Literary movements classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism conclusion. Abstract Literary movements and movements of the 17th-19th centuries

The fate of classicism. Classicism, an influential literary movement that held artistic sway for more than a century, did not completely disappear from the scene in the first quarter of the 19th century. Attempts are being made to adapt it to new historical conditions, to find in it what is expedient in social, ethical and artistic terms. At the time under review, there was a process of differentiation within this literary movement, which led to the collapse of the system.

At the end of the 80s of the XVIII century. Derzhavin organized a literary salon, whose visitors were A.S. Shishkov, D.I. Khvostov, A.A. Shakhovskaya,

P.A. Shirinsky-Shikhmatov; all of them were active supporters of classicism and created the literary society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (1811 -1816), which also included I.A. Krylov and N.I. Gnedich. By the name of the “theorist” of “Conversations” A.I. Shishkov's supporters began to be called Shishkovists. His “Discourse on Love of the Fatherland” is an example of a nationalist interpretation of patriotism. Defending the Russian autocracy and the church, Shishkov opposed “foreign culture.” This position led him and his followers to reject Karamzin’s language reform and the European sympathies of this writer and his group. A dispute broke out between the Shishkovists and the Karamzinists. Although their social positions were by no means opposite (both were monarchists), Shishkov contrasted the “Europeanized” language of the Karamzinists with a national linguistic archaism. In “Discourse on the Old and New Syllables of the Russian Language,” he essentially resurrected what was outdated for the 19th century. Lomonosov's teaching about the “three calms,” especially extolling the “high calm.” In the “Conversation” odes, “piims”, tragedies were read, the works of the pillars of Russian classicism were approved.

Classicism was preserved for the longest time in drama; the genre of tragedy became its refuge for a long time. Works in this genre by classicists of the 18th century, especially A.P. Sumarokov, did not leave the stage. However, in the classic tragedy of the early 19th century. new phenomena are discovered, which are most obvious in the dramaturgy of V.A. Ozerova. He was not a member of Beseda; on the contrary, he was even considered a victim of Shakhovsky’s machinations. Ozerov's dramaturgy reveals a tendency between classicism and pre-romanticism.

The evolution of serious genres of classicism to pre-romanticism, developing into romanticism, was reflected not only in Ozerov’s dramaturgy, but also in the early work of the Decembrists - F.N. Glinka and P.A. Katenina, V.F. Raevsky and K.F. Ryleeva; this process is noticeable in such works of Pushkin the Lyceum student as “Memoirs in Tsarskoe Selo”, “Napoleon on the Elbe”, “To Licinius”, in Tyutchev’s ode “Urania”, dedication “For the New Year 1816” and in many other poets. The civic pathos of the poetry of Lomonosov and Derzhavin did not lose its attractive force in the first quarter of the new century. Their traditions were preserved, receiving a new aesthetic existence, being included in a different aesthetic system - civil romanticism.

Enlightenment realism. Russian realism of the early 19th century developed on the basis of the traditions of folklore and literature of the previous time. Its roots go back to the satirical stories of the 17th century, which developed a system of artistic means of depicting everyday, anti-heroic existence, everyday situations and the vicissitudes of the existence of an ordinary person, his mistakes and delusions, his guilt and innocent suffering, or his vices, trickery and the triumph of immorality. Particularly significant for literature of the 19th century. traditions of Russian educational realism of the 18th century, which very successfully declared itself in the work of N.I. Novikova, D.I. Fonvizina, I.A. Krylov, as well as among writers of the second row - M.D. Chulkova and V.A. Levshina. The pinnacle phenomenon in the development of Russian realism of the 18th century. turns out to be “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishcheva. 18th century realism was complicated not only by connections with classicism and sentimentalism, but also by polemics with them.

In this form, the traditions of realism came to Russian literature at the beginning of the new century. Basically, it was educational realism: the principles of social conditioning of human behavior were not yet supported by the principles of historicism, and in-depth psychologism was not recognized as the most important goal of creativity. Writers relied on true enlightenment as a means of improving morals.

