and varied, the emperors found the city's summer air too unhealthy. Since ancient times, the court moved to special country residences for the summer. Their construction gave rise to a new, less formal architectural style. Qin Shi Huangdi, as already mentioned, had many summer palaces in the surrounding parks, which at the same time served as hunting estates. His example was followed by the Han and Tang emperors, and especially by the restless builder Yan Di, the second Emperor Sui. Although no trace remains of their palaces and parks, descriptions made by historians show that they were planned in exactly the same way as Yuanmingyuan, a vast park with numerous palaces and pavilions built by Qianlong ten miles from Beijing, destroyed by English and French soldiers in 1860 The modern Summer Palace, restored by Cixi in the 90s of the 19th century, only faintly resembles the original.

If in the official “imperial cities”, the last of which was the Forbidden City in Beijing, pomp and severity intertwined in symmetrical harmony prevailed, in the “summer palaces” grace and charm prevailed. If there were no hills and lakes, then they were created, regardless of cost, so that all forms of landscape were present to suit every taste. Trees were specially planted or replanted, as was the case under the Sui Yan-di, who ordered large trees to be delivered from afar on special carts. Magnificent landscapes imitated the paintings of painters.

Among forests and streams, on the shores of lakes and hillsides, pavilions were built harmoniously connected with the surroundings. It would seem that they are scattered randomly, but in fact according to a carefully thought out plan. Each of them was supplied with everything necessary, so that the emperor could go to any of them at will and find everything prepared for his appearance.

They tried to emulate the luxury of imperial palaces, on a smaller scale, in both city and country houses of wealthy families. No one, with the possible exception of the British, was able to surpass the Chinese in the art of creating gardens and country residences. The Chinese, despite their large and populous cities, have always been closely connected with rural life and have always loved natural beauty. Since ancient times in China there has been a belief in the high purifying moral meaning of being in solitude among the mountains. Taoist sages lived on the wooded slopes of high mountains and refused to come down, even if the emperor himself offered them the highest honors. Many prominent scientists and poets lived in the outback for years, only occasionally visiting cities. The feeling of horror before wild nature, so characteristic of Europeans, was unknown to the Chinese.

The city wall is an integral part of Chinese urban planning.

Every Chinese city was surrounded by a wall. The inseparability of the concept of “wall” from the concept of “city” was expressed in the fact that they were denoted by the same word “cheng”. Naturally, the city walls, which gave the city its status, were treated with the utmost care and attention. Therefore, city walls in China represent a completely unique type of architectural structure. They are perhaps the most impressive and durable than anywhere else in the world.

The art of building walls reached its perfection in the north, which was most often attacked by nomads. The walls of Beijing, built at the beginning of the 15th century during the Ming dynasty, deservedly enjoy universal fame. The same high and strong walls can be found everywhere in the northwestern provinces, and especially in Shaanxi, where they surrounded every county town. Modern walls were mostly built during the Ming. After the expulsion of the Mongols, the Chinese emperors of this dynasty found it necessary to restore the city fortifications in the northern provinces, which had fallen into disrepair during the rule of nomads in the north.

In the layout of cities and fortifications, two styles can also be traced: northern and southern. In the north, where builders had a lot of free space and flat areas, cities were built in the shape of a rectangle. The city was divided into four parts by two straight streets intersecting in the center. With the exception of the largest cities, there were only four gates within the walls, one on each side. At the intersection of two main streets there was a lookout tower with four gates, so that in case of riot or disorder, each street could be isolated from the others. The three-story, pagoda-like tower that crowned the gate housed the soldiers, and there was also a huge drum that served as the city clock. It was hit at regular intervals.

The location of the gates and the two main streets was distinguished by regularity and symmetry, which cannot be said about the streets crossing residential areas, twisting and bending between houses. It is rare to see a division between rich and poor neighborhoods in a Chinese city. Next to rich houses, with many courtyards and gardens, poor shacks with one courtyard are crowded on the same line. If one part of the city is more prone to flooding after the summer rains than another, it is natural that wealthy people will avoid the low part of the city, although there may be large houses next to the dwellings of the poor.

In the north, city walls were erected to protect themselves not only from enemies, but also from floods. At the base of the wall was a thick layer of hard clay, which was covered on the outer and inner sides with very large bricks, reaching a thickness of 4-5 inches. The top of the wall was also lined with bricks. The walls were built truncated at the top; if at the base the thickness reached 40 feet, then at the top it was no more than 20–25 feet. The height of the walls varied, but in the cities of Shanxi, Beijing and Chang'an they reached 60 feet. Bastions were built at a distance of 50–100 yards from the wall, the perimeter of the upper part of which reached 40 feet. At the foot of the bastions there was a ditch; between the ditch, the wall and the towers there was a strip of unoccupied land. see dictionary of units of measurement

Towers were built at all four corners of the wall and above the gates. The corner towers were reinforced on the outside with bricks and had loopholes for firing. The towers above the gates, similar to three-tiered pagodas, only rectangular in shape, were most often built of wood and covered with tiles. In these towers, which very clearly characterized the city's architecture, the soldiers who guarded the gates lived, and during the war they served as a post for shooters and archers. The towers above Beijing Gate are 99 Chinese feet high. According to Chinese beliefs, spirits usually fly at a height of one hundred feet, so the towers were specially designed to reach maximum heights while avoiding encounters with otherworldly forces.

The gates of the main cities were usually protected by semicircular outer fortifications, which contained an outer gate at right angles to the open main gate. Thus, if the outer gate was attacked, the main passage remained protected. The suburbs outside the outer gates were also surrounded by an embankment wall, not reinforced with bricks, more to protect themselves from robbers than to defend the city. Until the advent of modern artillery, the walls remained virtually indestructible. Their thickness doomed any attempt to undermine or bomb them. Climbing such high walls was also very difficult and dangerous. A defended city could withstand the attack of a huge army, and Chinese history is replete with tales of famous sieges and heroic defenses. The blockade and famine could have broken the resistance more quickly, since the city depended on food supplies from the villages.

The city walls in the north and northwest of China were superior in every respect to the fortifications of the southern cities. In the south, only a few cities could be built symmetrically and on a large scale, which was determined both by the high value of the land on which rice could be sown and by the uneven surface, different from the northern plains. The streets are narrow and winding, the walls are low, although often stone, the gates are not wide. Wheeled transport was not common in the south. The streets were full of loaded mules, palanquins, porters and wheelbarrows, so there was no need to build wide passages. In Canton, for example, only two people could walk side by side on many streets. The main means of transport in the south was a boat, and people came to the city by land only from the outskirts. In addition, the south was not attacked as often, so less attention was paid to fortifications.

A great work of human hands, built from the 4th - 3rd centuries BC, and which is one of the most majestic monuments of world architecture - The great Wall of China. Built along the northern border of China to protect the country from nomads and cover fields from the desert sands, the wall initially extended for 750 km, then, after centuries of additions, it exceeded 3000 km. Chinese architects built a wall only along the steepest ridges. Therefore, in some places the wall makes such sharp turns that the walls almost touch. The wall is 5 to 8 meters wide and 5 to 10 meters high. Along the surface of the wall there are battlements and a road along which soldiers could move. Turrets are placed along the entire perimeter, every 100 - 150 meters, to provide light warning of the approach of the enemy. The wall was first assembled from compacted wood and reeds, then it was lined with gray brick.

Chinese architecture from the 15th to 17th centuries is full of grandeur. In the architecture of subsequent centuries it is still preserved, but a growing craving for pomp and abundance of decorative decoration gradually takes over. Incense burners and vases, carved gates and park sculptures become an integral part of numerous complexes. Sophisticated intricacy characterizes the design of the countryside imperial palace of Yiheyuan (“Garden of Serenity”) with its curving light through galleries, arched bridges spanning ponds, fancy gazebos and pagodas made of porcelain, copper, wood and stone.

Architectural structures of the 18th - 19th centuries, while continuing to develop the traditions of the past, at the same time differ from the more austere spirit of previous periods in their significantly increased splendor and greater connection with decorative arts. Yiheyuan Country Park, located near Beijing, is all built up with light, fancy gazebos and numerous ornamental sculptures. The desire for ornamentation, for the detailed development of individual architectural motifs, the fusion of decorative and applied and monumental forms are gradually preparing a departure from the monumental nature of the architecture of past periods. However, at this time numerous restoration work was carried out. The Temple of Heaven was restored, the Forbidden City was restored, preserving its original majestic spirit. During the same period, such beautiful, perfect in form and picturesque buildings as the Changlan Gallery (long gallery) in Yiheyuan Park, humpbacked marble bridges, forming like a closed ring together with their reflection, etc., were built. However, by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the ever-increasing pretentiousness and whimsicality of patterns led to the loss of the organic connection between the ornament and the shape of the building. The 19th century was the final stage in the development of the brilliant and original architecture of China.

Chinese art influenced the development of the European Rococo style and even Neoclassicism. In the era of Romanticism of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. and neo-styles of the second half of the 19th century, country palaces, interiors, park pavilions and gazebos were decorated in the fashionable “Chinese style”. “Chinese Village” was created in the park of Tsarskoe Selo near St. Petersburg. There were also reverse influences - passion for “Europeanism” in China, the so-called “chinoiserie in reverse” (French chinoiserie - “Chineseness”). This phenomenon began with the arrival of Portuguese traders in Guangzhou in 1517 and intensified through the activities of the Dutch East India Trading Company, especially during the Kangxi period. European artists worked at the court of Emperor Qiang Long (1736-1796) in Beijing. One of them was the Italian Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766). Since 1715, he was in China, knew Chinese art well and “mastered Chinese painting techniques on a par with European ones.” Many Chinese porcelain and painted enamels were specially manufactured for export to Europe. During the Art Nouveau period of the late XIX - early XX centuries. European symbolist poets paid attention to the art of the Far East. They saw in Chinese painting the ability to “enchant objects” and lead away from reality “to waking dreams.” By this quality, Chinese art correlates with the European romantic tradition, one of the expressions of which was the movement of symbolism of the “Silver Age”.

I . Features of Chinese architecture.

The history of the development of Chinese architecture is inextricably linked with the development of all types of Chinese art and especially painting. Both architecture and painting of this era were, as it were, different forms of expression of general ideas and ideas about the world that had developed in ancient times. However, there were even more ancient rules and traditions in architecture than in painting. The main ones retained their significance throughout the entire Middle Ages and formed a completely special, solemn and at the same time unusually decorative artistic style, unlike other countries, which reflected the cheerful and at the same time philosophical spirit inherent in the art of China in general. The Chinese architect was the same poet and thinker, distinguished by the same sublime and heightened sense of nature as the landscape painter.

The Chinese architect is like an artist. He looks out for a place and figures out what will go with this place. He will never build a building if it does not fit in with the surrounding area. One of the landscape painters, in his poetic treatise on painting, conveyed that feeling of the natural relationship between architecture and landscape, which is characteristic of this time: “Let the temple tower be up in heaven: no buildings should be shown. As if there were, as if not... When temples and terraces rise out of the blue, it would be necessary for a row of tall willows to stand opposite human habitations; and in the famous mountain temples and chapels it is very worthy to give a fancy spruce that clings to houses or towers... A picture in summer: ancient trees cover the sky, green water without waves; and the waterfall hangs, breaking through the clouds; and here, by the nearby waters, is a secluded, quiet house.”

