What new did classicism bring? Report: The concept of classicism

German Klassizismus lat. classicus - first-class, exemplary) - thin. style and direction in heb. literature and art XII - early. XIX centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to patterns and forms ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic model.

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CLASSICISM

a movement in art and literature that emerged in Europe in the 17th century. and received special development in France. The term “classicism” goes back to the Latin classicus, in its original meaning – “citizen of the highest property class”, then – “exemplary”, “perfect”. Classicism recognizes the existence of eternal laws of art and formulates fundamental principles, adherence to which is mandatory for the “correct” author (the set of classicist laws was set out by N. Boileau in his exemplary “Poetic Art” (1674). The one who mastered the norm better than others and did not departs from it in his works. An author who violates the rules was declared “unenlightened” (as the Russian classicist theorist A.P. Sumarokov called W. Shakespeare. Classicism is based on the principle of “imitation of nature,” which presupposes not truthfulness, but the plausibility of the image). . Only beautiful and sublime nature should be represented in the works. In practice, “imitation of nature”, the timeless aesthetic ideal, turned into imitation of exemplary ancient authors. True, imitation (imitatio) did not exclude ingenuity (inventio), that is, creative independence, although imitation. was valued much more. For a classicist author, imitation of the ancient classics was a kind of competition with them in achieving aesthetic perfection. The classicists emphasized that they were not interested in the accidental and individual, but in the constant and universal, and the ultimate goal of art was to understand human nature. Classicism preferred reason to feeling, the rational to the emotional. The poetics of classicism requires a work to be harmonious and logical in composition, simplicity of plot, and clarity of language. The literary genres of classicism were characterized by their own set of characteristics and were clearly divided. At the same time, preference was given to genres in which the personal principle gives way to the transpersonal, universally significant. Classical genres are divided into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (fable, comedy). Confusing them was unacceptable, although often inevitable (A.P. Sumarokov himself, the author of the programmatic “Epistole on Poetry,” was accused of the fact that his epistole came close to satire). The place in the genre hierarchy was determined by the theme: works of high genres featured heroes of myths, monarchs and great generals of antiquity, while works of low genres depicted the life of ordinary people. The main genre of French classicism was tragedy. It was based on the conflict between duty and passion, the number of heroes was reduced to a minimum, their speech was solemn and sublime (but not pretentious and “dark”), the audience learned about most events related to the action, but not presented on stage, from the speeches of the messengers. Credibility requirements dramatic action(both tragedy and comedy), as well as imitation of Aristotle, explains the so-called. “the theory of three unities” (place, time and action, although Aristotle spoke only about the unity of time and action). According to this theory, events should take place in one place (be it a room or a street), last no more than a day and develop around one conflict. The greatest creations French classicism, in addition to the poetic program of N. Boileau, recognized the tragedies of J. Racine and P. Corneille, the comedies of Molière, and the odes of F. Malherbe. The work of the latter had a great influence on the creation of Russian. odes - the main genre of Russian. classicism. In the 18th century rus. classicist writers sought to imitate French models (being likened to a French classic was a compliment, so M. V. Lomonosov was sung as the “Russian Malgerbe”, A. P. Sumarokov as “our Boileau” (or “confidant of the Boals”) and “northern Racine” ). However, only the fundamental aesthetic requirements of classicist poetics remained unshakable (genre theory, theory of three unities, theory of imitation), in particular Russian. classicists were looking for their own paths. Thus, the creator of the program “Epistles on Poetry” A.P. Sumarokov was accused by his contemporaries of blindly imitating the author of “Poetic Art” N. Boileau. Since both authors wrote about “eternal” poetic laws, this plagiarism seems justified (by the way, Boileau himself was accused of imitating Horace’s “Epistle to the Pisoes”). At the same time, some differences in the approaches of Boileau and Sumarokov are well known: Sumarokov puts the poet’s education above talent, Boileau – talent above education; Sumarokov practically excludes the important principle for Boileau of “plaire” (to like) (J. Klein). These “minor” differences are explained primarily by the individual characteristics of Sumarokov the poet. At the same time, the impossibility of applying M. V. Lomonosov’s “theory of three calms” to French poetic practice is associated with objective reasons: Russian. poets, unlike their French exemplary predecessors, had the opportunity to use in their works the words of Russian (creating middle and low “calms”) and Old Church Slavonic (creating high and middle “calms”) languages. In addition, the accelerated development of Russian. literature in the 18th century. led to the coexistence of various literary trends (for example, sentimentalist tendencies can be observed in the works of Russian classic poets in the pre-sentimentalist period, and the sentimentalist M. N. Muravyov began as an admirer of Sumarokov’s talent and a classicist). And finally, in contrast to French classicism of the 17th century, Russian. 18th century classicism was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Rus. the authors took into account the experience of not only Boileau, Corneille and Racine, but also their contemporary Voltaire. The emergence of “enlightenment classicism” ultimately led to the creation of our own national. variants of this direction: English, German, Russian. , and not uniform for all European literatures. An example of this: “Weimar classicism” by J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller, which is original and unique literary phenomenon and at the same time remaining classicism. In the beginning. 19th century classicism was rejected by the new literary movement - romanticism and left the stage.