II . Architectural features of a Chinese house.

Unlike the ancient civilizations of the Middle East, China has not preserved architectural monuments from the distant past. The ancient Chinese built with wood and clay bricks, and these materials are quickly destroyed by time. Therefore, very few monuments of ancient and early art have reached us. Cities consisting of light wooden buildings burned down and collapsed; the rulers who came to power destroyed old palaces and erected new ones in their places. At present, it is difficult to show a consistent picture of the development of Chinese architecture before the Tang period.

From the feudal era and even from the Han, no structures have reached us, with the exception of tombs hidden under burial mounds. The Great Wall, built by Qin Shi Huang Di, was repaired so often that its entire upper layer was created much later. In place of the Tang palaces of Chang'an and Luoyang, only shapeless hills remained. The first Buddhist buildings, such as the Baimasy monasteries in Luoyang and Dayansi, near Chang'an, are still located in the same place, but they were often rebuilt. In general, with the exception of some Tang pagodas, the existing structures are Ming creations.

This gap is partly filled by written sources and archaeological finds (especially the discovery of Han clay dwellings and bas-reliefs depicting buildings). These finds show the character and style of Han architecture, because the “models” created were supposed to provide the soul of the deceased with an existence in the afterlife that was no different from the earthly one. The bas-reliefs depict classic houses of that era, the kitchen, the women's quarters and the reception hall.

Clay samples prove that, with a few exceptions, Han domestic architecture is similar in both layout and style to modern architecture. The Han house, like its current descendant, consisted of several courtyards, on each side of which there were halls, which in turn were divided into smaller rooms. The high and steep roof rested on columns and was covered with tiles, although the characteristic curved ends of the roofs were previously less curved. This is a significant change, although it is not worth relying entirely on “clay evidence” either.

In small features and details of ornamentation, clay houses from Han burials are also very similar to modern examples. The main entrance is protected by a "spirit screen" (in bi), a wall built directly opposite the main entrance to prevent the courtyard from being visible from the outside. She was supposed to block the entry of evil spirits into the house. According to Chinese demonology, spirits can only move in a straight line, so such a trick seemed very reliable. As evidenced by Han finds, similar beliefs and customs of building a wall to protect against spirits were already widespread at least by the 1st century. n. e.

The type of house did not undergo major changes primarily because it perfectly suited the social conditions of Chinese life. The Chinese house was intended for a large family, each generation of which lived in a separate courtyard, which ensured both the necessary separation to avoid possible strife, and the achievement of the ideal of unity under the auspices of the head of the family. Therefore, all houses, both large and small, are planned this way. From peasant dwellings with one courtyard to huge and spacious palaces called “palace cities,” the same layout was preserved everywhere.

Clay "samples" and bas-reliefs give some idea of ​​the richer Han houses, but we can only learn about the splendor of the imperial palaces from written sources. The site where Qin Shi Huangdi's palace was located in Xianyang (Shaanxi) has been discovered, but excavations have not yet been carried out. Sima Qian gives a description of the palace in his work. There is no doubt that it, although written a hundred years after the fall of the Qin dynasty and the destruction of Xianyang, depicts him quite faithfully: “Shi Huang, believing that the population of Xianyang was large and the palace of his predecessors was small, began to build a new palace for receptions in Shanlin Park south of the Wei River. The first thing he built was the main hall. From east to west it was 500 steps, from north to south - 100 steps. It could accommodate 10 thousand people and raised standards 50 feet high. a road was laid. From the entrance to the hall, a direct road led to Mount Nanshan, on the ridge of which a ceremonial arch was built in the form of a gate. From the palace to Xianyang, a paved road was laid across the Weihe River. It symbolized the Tianji Bridge, which goes across the Milky Way to the constellation Yingzhe. ".

Sima Qian also says that along the banks of the Weihe River, Shi Huang Di built copies of the palaces of all the rulers he conquered and defeated. In these palaces were the concubines and wealth of the conquered rulers, everything was prepared for the arrival of the emperor. Not content with these luxurious apartments, Shi Huangdi built several more summer palaces and hunting estates in the vicinity of Xianyang and connected them with secret roads and passages, so that he could find himself in any of them unnoticed.

Perhaps the description of Shi Huangdi's palaces is not without exaggeration, but there is no doubt that under the empire, architecture received a new impetus for development, and buildings were built on a previously unknown scale. Shi Huangdi found his ancestral palace too small and built another one to suit his power and ambition. Copies of the palaces of the rulers he conquered were, of course, more modest. The story told by Zhuangzi two centuries before Shi Huangdi indicates that the palaces of the rulers were quite simple. This is the story of Prince Wenhui Wang's cook who applied Taoist principles to his household when he cut up the carcass of an ox. The prince, admiring his art, watched him from the hall of his palace. If so, the cook prepared the meat in the main courtyard in front of the audience hall. The prince's palace thus closely resembles the house of a wealthy peasant. Even if Zhuangzi made up the story for the sake of a moral, it is clear that for the people of that era it did not seem so impossible for a prince to oversee the household directly from the audience hall.

III . Chinese pagoda. Architectural styles of Chinese weather.

Religious buildings - pagodas - are much better preserved.

The arrival of Buddhism in China did not have a significant impact on the style of Chinese temples. Both Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same Chinese house plan, modified for religious purposes. The arrangement of the courtyard and side halls is exactly the same as in residential buildings, the main halls in the center are intended for the worship of Buddha or other gods, and the domestic apartments behind the temple served as dwellings for the monks. However, some motifs in the decoration and ornamentation of the main halls are clearly of Buddhist origin and bear traces of the influence of Greco-Indian art (for example, the caryatids supporting the roof of the temple at Kaiyuansi Monastery, in the city of Quanzhou, Fujian province). The current buildings in Kaiyuansi are from the Ming period (1389), but the monastery was founded under the Tang. It is quite possible that the caryatids were copied at one time from Tang samples, because during the Tang the influence of foreign cultures was especially great.

Considered the quintessential Chinese structure, the pagoda was supposed to be of Indian origin. However, there is very little resemblance between the Indian stepped monument, resting on a low base, and the tall Chinese pagoda. And although now the latter have been preserved only in Buddhist monasteries, their true predecessor, most likely, is the pre-Buddhist Chinese multi-story tower, which can be seen on Han bas-reliefs. Such towers were most often located on the sides of the main hall of the building.

Han towers were usually two stories high, with projecting roofs similar to those of today's pagodas. On the other hand, they are very thin at the base, and most likely were monolithic columns. Although the true size of such buildings cannot be clearly judged from the bas-reliefs (after all, the artist emphasized what he considered the most important), they were hardly much higher than the main hall itself, on the sides of which they were located. This means that the pagoda became tall and powerful only in subsequent centuries.

The difference between the two styles of Chinese architecture is especially clear in temples and pagodas. Often these two styles are called northern and southern, although their distribution does not always follow geographical boundaries. For example, in Yunnan the northern style predominates, while in Manchuria the southern style is found. These exceptions are due to historical reasons. In Yunnan under the Ming and early Qing, northern influence was very strong, and southern Manchuria was in turn influenced by the south (via sea routes).

The main difference between the two styles is the degree of curvature of the roof and the ornamentation of the ridge and cornice. Southern style roofs are very curved so that the overhanging eaves rise upward like a forge. The roof ridges are often strewn with small figures representing Taoist deities and mythical animals, in such abundance that the lines of the roof itself are lost. The cornices and supports are decorated with carvings and ornamentation, so that there is almost no smooth and “empty” surface left. The most striking examples of this passion for decoration, which influenced the European style of the 18th century, can be seen in Canton and the southern coastal regions. However, they do not cause special admiration, for although the subtlety of carving and decoration in themselves is sometimes admirable, in general the lines of the building are lost, and a general impression of artificiality and overload is created. The Chinese themselves gradually moved away from this style. Even in Canton, many buildings, such as the Kuomintang Memorial Hall, are already built in the northern style.

The northern style is often called palatial, for its best examples are the magnificent buildings of the Forbidden City and the imperial tombs of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The swirl of the roof is softer and more subdued, reminiscent of a tent roof. However, the assumption that this style originates from the famous tents of the Mongol emperors is unfounded. The ornamentation is restrained and less lavish. Small and more stylized figures compared to the southern style can be seen only on the roof ridges. A successful compromise between the overload of the southern style and the stylization of the palaces of Beijing is especially clearly visible in Shanxi. Here the roof ridges are decorated with small but graceful and lively figures of horsemen.

The origins of these two styles are shrouded in mystery. From Han examples and bas-reliefs (the earliest known depictions of buildings) it can be seen that the roofs of that era were only slightly curved, and sometimes there was no curve at all (it is unknown, however, whether this is a consequence of imperfections in the material or the sculptor, or whether it actually reflects the style that time). In Tang reliefs and Song painting, the curvature of the roof is already visible, but it is not as significant as in modern southern buildings. On the other hand, this feature is characteristic of Burmese and Indo-Chinese architecture. Perhaps the Chinese borrowed it from their southern neighbors. In Japan, which inherited the architectural tradition from Tang China, the bend is also insignificant and resembles that inherent in the northern style.

In the calm and austere brick pagodas of the Tang period, everything breathes monumental simplicity. They are almost devoid of any architectural decoration. The protruding corners of numerous roofs form straight and clear lines. The most famous pagoda of the Tang period is Dayanta (Great Wild Goose Pagoda), built within the then capital of Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in 652 - 704. Situated against the backdrop of a mountain range, which seems to frame the entire city, Dayanta is visible from a great distance and towers over the entire surrounding landscape. Heavy and massive, resembling a fortress up close (its dimensions: 25 m at the base and 60 m in height). The weather, thanks to its harmony and elongated proportions, gives the impression of great lightness from a distance. Square in plan (which is typical for this time), Dayanta consists of 7 identical tiers, evenly tapering towards the top and repeating each other, and correspondingly decreasing windows, located one in the center of each tier. This arrangement creates for the viewer, captivated by the almost mathematical rhythm of the pagoda’s proportions, the illusion of an even greater height. Sublime spiritual impulse and intelligence seemed to be combined in the noble simplicity and clarity of this structure, in which the architect, in simple, straight lines and repeating volumes, so freely directed to the top, managed to embody the majestic spirit of his time.

Not all Chinese pagodas are like Dayantha. The more refined and contradictory tastes of the Sung times resulted in a tendency toward more refined and lighter forms. Song pagodas, usually hexagonal and octagonal, are also amazingly beautiful. To this day, located on the highest points, they crown with their slender peaks such picturesque cities, drowning in greenery and surrounded by mountains, as Hangzhou and Suzhou. Very diverse in their shapes and architectural ornaments, they are either covered with glazed slabs, or decorated with a pattern of brick and stone, or decorated with numerous curved roofs that separate tier from tier. They combine elegance and harmony with amazing simplicity and freedom of form. Against the background of the bright blue of the southern sky and the lush green foliage, these huge, forty and sixty-meter light structures seem to be the embodiment and symbol of the radiant beauty of the surrounding world.