The European direction of classicism was based on the ideas of rationalism and the canons of ancient art. It involves strict rules for creating work of art, which give it conciseness and logic. Attention is paid only to a clear elaboration of the main part, without being scattered on the details. The priority goal of this direction is to fulfill the social and educational function of art.

The formation of classicism occurs in each united territory, but in different time periods. The need for this direction is felt in historical period transition from feudal fragmentation to territorial statehood under an absolute monarchy. In Europe, the emergence of classicism occurred primarily in Italy, but one cannot fail to note the significant influence of the emerging French and English bourgeoisie.

Classicism in painting

(Giovanni Battista Tiepolo "Cleopatra's Feast")

In their creative searches, sculptors and artists turned to ancient art and transferred its features into their works. This generated a wave of public interest in art. Despite the fact that the views of classicism imply a natural depiction of everything that is presented in the picture, the masters of the Renaissance, like ancient creators, idealized human figures. The people depicted in the paintings are more like sculptures: they “freeze” in eloquent poses, male bodies are athletic, and female figures they are hyperbolically feminine, even the heroes of old age have taut and elastic skin. This trend, borrowed from ancient Greek sculptors, is explained by the fact that in ancient times man was presented as an ideal creation of God without flaws or shortcomings.

(Claude Lorrain "Afternoon. Rest on the Flight to Egypt")

Ancient mythology also had a significant impact on the development of style. At the initial stages it was expressed literally, in the form of mythical plots. Over time, the manifestations became more veiled: mythology was represented by ancient buildings, creatures or objects. The late period was marked by a symbolistic interpretation of myths: through individual elements, artists conveyed their own thoughts, emotions and moods.

(Fyodor Mikhailovich Matveev "View of Rome. Colosseum")

The function of classicism in the bosom of the world artistic culture- this is moral public education, formation ethical standards and rules. The regulation of creative laws established a strict hierarchy of genres, each of which contained formal boundaries:

Low(still life, landscape, portrait);
High(historical, mythological, religious).

(Nicolas Poussin "The Arcadian Shepherds")

The founder of the style is considered to be the painter Nicolas Poussin. His works are built on sublime philosophical subjects. From a technical point of view, the structure of the paintings is harmonious and complemented by rhythmic coloring. Vivid examples of the master’s works: “The Finding of Moses”, “Rinaldo and Armida”, “The Death of Germanicus” and “The Arcadian Shepherds”.

(Ivan Petrovich Argunov "Portrait of an unknown woman in a dark blue dress")

IN Russian art classicism is dominated by portrait images. Admirers of this style are A. Agrunov, A. Antropov, D. Levitsky, O. Kiprensky, F. Rokotov.