IV. Urban planning of Beijing in feudal times. Street layout. "Forbidden City". Palace ensemble Gugun.

The same logical clarity is felt in the architecture of Chinese cities and the layout of urban ensembles. The largest number of wooden urban structures have survived to this day from the 15th to the 17th centuries, when, after the expulsion of the Mongols, intensive construction and restoration of destroyed cities began. From that time on, Beijing became the capital of China, which has preserved many of the architectural monuments of antiquity to this day. By the way, Beijing - Beijing in Chinese (Northern Capital) - has existed for more than 3,000 years. And he didn't change the layout. The growing capital was conceived as a powerful fortress. Massive brick walls (up to 12 meters high) with monumental tower gates surrounded it on all sides. But the symmetry and clarity of the plan did not introduce dryness or monotony into the appearance of Beijing. Beijing has the correct layout of streets. In the form of a grid. The technique of symmetry in Chinese city planning is also inherent and has not changed over time. Artificially dug lakes are symmetrical to each other. Houses in Beijing are built with a facade to the south, and a highway runs from north to south, ending at the northern border of the city. Huge fortress walls with mighty stone gate towers and gates in the form of long tunnels enclosed the city on all sides. Each main street crossing the city abutted against similar gates, located symmetrically opposite each other. The oldest part of Beijing is called the “Inner City”, which in turn is separated from the “Outer City” located to the south by a wall and gates. However, a common highway connected both parts of the capital. All major structures are built along this straight axis. Thus, the entire vast space of the capital was united, organized and subordinated to a single plan.

The main ensemble, located in the center of the “Inner City,” was the huge “Imperial City,” stretching for many kilometers, closed by a ring of walls with powerful gates. Inside it was the Forbidden City (now turned into a museum), also surrounded by walls and a moat. This was the Imperial Palace, where only a select few could enter. The palace was not one building, it was divided into several parts. Wide squares paved with light stone, curved canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn pavilions raised onto terraces revealed their fabulous splendor before the eyes of those who, having passed through a series of massive fortress gates, starting from the Taihemen Gate ("Gate of Heavenly Peace") "), penetrated the palace. The front part of the ensemble consisted of a suite of squares connected to each other by stairs, gates, and pavilions. The entire “Forbidden City” with its multi-colored roofs of palaces, shady gardens and courtyards, corridors and gazebos, countless passages and side branches was a kind of city within a city, in the depths of which were hidden the chambers of the imperial wives, entertainment facilities, a theater stage and much more.

Wide squares paved with light bricks, canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn palace buildings reveal their fabulous splendor before the eyes of those who, passing a series of massive fortress gates, starting from Tiananmen Square, penetrate the palace. The entire ensemble consists of spacious squares and courtyards connected to each other, surrounded by various ceremonial rooms, presenting the viewer with a succession of new and new impressions, growing as it progresses. The entire Forbidden City, surrounded by gardens and parks, is a whole labyrinth with countless side branches, in which narrow corridors lead to quiet sunny courtyards with decorative trees, where ceremonial buildings are replaced in the depths by residential buildings and picturesque gazebos. Along the main axis that crosses the whole of Beijing, the most significant buildings are located in orderly order, standing out among the rest of the buildings of the Forbidden City. These structures, as if raised above the ground by high platforms of white marble, with carved ramps and stairs, form the leading, solemn enfilade of the complex. With the bright rich varnish of their columns and double curved roofs made of golden tiles, the silhouettes of which are repeated and varied, the central pavilions form the overall solemn rhythmic harmony of the entire ensemble.

Beijing. "Forbidden City". General form.

The Gugong palace ensemble, which served as the imperial residence during the Ming and Qing dynasties, has still been preserved. This residence, also known as the "Purple Forbidden City" ("Zi Jin Cheng"), was built in the 4th-18th reign of the Ming Emperor Cheng Zu, which corresponds to 1406-1420. The entire palace complex occupies an area of ​​72 hectares, surrounded on four sides by a wall about 10 m high and a moat 50 m wide. On the territory of the palace complex there are several dozen palace ensembles of various sizes, in total about 9 thousand rooms with a total area of ​​15 thousand square meters. m. This is the grandest and most complete architectural ensemble preserved in China. From the time the Ming Emperor Cheng Zu was installed here, until the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, swept away by the whirlwind of the revolution of 1911, 24 emperors ruled the affairs of the empire here for 491 years.

The Gugun palace ensemble is divided into two large parts: the inner chambers and the outer courtyard. The main structures of the outer courtyard are three large pavilions: Taihedian (Pavilion of Supreme Harmony), Zhonghedian (Pavilion of Complete Harmony) and Baohedian (Pavilion of Harmony Preservation). All of them are built on 8-meter-high foundations, lined with white marble, and from a distance they look like beautiful fairy-tale towers. The most important ceremonial buildings of the Imperial Palace were located on the north-south main axis of Beijing. The halls alternated in orderly order, where the emperors of China held receptions and listened to reports. These were rectangular pavilions, raised onto terraces and topped with two-tier roofs covered with golden tiles.

Each of the buildings had its own name. The main one, Taihedian (“Pavilion of Supreme Harmony”), reflects all the most characteristic features of the wooden architecture of medieval China. Elegance, brightness, and lightness are combined in this structure with simplicity and clarity of form. Tall lacquered red columns mounted on a multi-stage white marble platform, beams crossing them and branched multi-colored brackets - dougong - serve as the basis of the entire structure. A huge two-tier roof rests on them. This roof with wide, curved edges is like the basis of the entire building. Its wide extensions protect the room from the merciless summer heat as well as from the heavy rains that alternate with it. The smoothly curved corners of this roof give the entire building a special festive feeling. Its solemnity is also emphasized by the beauty of the vast carved terrace, on which the next two main halls were erected one after the other. Light walls consisting of openwork wooden partitions serve as screens and have no supporting value. In the Taihedian Pavilion, as in the rest of the central buildings of the palace, the curves of the roofs, as if lightening their weight and width, are distinguished by their smooth calm. They give the entire building a feeling of great lightness and balance, concealing its true dimensions. The grandeur of the scale of the structure is felt mainly in the interior of Taihedian, where the rectangular room is filled with only two rows of smooth columns and its entire length and clear simplicity appear in no way hidden from the eye.

In terms of architecture and decoration, the Taihedian pavilion is a unique example, unmatched not only in comparison with other Gugong pavilions, but, perhaps, in the entire collection of wooden structures of ancient China. The pavilion is 35.5 m high, 63.96 m wide, 37.2 m deep. The roof of the pavilion is supported by 84 wooden columns with a diameter of one meter, six of them surrounding the throne are gilded and decorated with carved images of writhing dragons. The throne stands on a two-meter-high pedestal, in front of which are installed elegant bronze cranes, censers, and tripod vessels; behind the throne is a finely carved screen. The entire decoration of the Taihedian Pavilion is distinguished by its ceremonial splendor and splendor.
The rectangular courtyard, which is located in front of the Taihedian Pavilion, occupies an area of ​​more than 30 thousand square meters. m. It is completely naked - there is neither a tree nor any decorative structure. Whenever during palace ceremonies, rows of armed guards lined up in this courtyard in strict order, and civil and military dignitaries knelt in order of subordination. Incense smoke rose from numerous tripods and censers, adding to the already mysterious atmosphere surrounding the emperor.

The Zhonghedian Pavilion served as a place where the emperor rested before the start of the ceremonies, and rehearsals of the etiquette ritual were also held here. The Baohedian Pavilion served as a place where on New Year's Eve the emperor held banquets to which vassal princes were invited. This pavilion, like the Zhonghedian Pavilion, is a structure made entirely of wood.

Inner chambers. The rear half of the Gugun palace ensemble housed internal chambers. The palaces of Qianqinggong, Jiaotaidian and Kunninggong are lined up along the central axis, with six eastern and six western palaces located on both sides of them. The chambers of the emperor, members of the imperial family, his wives and concubines were located here.

In terms of volume, the Qianqinggong, Jiao Taidian and Kunninggong palaces are significantly inferior to the three large pavilions of the outer courtyard. The emperor's bedchamber was located in the Qianqinggong Palace. Here the emperor was engaged in daily government affairs, looking through documents, making orders. On holidays, feasts were held here, to which the emperor invited his dignitaries. The Kunninggong Palace housed the empress's chambers. Jiao Taidian Palace, located between the Qianqinggong and Kunninggong palaces, served as a hall for family celebrations. During the Ming and Qing times, it was in this hall that celebrations on the occasion of the empress’s birthday were held. During the Qing Dynasty, the imperial seal was kept here.

Empress Dowager Cixi, who ruled China for more than 40 years, lived in Chuxiugong Palace, one of the six Western palaces. On the occasion of her 50th anniversary, she undertook the renovation of two palaces - Chushugun and Ikungun. 1 million 250 thousand lians of silver were spent on repair work and gifts to dignitaries and servants.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Gugong Palace served as the political center of the Chinese Empire. The emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, who lived in this palace for more than five hundred years, did not occupy the same apartments all the time. On a whim or believing that one or another part of the palace was “unlucky,” they moved to another place, and sometimes even abandoned and sealed the chambers of their predecessors. Darlin, one of the princesses close to Cixi, told how one day the Empress Dowager was making her rounds and saw buildings that were locked and unused for so long that the grass and bushes made it impossible to approach them. She was told that no one remembers why this palace was abandoned, but they suggested that one of the members of the imperial family had once died here from an infectious disease. No one from the palace ever visited the abandoned apartments.

V . Temples of Beijing.

Beijing's temples were also located in large complexes. The majestic Tiantan ("Temple of Heaven"), built between 1420 and 1530 in the "Outer City", consists of a number of buildings lined up one after another over a vast area and surrounded by a ring of greenery. These are two temples and a white marble stepped altar on which sacrifices were made. The grandiose temple ensemble was associated with the ancient religious rites of the Chinese, who revered heaven and earth as givers of the harvest. This was reflected in the originality of the architectural design. The round terraces of the altar and the blue conical roofs of the temples symbolized the sky, while the square territory of the ensemble symbolized the earth. Despite the different form of the buildings than in the Forbidden City, the same enfilading principle of their location prevailed here too. The viewer, walking the entire long path from the gates to the temples through a row of white carved arches, gradually got used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending the beauty of each structure.

The tallest building, Qingyandian (“Temple of Prayer for a Rich Harvest”), topped with a deep blue three-tiered cone-shaped roof, is elevated on a triple white marble terrace. A small temple with a single-tier roof seems to echo this structure, repeating its shape.

An unprecedented spatial scale is also felt in the burial complex of the Ming emperors Shisanling (“13 tombs”), built near Beijing in the 15th–17th centuries. The path to these burials was decorated with special solemnity. It started from afar and was marked by a series of gates and arches, which, in turn, led to the huge Alley of Spirits, 800 meters long, framed on both sides by monumental stone statues of the guardians of the deceased - twenty-four figures of animals and twelve figures of officials and warriors. The burials themselves included many structures: a burial mound with an underground palace full of treasures, temples, towers, arches. Situated at the foot of the mountains, the austere and monumental buildings were picturesquely included in the surrounding landscape.

VI . Architectural styles of summer palaces.