Classicism in architecture

The fundamental features of the style are clarity of lines, clear, uncomplicated forms, and lack of abundance of details. Classicism sought to rationally use every square meter of space. Over time, the style was influenced by different cultures and worldviews of masters from all over Europe. In the architecture of classicism, the following directions are distinguished:

Palladianism

The initial form of manifestation of classicism, the founder of which is considered to be the architect Andrea Palladio. The absolute symmetry of the buildings reveals the spirit of the architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome;

empire style

The direction of high (late) classicism, the birthplace of which is considered to be France during the reign of Napoleon I. The royal style combines theatricality and classical elements (columns, stucco molding, pilasters), arranged in accordance with clear rules and perspective;

neo-Greek

"Return" of ancient Greek images with features Italian Renaissance in the 1820s. The founders of the direction are Henri Labrouste and Leo von Klenze. The uniqueness lies in the detailed reproduction of classics on parliament buildings, museums, and churches;

regency style

In 1810-1830 A style developed that combined classical trends with French design. Special attention attention is paid to the decoration of the facades: geometrically correct patterns and ornaments of the walls are complemented by decorated window openings. The emphasis is on the decorative elements framing the front door.

(Stupinigi - country residence of the monarchs of the House of Savoy, province of Turin, Italy)

The main features of classicism in architecture:

Majestic simplicity;
Minimum number of parts;
Laconicism and rigor of both external and internal decoration of buildings;
A dim color palette dominated by milky, beige, and light gray shades;
High ceilings decorated with stucco;
The interior included items exclusively with a functional purpose;
The decorative elements used were regal columns, arches, exquisite stained glass windows, openwork railings, lamps, carved fireplace grates, and light curtains made of simple materials.

(Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow)

Classicism is recognized as one of the most widespread styles throughout the world. In Europe, the vector of development of this trend was influenced by the works of the masters Palladio and Scamozzi. And in France, the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot was the author of structural solutions basic to the style. Germany acquired several administrative buildings in the classical style thanks to the masters Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Andreyan Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin and Karl Rossi made an invaluable contribution to the development of this direction in Russia.

Conclusion

The era of classicism left behind many magnificent creations of artists and architects, which can be seen throughout Europe to this day. The most large-scale projects late XVI The 1st and early 19th centuries took place under the auspices of classicism: city parks, resorts and even new cities were rebuilt. By the 20s of the 19th century, the strict style was diluted with elements of luxurious Baroque and Renaissance.

Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as examples of the ideal, “correct” style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism are characterized by harmony and logic.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism replaced Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerism, excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The architects' attention was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor characteristic of ancient architecture, primarily Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The goal of all objects created in the classicism style is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time, harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental ancient architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were observed.

The aesthetics of classicism were favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter and a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. In the classic composition, following the composition of antiquity, symmetry prevails. The color scheme is predominantly light pastel tones, which serve to highlight the architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, and resorts appear.

In the 20s of the 19th century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic overtones. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

Development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of enlightenment progressive trends in social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal government structure and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when the individual developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of classicists, it was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

Three stages in the development of classicism in the world can be distinguished:

Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
Empire style

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural movement. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of baroque and quickly supplanted it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) movements: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the accession of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feelings was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “class classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism.” As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, and logical consistency. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. She must portray truth and virtue and engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are intended to promote personal development so that man becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between different types of arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as rich shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines and smooth patterns; the elements are repeating and harmonious, and the shapes are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on roofs, rotundas. Antique ornaments were often present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, without frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most widespread styles throughout the world. Throughout the entire period of its existence, many talented craftsmen appeared and a large number of projects were created.

Main features architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the works of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period was Jacques-Germain Soufflot - he was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many of the principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire style - the “imperial style”. This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the 19th century. after which it was replaced by eclectic movements.

In Britain, the equivalent of the Empire style was the "Regency style" (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist, is considered one of the founders of the British architectural tradition.

The most characteristic interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon parts that did not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon appeared.

In Russia, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for an interior in the classicist style were actually the same as for architectural objects: monolithic structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time grace. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simpler and lighter. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture from the Classical era was made from precious woods, great importance acquired a texture that began to perform a decorative function. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of higher quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened and the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, as well as purple and green tones, the latter being used with black and gray flowers, as well as with bronze and silver jewelry. White color is popular. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.

Currently, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics may also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Let's consider the most significant works architects of the 18th century - this period marked the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural movement.

In Classical France, various public institutions were built, including business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times was the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Soufflot. Initially, the project was conceived as the Church of St. Genevieve, patroness of Paris, but in 1791 it was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grandiose dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. The parts of the building are clearly demarcated; one can notice the transition from heavier to lighter forms. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; the columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combined functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the fire of 1666 occurred; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant temple. It has an elongated shape, like a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similar to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a design typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a structure closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is its wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome there is a lantern topped with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower there are 12, and in the right there is the “Great Floor” - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the diameter of the dial is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral there is a monument to Anne, an English queen from a previous era. At her feet you can see allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are surrounded by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with the cross is 120 meters.

The openwork grilles by Jean Tijou, made of wrought iron (late 17th century) and the carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient literature and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the master's later works one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, and the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers included popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. IN last years the master built life own museum in Possagno.

In Russia, the era of classicism was created by many talented architects - both Russian and those who came from abroad. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoe Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into the forest.

If at the beginning of the new architectural period the still unknown style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classic Western forms and fusion with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday occurred during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts is reviving the tradition of training its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to introduce Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn’s buildings, as well as Pashkov’s house, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on the top of a hill, its façade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a series significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend towards it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the Admiralty facade, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, can be considered a solution to a complex problem - preserving the design of the spit of Vasilievsky Island, and at the same time being combined with the ensembles of previous eras.

Classicism is an artistic and architectural movement in world culture of the 17th-19th centuries, where the aesthetic ideals of antiquity became a role model and creative guideline. Originating in Europe, the movement also actively influenced the development of Russian urban planning. The classical architecture created at that time is rightfully considered a national treasure.

Historical background

As a style of architecture, classics originated in the 17th century in France and at the same time in England, naturally continuing cultural values Renaissance.

These countries witnessed the rise and flourishing of the monarchical system; the values of Ancient Greece and Rome were perceived as an example of an ideal government structure and harmonious interaction between man and nature. The idea of a rational structure of the world has penetrated into all spheres of society.

Second stage of development classical direction dates back to the 18th century, when the philosophy of rationalism became the motive for turning to historical traditions.

During the Enlightenment, the idea of the logic of the universe and adherence to strict canons was glorified. Classical traditions in architecture: simplicity, clarity, rigor - came to the fore instead of excessive pomposity and excess decorativeness of Baroque and Rococo.

The Italian architect Andrea Palladio is considered the theorist of style (another name for classicism is “Palladianism”).

At the end of the 16th century, he described in detail the principles of the ancient order system and modular building design, and put them into practice in the construction of city palazzos and country villas. Typical example mathematical precision of proportions - Villa Rotunda, decorated with porticoes of the Ionic order.

Classicism: style features

In the appearance of buildings there are signs classic style easy to find out:

clear spatial solutions,
strict forms,
laconic exterior decoration,
soft colors.

If the Baroque masters preferred to work with volumetric illusions, which often distorted proportions, then clear perspectives dominated here. Even park ensembles of this era were carried out in a regular style, when the lawns had a regular shape, and shrubs and ponds were located in straight lines.

One of the main features of classicism in architecture is the appeal to the ancient order system.

Translated from Latin, ordo means “order, order,” the term was applied to the proportions of ancient temples between the load-bearing and supported parts: columns and entablature (upper ceiling).

Three orders came to the classics from Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. They differed in the ratio and size of the base, capital, and frieze. The Tuscan and Composite orders were inherited from the Romans.

Elements of classical architecture

The order turned into the leading feature of classicism in architecture. But if during the Renaissance the ancient order and portico played the role of simple stylistic decoration, now they have again become a constructive basis, as in ancient Greek construction.
Symmetrical composition is an obligatory element of classics in architecture, closely related to order. The implemented projects of private houses and public buildings were symmetrical about the central axis, the same symmetry could be traced in each individual fragment.
The rule of the golden ratio (the exemplary ratio of height and width) determined the harmonious proportions of buildings.
Leading decorative techniques: decorations in the form of bas-reliefs with medallions, stucco floral ornaments, arched openings, window cornices, Greek statues on the roofs. To highlight the snow-white decorative elements, color scheme for decoration they chose light pastel shades.
Among the features of classical architecture is the design of the walls according to the principle of order division into three horizontal parts: the bottom - the plinth, in the middle - the main field, at the top - the entablature. Cornices above each floor, window friezes, platbands of various shapes, as well as vertical pilasters, created a picturesque relief of the facade.
The design of the main entrance included marble staircases, colonnades, and pediments with bas-reliefs.