Although the private quarters of the Forbidden City were vast and varied, the emperors found the city's summer air too unhealthy. Since ancient times, the court moved to special country residences for the summer. Their construction gave rise to a new, less formal architectural style. Qin Shi Huangdi, as already mentioned, had many summer palaces in the surrounding parks, which at the same time served as hunting estates. His example was followed by the Han and Tang emperors, and especially by the restless builder Yan Di, the second Emperor Sui. Although no trace remains of their palaces and parks, historians' descriptions show that they were planned in exactly the same way as Qianlong's Yuanmingyuan, ten miles from Beijing - a vast park with numerous palaces and pavilions, destroyed by English and French soldiers in 1860. The modern Summer Palace, restored by Cixi in the 90s of the 19th century, only faintly resembles the original.

If in the official “imperial cities”, the last of which was the Forbidden City in Beijing, pomp and severity intertwined in symmetrical harmony prevailed, in the “summer palaces” grace and charm prevailed. If there were no hills and lakes, then they were created, regardless of cost, so that all forms of landscape were present to suit every taste. Trees were specially planted or replanted, as was the case under the Sui Yan-di, who ordered large trees to be delivered from afar on special carts. Magnificent landscapes imitated the paintings of painters.

Among forests and streams, on the shores of lakes and hillsides, pavilions were built harmoniously connected with the surroundings. It would seem that they are scattered randomly, but in fact they are according to a carefully thought-out plan. Each of them was supplied with everything necessary, so that the emperor could go to any of them at will and find everything prepared for his appearance.

They tried to emulate the luxury of imperial palaces, on a smaller scale, in both city and country houses of wealthy families. No one - with the possible exception of the British - could surpass the Chinese in the art of creating gardens and country residences. The Chinese, despite their large and populous cities, have always been closely connected with rural life and have always loved natural beauty. Since ancient times in China there has been a belief in the high purifying moral meaning of being in solitude among the mountains. Taoist sages lived on the wooded slopes of high mountains and refused to come down, even if the emperor himself offered them the highest honors. Many prominent scientists and poets lived in the outback for years, only occasionally visiting cities. The feeling of horror before wild nature, so characteristic of Europeans, was unknown to the Chinese.

VII . The city wall is an integral part of Chinese urban planning.

Every Chinese city was surrounded by a wall. The inseparability of the concept of “wall” from the concept of “city” was expressed in the fact that they were denoted by the same word “cheng”. Naturally, the city walls, which gave the city its status, were treated with the utmost care and attention. Therefore, city walls in China represent a completely unique type of architectural structure. They are perhaps the most impressive and durable than anywhere else in the world.

The art of building walls reached its perfection in the north, which was most often attacked by nomads. The walls of Beijing, built at the beginning of the 15th century during the Ming dynasty, deservedly enjoy universal fame. The same high and strong walls can be found everywhere in the northwestern provinces, and especially in Shaanxi, where they surrounded every county town. Modern walls were mostly built during the Ming. After the expulsion of the Mongols, the Chinese emperors of this dynasty found it necessary to restore the city fortifications in the northern provinces, which had fallen into disrepair during the rule of nomads in the north.
In the layout of cities and fortifications, two styles can also be traced: northern and southern. In the north, where builders had a lot of free space and flat areas, cities were built in the shape of a rectangle. The city was divided into four parts by two straight streets intersecting in the center. With the exception of the largest cities, there were only four gates within the walls, one on each side. At the intersection of two main streets there was a lookout tower with four gates, so that in case of riot or disorder, each street could be isolated from the others. The three-story, pagoda-like tower that crowned the gate housed the soldiers, and there was also a huge drum that served as the city clock. It was hit at regular intervals.

The location of the gates and the two main streets was distinguished by regularity and symmetry, which cannot be said about the streets crossing residential areas, twisting and bending between houses. It is rare to see a division between rich and poor neighborhoods in a Chinese city. Next to rich houses, with many courtyards and gardens, poor shacks with one courtyard are crowded on the same line. If one part of the city is more prone to flooding after the summer rains than another, it is natural that wealthy people will avoid the low part of the city, although there may be large houses next to the dwellings of the poor.

In the north, city walls were erected to protect themselves not only from enemies, but also from floods. At the base of the wall was a thick layer of hard clay, which was covered on the outer and inner sides with very large bricks, reaching a thickness of 4-5 inches. The top of the wall was also lined with bricks. The walls were built truncated at the top; if at the base the thickness reached 40 feet, then at the top it was no more than 20–25 feet. The height of the walls varied, but in the cities of Shanxi, Beijing and Chang'an they reached 60 feet. Bastions were built at a distance of 50–100 yards from the wall, the perimeter of the upper part of which reached 40 feet. At the foot of the bastions there was a ditch; between the ditch, the wall and the towers there was a strip of unoccupied land.

Towers were built at all four corners of the wall and above the gates. The corner towers were reinforced on the outside with bricks and had loopholes for firing. The towers above the gates, similar to three-tiered pagodas, only rectangular in shape, were most often built of wood and covered with tiles. In these towers, which very clearly characterized the city's architecture, the soldiers who guarded the gates lived, and during the war they served as a post for shooters and archers. The towers above Beijing Gate are 99 Chinese feet high. According to Chinese beliefs, spirits usually fly at a height of one hundred feet, so the towers were specially designed to reach maximum heights while avoiding encounters with otherworldly forces.

The gates of the main cities were usually protected by semicircular outer fortifications, which contained an outer gate at right angles to the open main gate. Thus, if the outer gate was attacked, the main passage remained protected. The suburbs outside the outer gates were also surrounded by an embankment wall, not reinforced with bricks, more to protect themselves from robbers than to defend the city. Until the advent of modern artillery, the walls remained virtually indestructible. Their thickness doomed any attempt to undermine or bomb them. Climbing such high walls was also very difficult and dangerous. A defended city could withstand the attack of a huge army, and Chinese history is replete with tales of famous sieges and heroic defenses. The blockade and famine could have broken the resistance more quickly, since the city depended on food supplies from the villages.

The city walls in the north and northwest of China were superior in every respect to the fortifications of the southern cities. In the south, only a few cities could be built symmetrically and on a large scale, which was determined both by the high value of the land on which rice could be sown and by the uneven surface, different from the northern plains. The streets are narrow and winding, the walls are low, although often stone, the gates are not wide. Wheeled transport was not common in the south. The streets were full of loaded mules, palanquins, porters and wheelbarrows, so there was no need to build wide passages. In Canton, for example, only two people could walk side by side on many streets. The main means of transport in the south was a boat, and people came to the city by land only from the outskirts. In addition, the south was not attacked as often, so less attention was paid to fortifications.

A great work of human hands, built from the 4th - 3rd centuries BC, and which is one of the most majestic monuments of world architecture - the Great Wall of China. Built along the northern border of China to protect the country from nomads and cover fields from the desert sands, the wall initially extended for 750 km, then, after centuries of additions, it exceeded 3000 km. Chinese architects built a wall only along the steepest ridges. Therefore, in some places the wall makes such sharp turns that the walls almost touch. The wall is 5 to 8 meters wide and 5 to 10 meters high. Along the surface of the wall there are battlements and a road along which soldiers could move. Turrets are placed along the entire perimeter, every 100 - 150 meters, to provide light warning of the approach of the enemy. The wall was first assembled from compacted wood and reeds, then it was lined with gray brick.

VIII . Conclusion.

Chinese architecture from the 15th to 17th centuries is full of grandeur. In the architecture of subsequent centuries it is still preserved, but a growing craving for pomp and abundance of decorative decoration gradually takes over. Incense burners and vases, carved gates and park sculptures become an integral part of numerous complexes. Sophisticated intricacy characterizes the design of the countryside imperial palace of Yiheyuan (“Garden of Serenity”) with its curving light through galleries, arched bridges spanning ponds, fancy gazebos and pagodas made of porcelain, copper, wood and stone.

Architectural structures of the 18th - 19th centuries, while continuing to develop the traditions of the past, at the same time differ from the more austere spirit of previous periods in their significantly increased splendor and greater connection with decorative arts. Yiheyuan Country Park, located near Beijing, is all built up with light, fancy gazebos, numerous with ornamental sculptures. The desire for ornamentation, for the detailed development of individual architectural motifs, the fusion of decorative and applied and monumental forms are gradually preparing a departure from the monumental nature of the architecture of past periods. However, at this time numerous restoration work was carried out. The Temple of Heaven was restored, the Forbidden City was restored, preserving its original majestic spirit. During the same period, such beautiful, perfect in form and picturesque buildings as the Changlan Gallery (long gallery) in Yiheyuan Park, humpbacked marble bridges, forming like a closed ring together with their reflection, etc., were built. However, by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the ever-increasing pretentiousness and whimsicality of patterns led to the loss of the organic connection between the ornament and the shape of the building. The 19th century was the final stage in the development of the brilliant and original architecture of China.

Bibliography

1. "Country Studies of China", Publishing House "Ant", M., 1999

2. Alimov I.A., Ermakov M.E., Martynov A.S. The Middle State: An Introduction to Traditional Culture of China. M.: Publishing House “Ant”, 1998

3. Kravtsova M.: E. History of Chinese culture: Textbook. manual for universities. St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999..

4. Malyavin V.V. China in the XVI-XVII centuries: Tradition and culture. M.: Art, 1995.

China is the largest country in Asia; its civilization has existed since the 4th millennium BC. e. and belongs to the most developed in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Over several thousand years of existence, Chinese culture has produced wonderful works of art and many useful inventions. Classical Chinese literature, philosophy and art have reached extraordinary heights.

Already in the third millennium BC. e. in China there was a fairly developed culture, the first flourishing period of which dates back to the reign of the Shang dynasty (about 1300 BC), which replaced the Yangshao culture (mid-III millennium BC - mid-II millennium BC .).

The first monuments of ancient Chinese culture were discovered during excavations in the 20s. of our century. They give an idea of ​​the culture of Yangshao (mid-III millennium BC - mid-II millennium BC), which was replaced by monuments of the Shang (Yin) era (c. 16th-11th centuries BC) .

It was mythological stage development of philosophical thought. The main ideas were about heaven, which gives life, and about the earthly principle, as well as the cult of ancestors, spirits of heaven and earth, which intricately combined the features of animals, birds and people. They made sacrifices of wine and meat, for which special ritual vessels were cast from bronze. The original forms of hieroglyphic writing were also discovered on vessels of the Shang (Yin) type.

In the XII-III centuries. BC e. The mythological stage in the development of ideas about nature ends. Exercises are developing Taoism And Confucianism, which revealed the theme of the world and man in it in a new way. The mythological deities themselves began to be perceived more conventionally, but the image of a person became more specific. In vessels of the V-III centuries. BC e. Whole scenes of labor, hunting, and harvesting appear.

Chinese culture reached its highest rise during the reign of the Zhou dynasty, which lasted about 8 centuries (until the 3rd century BC).

Gate of Mind Cultivation

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the unity of the empire was disrupted for several centuries. Only in the VI century. BC e. its new unification takes place. During this period, waging wars of conquest, the Chinese penetrated far beyond the borders of their empire, influencing the culture of other peoples, at the same time experiencing their influence. An example of this is penetration from India Buddhism, which attracted people of that time by its appeal to the inner spiritual world of man, by the thought of the inner kinship of all living things.. Along with it, new types of religious buildings appear.