Types of classical architecture: national characteristics

The ancient canons, revived in the era of classicism, were perceived as the highest ideal of the beauty and rationality of all things. Therefore, the new aesthetics of severity and symmetry, pushing aside the baroque bombast, widely penetrated not only the sphere of private housing construction, but also the scale of entire urban planning. European architects became pioneers in this regard.

English classicism

Palladio's work greatly influenced the principles of classical architecture in Great Britain, in particular in the works of the outstanding English master Inigo Jones. In the first third of the 17th century, he created Queens House ("Queen's House"), where he applied order divisions and balanced proportions. The construction of the first square in the capital, carried out according to a regular plan, Covent Garden, is also associated with his name.

Another English architect Christopher Wren went down in history as the creator of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he used a symmetrical order composition with a two-tier portico, two side towers and a dome.

During the construction of urban and suburban private apartments, English classicism in architecture brought into fashion Palladian mansions - compact three-story buildings with simple and clear forms.

The first floor was finished with rusticated stone, the second floor was considered the front floor - it was combined with the upper (residential) floor using a large façade order.

Features of classicism in French architecture

The heyday of the first period of French classics occurred in the second half of the 17th century during the reign of Louis XIV. The ideas of absolutism as a rational state organization manifested themselves in architecture through rational order compositions and the transformation of the surrounding landscape according to the principles of geometry.

The most significant events this time - the construction of the eastern facade of the Louvre with a huge two-story gallery and the creation of an architectural and park ensemble in Versailles.

In the 18th century, the development of French architecture passed under the sign of Rococo, but already in the middle of the century its elaborate forms gave way to strict and simple classics in architecture, both urban and private. The medieval development is replaced by a plan that takes into account the tasks of infrastructure and the placement of industrial buildings. Residential buildings are built according to the multi-story principle.

The order is perceived not as a decoration of the building, but as a structural unit: if the column does not bear the load, it is unnecessary. The Church of Saint Genevieve (Pantheon), designed by Jacques Germain Soufflot, is considered an example of the architectural features of classicism in France of this period. Its composition is logical, the parts and the whole are balanced, the line drawing is clear. The master strove to accurately reproduce the details of ancient art.

Russian classicism in architecture

The development of the classical architectural style in Russia occurred during the reign of Catherine II. IN early years elements of antiquity are still mixed with baroque decor, but they are relegated to the background. In the projects of Zh.B. Wallen-Delamotte, A.F. Kokorinov and Yu. M. Felten, baroque chic gives way to the dominant role of the logic of the Greek order.

A feature of the classics in Russian architecture of the late (strict) period was the final departure from the Baroque heritage. This direction was formed by 1780 and is represented by the works of C. Cameron, V. I. Bazhenov, I. E. Starov, D. Quarenghi.

The rapidly developing economy of the country contributed to the rapid change of styles. The internal and international trade, academies and institutes, industrial workshops were opened. There was a need for the rapid construction of new buildings: guest houses, fairgrounds, exchanges, banks, hospitals, boarding houses, libraries.

Under these conditions, the deliberately lush and complex forms of Baroque revealed their disadvantages: the long duration of construction work, high cost and the need to attract an impressive staff of qualified craftsmen.

Classicism in Russian architecture, with its logical and simple compositional and decorative solutions, became a successful response to the economic demands of the era.

Examples of Russian architectural classics

Tauride Palace - project by I.E. Starov, implemented in the 1780s, is a vivid example of the classicism movement in architecture. The modest facade is made with clear monumental forms; the Tuscan portico of strict design attracts attention.

V.I. made a great contribution to the architecture of both capitals. Bazhenov, who created the Pashkov House in Moscow (1784-1786) and the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) in St. Petersburg.

The Alexander Palace of D. Quarenghi (1792-1796) attracted the attention of contemporaries with its combination of walls, practically devoid of decor, and a majestic colonnade, made in two rows.

Nautical Cadet Corps(1796-1798) F.I. Volkova is an example of exemplary construction of barracks-type buildings according to the principles of classicism.

Architectural features of the classics of the late period

The stage of transition from the classicism style in architecture to the Empire style is called Alexandrovsky, named after Emperor Alexander I. The projects created between 1800-1812 have the following characteristic features:

accentuated antique stylization
monumentality of images
predominance of the Doric order (without unnecessary decorations)

Outstanding projects of this time:

architectural composition of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island by Thomas de Thomon with the Exchange and Rostral columns,
Mining Institute on the Neva embankment A. Voronikhin,
building of the Main Admiralty of A. Zakharov.

Classics in modern architecture

The era of classicism is called the golden age of estates. The Russian nobility actively began building new estates and renovating outdated mansions. Moreover, the changes affected not only buildings, but also the landscape, embodying the ideas of theorists of landscape gardening art.

In this regard, modern classical architectural forms, as the embodiment of the heritage of ancestors, are firmly connected with symbolism: this is not only a stylistic appeal to antiquity, with emphasized pomp and solemnity, a set of decorative techniques, but also a sign of the high social status of the owner of the mansion.

Modern designs of classic houses are a subtle combination of traditions with current construction and design solutions.

Aesthetic example, "golden age". In 17th-century France it was called the time of Minerva and Mars.

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Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theoretician of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the surrounding area " eternal city“ordered the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing unique architectural scenes.
In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor(“Turkish baths”); his portrait works marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as its “breeding grounds.” IN mid-19th century, the younger generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

Sculpture

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by the sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (these are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Private customers of the classic era preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Architecture

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-1774) urban ensembles were erected in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange-Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-1792) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.
The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classical rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux-Arts).