In China, the first pagodas and rock monasteries are being built, consisting of hundreds of large and small grottoes in the thickness of the rock. The visitor walked along shaky floorings and looked inside the grottoes, from where Buddha statues looked at him. Some giants, reaching 15-17 meters in height, can still be seen due to the collapse of the front walls of the grottoes. The paintings of temples of that time amaze with the inspiration of the masters in depicting Buddhist subjects. In the Tang era (VII-X centuries), landscape motifs appeared in paintings. Nature becomes not only a background, but also an object of worship.

This attitude towards landscape was preserved in the Song era (X-XIII centuries), when this genre of painting became the highest expression of the spiritual quest of Chinese artists. According to the beliefs of that time, the world - man and nature - is united in its laws. Its essence is in the interaction of two principles - “yin” (water) and “yang” (mountains).

In 1127, the entire north of the country was captured by nomadic Jurchen tribes. The rulers of China had to retreat to the south, where a new capital, Hangzhou, was founded. The shame of defeat and longing for the abandoned lands largely determined the mood of the art of the 12th-13th centuries. Nature became, as it were, the only consolation in sadness, and new features arose in its interpretation. It becomes more proportionate to the person.

The development of Chinese architecture was manifested in the construction of palaces, monasteries, and temples. Materials other than stone were wood, bamboo, reed, clay, as well as terracotta, faience, and porcelain.

The coming to power of the first emperor from the Han dynasty (from 206 BC to 220 AD) was of great importance not only for the unification of a huge empire, the borders of which have not changed since then, but also for the development of Chinese culture that has become the basis of the Chinese worldview until today.

Works of art depict glorious moments of past history, extol virtues, and condemn vices. At the same time, creators of works of art often draw their inspiration from nature.

The Han era (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD) is famous for its funeral complexes, to which “roads of spirits” led, framed by statues of mythological animals. Underground burials, decorated with reliefs and paintings, were also marked by above-ground buildings, which were decorated with flat reliefs inside. If in general the development of art is characterized by a tendency towards abstraction from reality, then during the Han period special attention was focused on depicting the surrounding reality.

As a result of the penetration of Buddhism from India, new types of religious buildings appeared in China. These are, first of all, pagodas, which are towers made of brick or stone, having several tiers with protruding roofs, and in addition, cave temples similar to Indian ones.

Just like in India, in China, under the influence of bamboo structures, some the architectural forms took on a peculiar character, for example, the corners of the roof were raised, and the roof itself turned out to be slightly bent.

At the beginning of our chronology, new large cities arise, and the construction of palaces, which were entire complexes of buildings with pavilions, gates and pools in the middle of architecturally elaborate parks, again became an important task. The Chinese are characterized by a special love for nature, manifested in a sensitive attitude towards it and the perception of it as an important part of the living environment. This is expressed in the construction of temples, united in symmetrical complexes, surrounded by landscaped gardens, in which there are separate pagodas.

In addition to cities, temples and palaces, hydraulic structures, canals and dams were built.

the great Wall of China

An outstanding technical structure was the Great Wall of China, the construction of which took several generations.

The Great Wall of China is the oldest surviving monument of Chinese architecture, dating back earlier than the 3rd century. BC e., when (after 228 BC) the Emperor Qing-shi Huang-ti, who unified China, built part of the Great Wall of China. The ability to produce such complex buildings in the 3rd century. BC e. indicates a long preceding period of development of Chinese architecture.

Throughout Chinese history, there have been three main walls, each 10,000 li (5,000 km) long. Some sections of the defensive wall had been built even before that in various small kingdoms in the north that were at war with each other.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (or Qin Shi Huang), considered one of the greatest despots in history, recruited an army of peasants, soldiers, criminals and political prisoners to renovate damaged areas and connect these areas. This is how a continuous rampart arose, running through the mountains along the border of his empire.

The wall was intended as a fortification against the raids of the warlike nomadic Mongols from the north, and also, in all likelihood, as proof of the power and greatness of the emperor. Thousands of Confucian scholars, branded and shackled, ensured the timely completion of the work. In the popular consciousness, this great building appeared as a “wailing wall.” One old legend tells that the wall was destroyed by the tears of a loving wife for her husband who died at a construction site.

The Second Wall was built during the reign of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) in order to protect against the Huns, who made regular raids into Chinese territory and damaged the Wall built by Qin Shi Huang. In 607 AD. During the Sui Dynasty, the structure was reconstructed. During this period, a million workers were employed in construction, and half of them died.

About 1 million people were already sent to the construction of the third wall (Ming Dynasty 1368-1644), then the wall acquired its present appearance. During construction, special attention was paid to ensuring that each of the towers of the Wall was visible from the two neighboring ones. From its watchtowers, with the help of drums, smoke signals, and at night - with signal lights - it was possible to disseminate information throughout the country with a speed never before possible. In addition, along the entire length from the Wall to the central city, at a distance of one horse ride from each other, there were small strongholds where a messenger with urgent news could change horses.

The total length of the wall exceeds 5 thousand km. It is laid along the highest and most inaccessible mountain ranges, like a ridge grown into their stone flesh. Designed to protect the borders of the Chinese Empire from nomads raiding from the north, the Great Wall of China stretched along numerous treeless hills from the Mongolian borders almost to Beijing.

The thoughtful decision made her almost impregnable. The name “wall” is not accurate, since in reality it was a fortification structure 6.5 m high and 6 m wide at the base (it narrowed by 1 m towards the top), which included a defensive rampart and watchtowers placed every 120 m. The outer cladding is made of stone and brick, and the interior is filled with compacted clay, the total volume of which is about 180 million square meters. m.

The military significance of the wall, when it was staffed with troops corresponding to its length, became enormous. The wall was not only a rampart, but also a road. Its width is 5.5 meters; this allowed five infantrymen to march side by side or five cavalrymen to ride side by side. Even today, its average height is nine meters, and the height of the watchtowers is twelve meters. Over the centuries, however, it was abandoned and collapsed. In the recent past, parts of it were restored for tourists.

The Great Wall of China is a symbol of China for both the Chinese and foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the wall there is an inscription, The Wall is truly a symbol of China both for the Chinese themselves and for foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the Wall you can see an inscription made by order of Mao Zedong - “If you have not visited the Great Wall of China, you are not a real Chinese.” The Great Wall of China is an extremely impressive structure. It has withstood the influence of wind and bad weather for many centuries.

Architecture of the Han period (III century BC - III century AD)

We have a clearer idea of ​​the architecture of the Han period (III century BC - III century AD). Thanks to clay models of houses, towers, etc. found in burials, we got an idea of ​​the type of buildings of this era. In 1933, a whole ensemble of clay models of dwellings was excavated in Henan province, giving a vivid idea of ​​the estate of a small feudal lord of the Han era. We can judge the true architecture of the Han era only from the paired stone pylons that were placed in front of some burial sites.

Entirely preserved architectural monuments date back no earlier than the 6th century. n. e. From this period until the 20th century. works of Chinese architecture can be divided into two main chronological groups.

To the first group include architectural monuments from the 6th to the 17th centuries; The main features of the style of these monuments are monumentality and the predominance of constructive forms over the decorative side. In the monuments of the last three centuries, architecture loses its monumental character; the significance of the decorative and ornamental element is enhanced; finally, there is an overload of buildings with ornamental details, crushing and fragmentation of architectural forms. The architecture of the first period reflects the ideology of feudal society; architecture of the second period - the ideology of the bourgeoisie, emerging in the depths of the feudal formation, and from the 15th century. The influence of European architecture can already be traced.

The oldest monument of Chinese architecture that has come down to us in its entirety and is precisely dated (523) is Songyuesi Pagoda in Songshan, in Henan province. It is built on a twelve-sided base and has fifteen floors; ends in a small stupa. In this last circumstance and in the use of arches over niches of a pointed horseshoe shape, one can see the influence of Indian art, introduced along with Buddhism, adopted by the top of the aristocracy.

Architecture of the Tang era (618-906), when China experienced great development of literature and art, it is also represented mainly by pagodas. The pagodas of this period are characterized by majestic and monumental forms, the originality of their verticalism, softened by a number of horizontal projections. The materials used to build pagodas in this era are stone and brick.

An example of stone pagodas is the one built in 681. three-story pagoda in Xiang-ji-si, near Xianfu. This pagoda is distinguished by its simplicity and austerity of form, devoid of decoration, except for the teeth on the cornices. One of the most remarkable brick pagodas is “ Big Wild Goose Pagoda", built in 652. This pagoda stands on a high terrace and is up to 60 m high. Its general appearance resembles an elongated pyramid with a truncated top. The impressive effect of the "Wild Geese Tower" is achieved by well-balanced proportions, a massive form, enhanced by the position of the pagoda on a natural elevation.

Architecture of the Song period (960-1280) It is also represented exclusively by pagodas. Other types of architecture of the Song era have not reached us. A characteristic feature of the Song period are iron and bronze pagodas, which represent a unique feature of Chinese architecture. Dating back to the 10th century. the thirteen-story iron pagoda at Tan-yang-hsiang on the Yangtze provides a number of new features of the little-studied southern Chinese style. In particular, one can note in it a previously unobserved motif of a roof, bent in parts over individual floors, and a more detailed ornamental cutting of the edges.

About architecture of the Ming era (XIV - XVII centuries) we have a much better idea, since from this era, especially from its second half, quite a significant number of not only pagodas, but also other religious and civil buildings have reached us. Architecture of the Minsk period until the second half of the 16th century. is still of a strict monumental nature and largely repeats earlier examples, but from the end of the 16th century. enters a new phase, which lasts from the 17th to the 19th centuries. and is usually characterized as “associated with bourgeois ideology,” and starting from the 18th century. and with influences from European art.

The Temple of Heaven was built during the Ming Dynasty in 1420, when Emperor Yong Le moved the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. Over the next five centuries, imperial prayer services with sacrifices to the glory of Heaven were held here on the day of the winter solstice with a request to send down a good harvest.

Particularly characteristic of this period is the widespread development of the architectural ensemble; a residential estate, temple, palace, etc. are a well-organized architectural complex, planned according to a certain system. The rules of “geomancy” established by religious tradition were of great importance both in the construction of individual buildings and in the planning of architectural ensembles. The so-called “ Feng Shui"(wind and water).

This was the name of a pseudoscientific system that teaches how temples, cemeteries and residential buildings should be located in order to place them under the protection of favorable conditions and protect them from harmful ones. According to the rules of geomancy, the orientation of buildings along the north-south axis, accepted since ancient times, was established with the most important parts facing south - in the direction of the most favored nation.

“Feng Shui” did not lose its importance even after the introduction of Buddhism and played a role in the construction of buildings throughout the feudal period. The slowness of changes in the architectural type of buildings was also determined by strict state regulation of construction.

Analyzing the architectural ensembles of the early Ming era, let us first look at the plan Beijing (Beiping), organized according to the same basic principle as the residential, palace and temple complexes. Beijing is a typical example of a large Chinese city, which was formed in its main features by the beginning of the 15th century. Beijing is a complex of three cities, surrounded by a common wall up to 12 m high and up to 20-24 m wide.

These cities are as follows: the Manchurian, or Tatar city, the length of whose walls reaches 23 km, inside it there is the so-called forbidden city, surrounded by a special wall, with the entire mass of buildings of the former imperial palace; and finally, the third is a Chinese city, the length of whose walls is about 16 km; in the middle of it, along the north-south axis, runs the main street; in its southern part there are extensive temple ensembles located among shady parks: the Temple of Heaven and the Temple of Agriculture. The powerful walls of Beijing have numerous bastions, grandiose towers with gates of a simple and stately style.

Moving on to the consideration of palace ensembles, let us take for example such a complex complex as the former imperial palace in beijing, which was later imitated when planning other architectural ensembles. Here the layout along the north-south axis is observed in accordance with the rules of geomancy; on the sides of this axis there are a number of buildings, and between them there are palaces, arches, etc. The buildings are buildings with galleries on columns surrounding them; the double curved roofs of these buildings are covered with colored tiles. The architectural ensemble here is closely connected with the landscape; here everything is buried in the greenery of gardens, so that the structure of the architectural complex can be perceived by the viewer only when he passes through the entire ensemble.

The same architectural composition and the same type of buildings are repeated on a smaller scale in other palace and temple ensembles. Regarding temple buildings, it should be noted that Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same type.

At the end of the Ming period, approximately from Wang-Li era (1573-1619), elements of a new style are beginning to take shape in Chinese architecture. Using the example of the one founded at the beginning of the 15th century. and later, the ensemble of the former imperial palace was repeatedly rebuilt (XVII - XIX centuries), one can observe how the architecture enters a new phase, how the buildings, during reconstruction, begin to acquire complex details, elaborate ornaments, as a result of which they lose their original monumental character.

A very striking manifestation of the new style can be buildings on the sacred Buddhist mountain Wu-tai-shan, in Shanxi province. The terrace with five bronze pagodas represents the victory of new trends in Chinese art; we see here lavishly decorated roofs, complex, bizarrely shaped stupas; Everywhere there is lace of abundant and complex ornamentation - an element of a kind of “Chinese Baroque”.

In the 18th century these decorative and ornamental trends continue in an aggravated and more developed form. At this time, construction in the European style arose in China, which, however, had little influence on the further development of Chinese architecture in terms of plans and designs, but in some ways affected details, ornamentation, and decoration.

In the 40s of the XVIII century. French architects near Beiping built the summer palace Yuan-ming-yuan in the European Baroque style, of which only ruins now remain. From approximately this time, the reverse influence began - Chinese architecture on European architecture, which was felt in the 18th century. buildings “in the Chinese style”.

Auguste Choisy. History of architecture. Auguste Choisy. Histoire De L'Architecture

The flow of influences, the direction of which we traced from Mesopotamia to Persia and from Persia to India, did not stop there: the history of Chinese art does not stand alone in the overall picture of the development of architecture. Chinese architecture, apparently, is connected with Mesopotamia. In turn, the influence of Chinese art on other countries, despite China's tendency to isolate itself, was extremely widespread, and this should be taken into account. Since ancient times, as a result of trade relations, Chinese ornamental forms also spread along with Chinese products. Thanks to the common Buddhist religion, constant relations between China and India were established over several centuries, which were reflected in architecture; in short, China has never been a world completely closed in on itself.

The Forbidden City in the center of Beijing, the main palace complex of Chinese emperors from the 15th to the beginning of the 20th century. Ming era drawing

Note: The hypothesis about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture was put forward in the 70s of the 19th century. French scientist Therrien de Lacoupery. This superficial and unsubstantiated theory is currently not supported by anyone. Nowadays, the prevailing opinion in science is that the bulk of the Chinese population has lived in China since ancient times. This is confirmed by the results of recent excavations. Excavations by the Swedish scientist Anderson were carried out in the early 20s of the 20th century. (See his work “An Earby Chinese Culture.” Peking. 1923). Stone tools, painted ceramics made using a potter's wheel were found; a culture of the third millennium BC dating back to the Neolithic period was discovered.

Historically, trade relations between China and the West can be established no earlier than in the 3rd century. BC e. The era of the Han Dynasty (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD) dates back to China's trade relations with Central Asia, Arsacid-era Persia, India and Rome. The first acquaintance of the Chinese with Buddhism dates back to the middle of the 1st century. n. e., but Buddhism received any significant spread in China only starting from the 3rd century. n. e.

Along with the history of Chinese art, we will also look at the art of Japan that grew out of it. Japanese architecture is more graceful and free in its forms, but, apparently, has the same constructive techniques as Chinese art. The uniqueness of each people was manifested only in the particular application of these methods.

Note: Despite the fact that the architecture of China and Japan has some common features, and that China in other periods had a significant influence on the development of Japanese art and Japanese architecture, Choisy’s attempt to consider the art of China and Japan together cannot be considered correct. The art of each country should be considered on the basis of studying the socio-economic development of a given country, in connection with other manifestations of ideology: religion, literature, etc.

CONSTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES

In China, as in Ancient India, almost exclusively wooden buildings are built. This happens not because there is a shortage of stone, but due to the abundance of resin-rich forest species suitable for construction. Wooden architecture best suits the utilitarian worldview of a country that does not look into the future. In Japan, with its volcanic soil, where buildings are constantly threatened by tremors, wood construction is quite natural. In both countries, stone and brick are used only for parts of buildings exposed to dampness.

APPLICATION OF STONE AND BRICK

The Japanese, who have at their disposal mainly stones of volcanic origin, that is, stones without a layered structure, use predominantly polygonal masonry. The Chinese, having rocks that split into layers, usually use this property for proper laying in rows.

In Japan, courses of masonry are rarely horizontal. In a longitudinal section, the masonry is a curve, concave towards the ground. A form of this kind was considered a guarantee against earthquakes; however, it is possible that in Japan, as in Egypt, this form was simply the result of the use of string to level the masonry.

Rice. 126

China and Japan are countries with a highly developed ceramic industry; For a long time, brick production there has reached rare perfection. Back in the 3rd century BC. BC, when European peoples used exclusively unbaked bricks laid on clay, minor parts of the Great Wall of China were built from baked bricks or, at least, faced with baked bricks on a layer of clay as a mortar. When constructing the walls of Chinese houses, solid brickwork is rarely used; hollow walls have a dual advantage: they require less building materials and better protect against sudden temperature fluctuations. Figure 126 depicts, according to Chambers' description, a method of wall masonry used in Canton until the 18th century.

Note: Excavations by the Swedish scientist Andersen in the 20s of the XX century. The presence of painted ceramics has been established as early as the third millennium BC. White ceramics with a “thunder line” decoration, as on bronzes of the same era, date back to the second millennium. From the Han era to our time, one can trace the continuous change in the style and technique of Chinese ceramics, which, along with Greek, is the most outstanding type of this branch of applied art.

The wedge vault, alien to India, has been used in China for a long time. Two examples of its use at the gates of Beijing date back to the 13th century, which corresponds to the testimony of Marco Polo. But, apparently, the Chinese only knew the box vault; the spherical vault, that is, the dome, was probably completely unknown to them.

WOODEN STRUCTURES AND COLORS

Masonry is usually limited to the foundations of houses; the body of the building is made of wood. In Japan, in order to protect against earthquakes, the wooden parts of the building are left separate from the stone foundation: the wooden structure rests on its foundation, without being connected to it in any way. A characteristic feature of Japanese and Chinese wooden architecture, which distinguishes it from the architecture of other countries we have studied, are inclined floors.

In Egypt, Persia, even in India, roofs are usually terraces, poorly suited for water drainage. China, with its rainy climate, requires roofs that provide complete drainage for rainwater.

China is the first Asian country to systematically begin to use roofs with steep slopes. In simple buildings, the roofs are covered with thatch, shingles or bamboo trunks, split and laid one on top of the other like grooved tiles.

Rice. 127

Structures of greater importance are covered with tiles ( figure 127), the shape of which, having a profile in the form of a French letter S, greatly simplifies installation. To protect against the destructive effects of wind, the tiles are laid on a layer of mortar, and for even greater strength, the outer seams are also covered with mortar, forming small rollers B. In all cases, lathing with a larger or smaller angle of inclination is required to support the roof.

In China and Japan, lathing is used from two types of materials: from tree trunks with a fibrous structure or from wood species with hollow trunks, such as bamboo. For ordinary sheathing, only materials of the first kind are suitable, and since tree trunks usually bend more or less under the influence of the winds that exist in these countries, curved lines play a significant role in these structures. As for bamboo, it is only suitable for lathing, made by strapping - a kind of architectural wickerwork, which is widespread throughout East Asia from Japan to the islands of Oceania.

Bamboo structures.- Let's consider, first of all, structures made of bamboo, i.e., made of reed, the durable part of which is only the outer shell. On Figure 128 shows methods of linking the main parts of the structure: pillar, tie and horizontal beam; the top of the post has the shape of a “fork”, the teeth of which pass through the tightening and at the same time hold the longitudinal crossbar; the rafter legs are attached with a rope placed on through tenons.

When trunks with hollow wood are used instead of hollow bamboo trunks, the connection is made by means of a through cut A and, for stability of the corners, it is secured with struts made of flexible wood.

Rice. 128 Rice. 129

In light structures, built from small wooden parts, the walls are formed from posts dug into the ground and connected by transverse struts, secured with simple ropes; The roof structure of such buildings, in addition to rafters and sheathing, also includes oblique ties that divide it into triangles or serve as corner rafters that form the ridge of the roof. Just look at figure 129 to understand how easily this type of construction allows not only to remove the roof ridge, but also to leave a gap R, intended simultaneously for ventilation and lighting.

In small buildings, the roof structure is reduced to the elements shown in figure 130: corner rafters A, horizontal tie S and sheathing of poles. These latter rest with one end against the rafter leg A, the other against the tie S; It should be noted that the tie tied with a rope cannot be in the same plane with the rafters. As a result, the sheathing cannot form a flat slope, and a concave curved line is inevitably formed, raised towards the corners.

Rice. 130

The raised edges of the roof (a bizarre shape so characteristic of Chinese and Japanese roofs) are the result of a fastening system using ropes, which does not allow the tie-rods and rafters to be assembled on the same plane. The taste of the builder could emphasize this feature of purely geometric origin, but imagination did not play any role in the creation.

Note: The curved curves of the roof are not the original covering in Chinese architecture and do not at all reproduce the roof of a nomadic tent, as some scholars have argued. As we see in clay models of Han era dwellings found during burial excavations, the roofs of houses in this era were not yet curved, so curved roofs appeared later than the Han era and, apparently, not earlier than the Tang era (618-907 AD .).

Wooden structures carpentry work.- Wooden structures, in which instead of thin trunks, solid or hollow, a material processed by carpentry is used, nevertheless they are influenced by bamboo structures, representing almost their variety. On Figure 131 Several examples are given, borrowed from the Chinese treatise “On the Art of Construction” (Kong Ching-tso-fa).

Rice. 131

Support structure- usually made of round timber, consists of vertical posts connected by means of tenons to horizontal purlins. There are no inclined connections that prevent the deformation of our wooden structures. The only guarantee of stability is the strength of the spikes. The stability of our wooden structures is ensured by triangular joints that are not subject to deformation; The Chinese, for this purpose, resort to rigid rectangular structures.

Thus, instead of one pillar held in a vertical position with the help of struts, we have ( see figure 131) paired risers, such as P and P, connected in their upper part by a T beam and thus forming a rigid and fairly stable system. In Figure A, the main vertical post R passes through two floors, and on the first floor this post is duplicated by an external counter post S, and on the second floor by an internal counter post N, which has a fulcrum on the ceiling beams of the lower floor.