Literature

The founder of the poetics of classicism is considered to be the Frenchman François Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”. Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrines the main form of English poetry. For English prose The era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.
Classicism XVIII century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Voltaire's work (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. For dramatic works three unities are characteristic: unity of time (the action takes place on one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of “three calms,” which was, in fact, an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass away over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism we got great development genres requiring mandatory author's assessment historical reality: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes “Anacreontic Songs” as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities, notes G. Knabe.
The dominance during the reign of Louis XIV of the “spirit of discipline,” the taste for order and balance, or, in other words, the fear of “violating established customs,” instilled by the era in the art of classicism, were considered in opposition to the Fronde (and on the basis of this opposition, historical and cultural periodization was built). It was believed that classicism was dominated by “forces striving for truth, simplicity, reason” and expressed in “naturalism” (a harmoniously faithful reproduction of nature), while the literature of the Fronde, burlesque and fine works was characterized by aggravation (“idealization” or, conversely, “ coarsening" of nature).
Determining the degree of conventionality (how accurately nature is reproduced or distorted, translated into a system of artificial conventional images) is a universal aspect of style. "School of 1660" was described by its first historians (I. Taine, F. Brunetière, G. Lançon; C. Sainte-Beuve) synchronically, as a basically aesthetically poorly differentiated and ideologically conflict-free community that experienced stages of formation, maturity and withering in its evolution, and private “intra-school “Contradictions - such as Brunetiere’s antithesis of Racine’s “naturalism” and Corneille’s craving for the “extraordinary” - were derived from the inclinations of individual talent.
A similar scheme of the evolution of classicism, which arose under the influence of the theory of the “natural” development of cultural phenomena and spread in the first half of the 20th century (cf. in the academic “History of French Literature” chapter titles: “Formation of Classicism” - “The Beginning of the Decomposition of Classicism”), was complicated by another aspect contained in the approach of L. V. Pumpyansky. His concept of historical and literary development, according to which, French literature, in contrast even to similar types of development (“la découverte de l’antiquité, la formation de l’idéal classique, its decomposition and transition to new, not yet expressed forms of literature ") New German and Russian, represents a model of the evolution of classicism, which has the ability to clearly distinguish stages (formations): the “normal phases” of its development appear with “extraordinary paradigmaticism”: “the delight of acquisition (the feeling of awakening after a long night, the morning has finally arrived), education eliminating ideal (restrictive activity in lexicology, style and poetics), its long dominance (associated with the established absolutist society), noisy fall (the main event that happened to modern European literature), the transition to<…>the era of freedom." According to Pumpyansky, the flowering of classicism is associated with the creation of the ancient ideal (“<…>the attitude towards antiquity is the soul of such literature"), and degeneration - with its “relativization”: “Literature that is in a certain relation to something other than its absolute value is classical; relativized literature is not classic.”
After the "school of 1660" was recognized as a research “legend”, the first theories of the evolution of the method began to emerge based on the study of intra-classical aesthetic and ideological differences (Moliere, Racine, Lafontaine, Boileau, La Bruyère). Thus, in some works, problematic “humanistic” art is seen as strictly classicist and entertaining, “decorating secular life.” The first concepts of evolution in classicism are formed in the context of philological polemics, which were almost always structured as a demonstrative elimination of the Western (“bourgeois”) and domestic “pre-revolutionary” paradigms.
Two “currents” of classicism are distinguished, corresponding to directions in philosophy: “idealistic” (influenced by the neo-Stoicism of Guillaume Du Vert and his followers) and “materialistic” (formed by Epicureanism and skepticism, mainly of Pierre Charron). The fact that in the 17th century the ethical and philosophical systems of late antiquity - skepticism (Pyrrhonism), Epicureanism, Stoicism - were in demand - experts believe, on the one hand, a reaction to civil wars and are explained by the desire to “preserve personality in an environment of cataclysms” (L. Kosareva) and, on the other hand, are associated with the formation of secular morality. Yu. B. Vipper noted that at the beginning of the 17th century these trends were in intense opposition, and explained its reasons sociologically (the first developed in the court environment, the second - outside it).
D. D. Oblomievsky identified two stages of evolution XVII classicism Art., associated with the “restructuring of theoretical principles” (note G. Oblomievsky also highlights the “rebirth” of classicism in the 18th century (“enlightenment version”, associated with the primitivization of the poetics of “contrasts and antitheses of the positive and negative”, with the restructuring of Renaissance anthropology and complicated by the categories of collective and optimistic) and the “third birth” of classicism of the period of the Empire (late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century and early 19th century), complicating it with the “principle of the future” and “pathos of opposition,” I note that when characterizing the evolution of classicism of the 17th century. century, G. Oblomievsky speaks about the various aesthetic foundations of classicist forms; to describe the development of classicism of the 18th-19th centuries, he uses the words “complication” and “loss”, “loss.”) and pro tanto two aesthetic forms: “Mahlerbean” classicism. Cornelian” type, based on the category of the heroic, arising and becoming on the eve and during the English Revolution and the Fronde; classicism of Racine - La Fontaine - Molière - La Bruyère, based on the category of the tragic, highlighting the idea of “will, activity and domination of man over real world", appearing after the Fronde, in the middle of the 17th century. and associated with the reaction of the 60-70-80s. Disappointment in the optimism of the first half of the century. manifests itself, on the one hand, in escapism (Pascal) or in the denial of heroism (La Rochefoucauld), on the other hand, in a “compromise” position (Racine), giving rise to the situation of a hero, powerless to change anything in the tragic disharmony of the world, but not giving up from Renaissance values (principle inner freedom) and “resisting evil”. Classicists associated with the teachings of Port-Royal or close to Jansenism (Racine, late Boalo, Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld) and followers of Gassendi (Molière, La Fontaine).
The diachronic interpretation of D. D. Oblomievsky, attracted by the desire to understand classicism as a changing style, has found application in monographic studies and seems to have stood the test of specific material. Based on this model, A. D. Mikhailov notes that in the 1660s, classicism, which entered the “tragic” phase of development, moved closer to precise prose: “inheriting gallant plots from the baroque novel, [he] not only tied them to reality reality, but also brought to them some rationality, a sense of proportion and good taste, to some extent the desire for the unity of place, time and action, compositional clarity and logic, the Cartesian principle of “dismembering difficulties,” highlighting one leading feature in the described static character , one passion”], called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of the further development of musical composition.
The concept of “music of classicism” should not be confused with the concept of “classical music”, which has more general meaning like the music of the past that has stood the test of time.
The music of the Classical era glorifies the actions and deeds of man, the emotions and feelings he experiences, the attentive and holistic human mind [ ] .