The roof consists of round timber posts and horizontal purlins of rectangular cross-section, reminiscent in form, if not in purpose, of our carpenter's headstocks, braces and transoms. The weight of the roof is transferred to crossbar B through the headstock. In turn, the weight of the crossbar B is transmitted through two posts of the tie C, which is thus loaded only at the ends. Instead of straight knurling, curved materials are often used, which are not difficult to find in China. This design is a simple connection of vertical and horizontal parts; its principle is completely different from the one on which the construction of our roofs is based.

Our truss truss has the shape of a triangle, consisting of two inclined legs connected by a transverse part - a tie; rafter legs convert gravity into obliquely directed forces, destroyed by tightening resistance; in the Chinese design, the part corresponding to our rafter leg is missing. In turn, the Chinese puff is completely different in purpose from ours. Our tightening serves as a clamp, while the Chinese one is a load-bearing part of the structure that works in bending, and therefore it is of little use for large spans, even if it is made from beams of a very large cross-section. This primitive design technique, in which the tightening works to bend, was used by all peoples of antiquity, with the exception of the Romans; even the Greeks did not know any other method.

Rice. 132 Rice. 133

On figures 132 and 133 Some details of the monumental wooden structure are depicted. Figure 132 gives an idea of ​​the structure, the gradually projecting parts of which form a kind of cantilever between the top of the pillar and the horizontal beams it supports. The corollas are successively located one above the other with a gradually increasing overhang.

Figure 132, A gives a general view of this structure; Figure 132, B- its components, namely: a pillar with grooves at the top in which the first rim is fixed, this rim itself and, finally, the second rim along with small cubic inserts located between both rims.

As a final example of timber structures in Figure 133, A the front gate is reproduced, an imitation of which we found in the Indian stupa in Sanchi. This is a door frame, the parts of which are held together using simple wedges.

Temples.- Religions that left their mark on the architecture of China followed chronologically in this order. In the primitive era there was a religion probably related to the astronomical cults of Mesopotamia.

Note: The opinion about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture is not supported by anyone now.

The religion of Lao Tzu (Taoism) appears in the 6th century. BC e. simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius. Buddhism penetrates China in the 1st century. Christian era. Transferred from India, it fades away in the 7th century. on native soil in order to penetrate into Japan at approximately the same time and to this day establish itself among the peoples of the yellow race.

From its primitive cult, China has retained the tradition of sacrifices performed during the solstices in terraced sanctuaries reminiscent of Mesopotamian altars. Perhaps we should also see reminiscences associated with Mesopotamia in multi-story towers, images of which are found in ancient Chinese drawings, and in tower-shaped pagodas, of which the tower in Canton is the most famous.

As for the architecture associated with the religions of Lao Tzu and Confucius, it merged so much with Buddhist art that monuments of both cults can be distinguished only by the details of symbolic images.

In Japan, monuments of the ancient Shinto cult differ from Buddhist ones in the severity of their style. In general, the history of religious architecture in both Japan and China comes down to a description of Buddhist temples.

Figures 134, A and 135, A give an idea of ​​these temples, which almost always take the form of two-story pavilions: the lower floor, with windows mainly from the side of the main facade, is surrounded by a veranda with a wide porch. The second floor is covered with a lavishly constructed roof.

Rice. 134 Rice. 135

This sanctuary is surrounded by a fence with porticoes, reminiscent of a monastery, behind which there are hospitality institutions and the cells of bonzes. Wherever Buddhism flourishes, monastic life develops, and the temple enclosure almost always contains a monastery. The entrance to the fence leads through a portico, in front of which there is a gate without doors ( Figure 134, B). In the square around the sanctuary there are ponds for ablution, bells, and incense burners; Here you can see five- and even seven-story towers with balconies and canopies of bizarre and bold contours.

As with the Hindus, sacred enclosures are sometimes surrounded in turn by other enclosures, and the original temple forms, as it were, the nucleus of a group of buildings, which gradually grows as a result of subsequent additions.

On the plains of China, these buildings are arranged according to the requirements of symmetry. On the mountainous surface of Japan, the monastery courtyards rise in terraces, which gives them a special picturesqueness. Centuries-old vegetation harmonizes here with the architecture; the enclosed space is a hilly park where the temples appear in their graceful silhouettes. Hieratism here is not so narrow: the Chinese temple is of an official nature, the Japanese temple is a living individual work of art.

Tombs.- A Chinese tomb usually consists of a crypt hidden in a burial mound, lined with trees and surrounded by a fence. Near the mounds of the royal tombs, temples are erected, to which alleys bordered by colossal statues lead. At the entrance to the alley, a triumphal gate rises, like the one shown in Figure 134.

Housing.- The style of residential buildings appears to be no different from the architectural style of temples. The Chinese do not have that sharp distinction between civil and religious architecture that is observed among other peoples.

As with temples and tombs, unshakable tradition determines all the details of the location of a residential building. In China a special law establishes the forms and dimensions of the dwelling for each class, and the rules prescribed by the law seem to go back to the most remote antiquity. Reliefs from the Han Dynasty depict a house similar in appearance to a modern one: a structure in the form of a pavilion with wooden pillars and a veranda on each floor. The pillars are topped according to the pattern shown in Figure 132; the edges of the roof are curved upward, and above the ridge, animal figures emerge against the sky. From these curious images one can even determine the location of the service premises: in the basement there are kitchens; the first floor is intended for receiving guests; in the second there are rooms for women.

Note: In 1933, in Henan province, a whole ensemble of clay models of houses was excavated from a burial, giving a clear idea of ​​the composition of the estate of a small feudal lord of the Han era. This model of a small estate is kept in the Toronto Museum in Canada. It dates back to the 2nd century. n. e.; The length of the model is about 1.26 m. The estate is surrounded by a wall; a wall separates the front and back yards. The estate consists of 7 rooms: a covered entrance, a central house in which the cult of ancestors and family ceremonies take place; there is a two-story room in the backyard with a watch window and 4 side houses (bedrooms, kitchens). Here the roofs of the buildings, although sloping, are not yet curved, but straight.

Plan M (Figure 135) gives an idea of ​​urban housing. The house consists of separate pavilions separated by small gardens. The plan we have taken as a sample contains a vestibule V, a reception hall S, a main hall C and service rooms R. If the site on which the building is located allows, the dwelling is separated from the street by a front yard. By the decorations of the outer wall, which hides the interior of the courtyard from the street, one can determine the social status of the owner of the house.

Country housing, especially among the Japanese, consists of pavilions scattered among greenery. The main room of the pavilion - the hall for receiving guests - opens across its entire width onto a deep veranda. The remaining rooms occupy the back of the building. The entire pavilion is raised above the damp soil and rests on a foundation in which holes are left for air circulation. The walls of the building consist of plastered bamboo latticework; the ceiling consists of thin wooden boards coated with varnish, and the internal movable partitions are light frames covered with paper wallpaper. Instead of glass, transparent paper is stretched in the window frames, shutters are replaced by curtains; Everything that, due to its fragility or massiveness, could be damaged by an earthquake was eliminated.

The garden around these pavilions is an artificial landscape. There is no geometric regularity in it: winding paths, uneven soil, unexpected effects, sharp contrasts are everywhere.

Buildings of public importance and fortresses.- As an example of public buildings, we will limit ourselves to mentioning bridges, mostly wooden, sometimes hanging, that span canals in China, and across ravines in Japan.

In China, the main monument of military architecture is the Great Wall of China. This is a grandiose fortress wall with square towers; it was built in the 3rd century. BC e. to protect against Tatar invasions. We have very incomplete information about the details of this structure. The basis of the plans for the military architecture of Japan, which we know somewhat better, appears to be a jagged line.

Note: Here we obviously mean the nomadic neighbors of China in general, since the Tatars appeared much later. The earliest part of the Great Wall of China was built shortly after 228 BC. e. under Emperor Qing Shi Huang Di, who unified China; Later it was repeatedly completed and rebuilt.

AGES. INFLUENCES

The peoples of Western and South Asia from Mesopotamia to India, in their state structure, represented monarchies or theocracies, where any intermediary link between the supreme power and the last subject was destroyed. Therefore, the works of these countries could not be anything more than monuments intended to glorify power, before which everything else has no meaning.

China, on the contrary, is a country of middle classes; the intelligentsia, merchants, small owners occupy their definite place there and play a significant role. The architecture of China, serving utilitarian purposes, is the art of the bourgeoisie, which, even when erecting temples, is not so much concerned about the duration of their existence as about the immediate satisfaction of urgent needs.

Note: China around 1000 BC. e. entered the period of feudalism. The bourgeoisie as a class was formed and began to acquire a certain significance around the 17th century. and especially during the Manchu dynasty (1644-1912). During this period, bourgeois ideology also manifested itself in art. Thus, here Choisy relates the social phenomena of recent centuries to the entire history of China, where feudal ideology played such a large role, the remnants of which have not disappeared to this day.

External influences.- Chinese chronicles have preserved memories of relations between China and the countries of Western Asia since ancient times. Pothier translated descriptions of Emperor Mu Wang's campaigns in Western Asia. And thanks to the brilliant comments we have borrowed from Fournier’s unpublished work, the route of these gaits provides the key to the sources of all influences. In the 10th century BC e., i.e. in the era of the greatest flowering of Mesopotamian culture,

My Wang occupied Mesopotamia, subjugated the Hittites, penetrated to the Mediterranean Sea and established a Chinese protectorate over Mesopotamia for 60 years. During this campaign, My Wang admired the multi-story towers and took with him the architects who were to build similar structures in China. These were probably the first examples of those terraced sanctuaries, of which the Temple of Heaven is a distant imitation and from which multi-story pagodas originated.

Note: The information reported here by Choisy from the legendary history of China and his conclusions about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture and art should be recognized as outdated and erroneous.

The beginning of Chinese artistic culture dates back to this time. My Wang is interested in wood painting and varnish making. Lacquer decoration appears to have been inherited from the Mesopotamian industry. Glaze was as well known in Mesopotamia as it was in Egypt. The glazing techniques from which porcelain later evolved were probably taken over by China from the Mesopotamian expedition. But the attention of the Chinese conqueror in Mesopotamia is drawn not only to art: he is also fascinated by the state of science. And it was probably then that China borrowed its astronomical system from Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian philosophy amazes the emperor, and there is no doubt that from Mesopotamia came the principles of the doctrine of Lao Tzu, which developed in the 6th century, a metaphysical doctrine that corresponds so little to the positivism of the Chinese.

The era of Lao Tzu and Confucius almost coincides with the era of Sakiya Muni in India. This is the last time of active life. Then for China, as for India, a period of immobility, hieraticism, and the dominance of narrow traditions begins.

In the II century. China is fenced off by the Great Wall of China and emerges from its isolation only at the beginning of our era, at a time when Buddhist propaganda resumes relations between it and India; this is when Indo-Persian elements penetrate into Chinese art.

Original elements of Chinese art and their distribution.- We have identified the role of foreign influences; Let's do the same in relation to the original genius of the Chinese people. The carpentry art of China apparently originated in this country. The sloping roof system is entirely Chinese. And the design of the rims described above is too different from the designs adopted in India in order for them to be attributed to Indian origin. We find reproductions of this design, as well as sloping roofs, with all the details on the reliefs of the first centuries of our era. Obviously, we find them there not at the first stage of their development, but we are dealing with works of art that have long been established.

Relations with India affect only the details of the ornament. Ancient decoration of a realistic nature gives way to the creativity of Hindu fantasy. This is the only result of relations between China and India, caused by a common religion and lasting 600 years. Return of India to Brahmanism in the 8th century. breaks both religious relations and the influences that mutually connected the architecture of both countries. In the same era, China transferred its art and its literature to Japan, along with the doctrines of Buddhism. At the same time, Chinese art spreads to the eastern borders of the Asian continent.

Yu Yuan Gardens is an ancient architecture of the Ming and Qing dynasty in southeast China. This garden was built by the high-ranking chief Peng Yunduan in 1577. The name Yu Garden means “relaxation” or “satisfaction” in Chinese. It was built for the parents of a wealthy official so that they could enjoy the beauty. In 1760, the Yu gardens were bought by patrons of the arts, but it took them 20 years to restore the garden and buildings. And in the 19th century, the gardens were destroyed and only in 1956 they were restored again. Yu Yuan Gardens cover an area of ​​20 thousand square meters. meters, but it is unlikely that the numbers can convey the grandeur and beauty of the gardens, the history of which dates back to the Ming Dynasty and goes back four hundred years. Picturesque pavilions, rock gardens, ponds and monasteries, not to mention the magnificent landscapes. Architecture of ancient civilizations of America

Being one of the oldest civilizations, whose development dates back five thousand years, China, with its architecture and culture, attracts the greatest interest of connoisseurs of history and art, and this is associated with such a huge flow of tourists to the Celestial Empire.

History of the development of Chinese architecture

The architecture of China is brightly and colorfully different from all other countries. Wooden structures of their unique shapes fit into the natural background in a unique but harmonious way. The main feature is the smoothly curved shape of the roof. Few people know, but the ancestors of modern multi-storey buildings were Chinese buildings.

Ancient buildings Initially, the essence of construction was as follows: pillars were driven into the ground, then they were connected to each other using horizontally laid beams, a roof was arranged and covered with tiles, and only then walls were built between the pillars, with various selected materials. In fact, the supporting structure was a wooden frame, and this gave stability to the houses in the event of earthquakes.

This type of structure did not interfere with redevelopment inside; a wide variety of materials were used for this without any problems, but it depended on the area. For example, residents of the north used bricks and clay, while residents of the south used reed whips.

The fact that wood was the main material for Chinese architecture for centuries was primarily due to the rich expanses of coniferous forests, and not to the lack of stone (on the contrary, it was one of the first to be produced in this country).

Over time, Chinese architecture began to develop and be divided into several types of buildings, strictly corresponding to the social status of their owner. Then the following restrictions on appearance appeared:

• multi-tiered cornice could only be used for palaces and temples;
• only a city dweller (with average income) could afford a rectangular shape and five interior rooms;
• a room with one common room and a long terrace was intended for village residents.

Next came a difference in the roofs of the houses according to the status of the population: the imperial buildings were covered with golden tiles and decor (various sculptures), and the temples and houses of the city nobility had green roofs.

But at all times there was one thing in common: this is that any houses in China were necessarily built only in accordance with Feng Shui. This teaching teaches that each space has certain zones. They correspond to a separate force: west to the tiger, east to the dragon, south to the red bird, north to the turtle. Based on this, their harmonious interaction was always calculated.

What was also characteristic of ancient and medieval architecture in China was that preference in construction was given not to individual houses, but to ensembles. Thus, architectural complexes are characteristic of both temples and palaces, and the houses of ordinary residents, for whom collective existence was a priority.

Popular architectural monuments of China

Historical architectural monuments of the Celestial Empire, which are hundreds of years old, are the most attractive component of any tourist routes around the country. Beijing is filled with colorful, amazing buildings, despite the fact that it is mostly a modern and crowded metropolis. The excursions are rich and meaningful for those who truly appreciate the stages of development in architecture.

One of the most “important” places is the Niujie Mosque. The date of its construction is 996. It also differs in that it combines two styles. The first is Chinese: a wooden structure with a curved roof, topped with a small turret, and a characteristic facade - red and green, with carved patterns. The second style is Islamic, it is manifested in the ornaments with which the room is decorated from the inside. There is also a prayer hall, where several thousand Muslims living in Beijing flock every day.

The list of “architectural monuments of China” also includes the “Pavilion of Five Dragons” complex, which was once built for the emperor and his family. It is located in a picturesque place, right on the shore of Taye, this is a small local lake, quite suitable for fishing. The pavilion consists of several large gazebos, with characteristic curved roofs in two and three tiers, with decorated carved cornices. The gazebos themselves are connected by small bridges. Everyone who has ever come to these parts is sure to take a photo against the backdrop of a beautiful landscape and a magnificent century-old structure.

On the northern side of the city, tourists are greeted by Yonghegong, this is a Lamaist monastery. The temple combines two main styles - Tibetan and Mongolian, plus a little Chinese. The color of the building is red, the tiles are yellow, everything is richly decorated with carvings and paintings. There is also a pavilion here called “Ten Thousand Fortunes”, and in it there is a statue of Maitreya. This Chinese shrine is known far beyond the monastery; it rises twenty-six meters, and the material for its manufacture was white sandalwood. Now there is a school at the temple where children study Tibetan Buddhism.

Discover the oldest pagoda in the world

The pagoda, which is located in Yingxian County, near the city of Datong, deserves special attention. The structure is characterized by traditional wooden Chinese architecture, and this pagoda is the oldest in the world, dating back to 1056, so it is protected as the most valuable masterpiece of architecture, it is a relic of the Celestial Empire.

The pagoda goes up 67 meters, and this is like a modern house with twenty floors! This is incredible for ancient buildings. From the outside, it seems that there are five floors, but in fact the “cunning” design has nine.

What makes the structure unique is that not a single nail was used in its construction, and all the beams were laid on pillars driven in a circle. Each tier is octagonal, all crossbars form an original pattern. The diameter of the structure was 30 meters.

A stunning sight awaits tourists inside; here the walls are decorated with frescoes, all the drawings on them depict famous supporters of Buddhism. Also, in the pagoda there are several statues of Buddha and Shakyamuni (its height is 11 m).

This ancient pagoda very clearly and accurately, even in the photo, displays the architecture of China in all its mystery and splendor.

Modern architecture of China

Today, the architecture of China consists of huge skyscrapers and buildings decorated with modern materials, completely different from those that were actively built until the 20th century, which ultimately became a turning point. And the modern Chinese architecture in the photo shows how “fashionable” designs manage to harmoniously combine with preserved old buildings.

It is also impossible to miss the fact that the Chinese love not only their own colorful architecture, but also buildings that they actively borrow from others. For example, the “Roman Colosseum”, which is located in the town of Tianjin, or not far from Shanghai - the town of Thames, a copy of the English one.

Hong Kong generally amazes with the contrast of its architectural structures. Its “Chinese anthills” are known throughout the world: several skyscrapers are built here close to each other, forming a “house” of several thousand apartments for ordinary residents. But, in an expensive area of ​​the city, there is an amazingly designed twelve-story building with only twelve apartments, each with an area of ​​six thousand square meters.

Shanghai surprises tourists with its famous financial center, which towers over the city a hundred stories high! Thus, we can conclude: the modern architecture of the Celestial Empire is skyscraper buildings.

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• and its attractions

Chinese architecture reached its highest achievements during the reign of the Tang and Song dynasties (VII-XIII centuries). Monumental architecture was distinguished by clear harmony, conviviality and calm grandeur of forms. Cities were built according to a clear plan. They were powerful fortresses surrounded by high walls and deep ditches.

(1) In ancient China, the most typical house design was considered to be a frame-and-post structure using wood. Wooden pillars were installed on the adobe platform, on which longitudinal transverse beams were attached, and on them was a roof covered with tiles. This frame system not only allowed Chinese architects to freely design the walls of the house, but helped prevent the house from being destroyed during earthquakes. (2) For example, in the northern Shanxi province of China there is a Buddhist temple more than 60 meters high, the frame of which was made of wood. This pagoda is more than 900 years old, but it has been very well preserved to this day.

(3) Compared to palaces, living quarters in southern China are very modest. The houses are covered with dark gray tiled roofs, their walls are covered with white flowers, and their wooden frames are dark coffee-colored. Bamboo and bananas grow around the houses. Similar premises still exist in the country's southern provinces of Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and others.

Tombs

Numerous complexes of tombs of the nobility, created at the turn of our era, are perfectly preserved, representing large underground structures, to which the so-called alleys of spirits guarding the graves led. They were framed by sculptures of animals and stone pylons. The complex also included above-ground sanctuaries - tsitans. Reliefs on the walls of burial structures depict guards in long robes, phoenixes, dragons, turtles, and tigers. The burial reliefs of the Ulyan people in Shandong (2nd century) tell about the creators of earth and sky, about legendary heroes, about solemn processions, about the struggle between kingdoms.

The reliefs are friezes. Each slab shows a new scene, and next to it is an inscription explaining the image. Gods and people are dressed alike, but gods and kings are given larger than ordinary people . (4, 5) An example of a different style is the reliefs from Sichuan, which are distinguished by the simplicity and vividness of their images, attention to everyday scenes (harvest scenes, hunting wild ducks, theatrical and circus performances, etc.). More and more importance is being attached to the depiction of nature.

the great Wall of China

(6) The Great Wall of China is a unique monument of fortress architecture. It began to be built in the IV-III centuries. BC, when the Chinese states were forced to defend themselves from the attacks of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. The Great Wall, like a giant snake, winds through the mountain ranges, peaks and passes of Northern China. (7) Its length exceeds 3 thousand km; approximately every 200 m there are quadrangular watchtowers with embrasures. The distance between the towers was equal to two arrow flights; it was easily shot from each side, which ensured safety. The upper plane of the wall is a wide protected road along which military units and convoys could quickly move.

Pagodas

(8, 9) The pagoda as a type of structure dates back to Indian architecture. Early pagodas, with their soft curvature and rounded lines, resemble Indian tower-shaped temples. In Buddhist monasteries, pagodas served as repositories for relics, statues, and canonical books. Many Chinese pagodas are enormous in size, reaching a height of 50 m. The best of them amaze with their almost mathematically precise and proportionate proportions; they seem to embody the spirit of Confucian wisdom. Later tower pagodas, built in honor of Buddhist saints, are characterized by slightly upwardly curved, pointed roof edges. It was believed that thanks to this shape they reliably protected against evil spirits.

More favorable conditions for the development of architecture developed in the 15th-18th centuries, when it took a leading position among the arts. The construction of the Great Wall of China dates back to this time. (10, 11) Such large cities as Beijing and Nanjing were built, wonderful palaces and temple ensembles were built. According to ancient rules, all buildings faced the south, and the city was crossed from south to north by a straight highway. New forms of architectural ensembles and cities are being developed. In Minsk pagodas, decorative features, fragmented forms, and an overload of details begin to predominate. With the transfer of the capital in 1421 from Nanjing to Beijing, the city was strengthened, palaces, temples and monasteries were built. The largest architectural structure of this time is the palace ensemble erected in the Forbidden City.