The most talented writer - an exponent of the principles of educational realism at this time - Vasily Trifonovich Narezhny (1780-1825), the creator of the first realistic (enlightenment) novel in Russian literature, which was “Russian Zhilblaz, or The Adventures of Prince Gavrila Simonovich Chistyakov.”

New features in prose are identified in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812. Writers, comprehending the grandiose historical event, began to deviate from outdated literary canons, introduced into the narrative specific signs of wartime, genuine historical facts, individual destinies of people, learned to relate the fate of a person to his time . New features of artistic thinking initially appeared not in the large genres of the novel or story, but in newspaper and magazine genres - notes, essays, memoirs, usually written in the form of letters. The principles of concrete historicism began to take shape, which were sometimes combined with a writer’s interest in current everyday life. In the first quarter of the 19th century. realism achieved its greatest success in the fable works of I.A. Krylov, in the famous comedy by A.S. Griboyedov, who inherited the experience of educational realism, and in the tragedy “Boris Godunov” by A.S. Pushkin. The formation of Russian classical realism begins.

The fate of sentimentalism. Sentimentalism, a literary movement in the last third of the 18th century, which attracted many supporters, ended its existence, being criticized from different sides: classicists, pre-romanticists and realists, as a result of which modifications occurred in the system of sentimentalism. Nevertheless, this literary movement, which found refuge in the works of Karamzin and the writers of his school, was very influential at the beginning of the 19th century. and, one might say, was in the forefront of art. Beginning of the 19th century in Russian literature they called it, including Belinsky, the “Karamzin period”. In the works of Karamzin of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Pre-romantic aspirations are very noticeable, although pre-romanticism was not fully formed in his works.

The main character of Karamzin and the Karamzinists is a person of no class in his moral qualities. The Karamzinists contrasted the class hierarchy of the heroes of classicism with the extra-class virtues of the “natural”, “simple” person. The philosophy of sentimentalism seemed to dictate the cult of sensitivity.

Karamzin reproduced in prose and poetry not yet an individual character, but a psychological state. Basically, he and his followers distinguished between two types of personality: the sensitive person and the cold person.

The poets of the Karamzin school gave a new direction to poetry. Philosophical elegies and messages gave way to “light poetry” - songs, often stylized as folklore, humorous, friendly messages and epigrams, “trinkets” - impromptu poetic miniatures, poems “for the occasion”, “for a portrait”, various “inscriptions”. In comparison with the solemn ode and the “piima,” the “trinkets” of “light poetry” captured the rapprochement of poetry with ordinary, everyday life, the rejection of the cliches of high genres, the renewal of the literary language, which consisted in its approach to the spoken language of the enlightened nobility, in the external desire for nationality (but in combination with the principles of “pleasant”, “sweet” and “tender” beauty).

The prose of the writers of this school also had obvious successes. Their favorite genres are a romantic story telling about the sentimental, sad love of two young people, and the travel genre. First of all, Karamzin himself, but also his followers, gave examples of elegantly simple, not burdened by linguistic archaism, naturalistic, rough sketches of the narrative about the subtle and tender love experiences of noble people; The main conflict of the stories, as a rule, is the clash between the sensitive and the cold. Prose developed methods of psychological analysis, techniques of lyrical description, portraiture, and creation of a literary landscape. However, there are many cliches in sentimental prose; the same plot situations and images were repeated many times.

The Karamzin school loudly declared its existence and literary activity by creating the Arzamas association (1815-1818). The reason for organizing the society was Shakhovsky’s comedy “A Lesson for Coquettes, or Lipetsk Waters,” which contained parodic attacks on Zhukovsky and the Karamzinists. Opponents of “Conversation” united, taking the name of the society from D.N.’s pamphlet. Bludov, directed against the Shishkovists, “A Vision in Some Fence, Published by a Society of Learned People,” in which a satirical image of Shakhovsky was created, offending Zhukovsky, and Arzamas was presented as the scene of action. This society included V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, V.L. Pushkin, A.S. Pushkin, D.N. Bludov, P.A. Vyazemsky, S.S. Uvarov and others, later the future Decembrists M.F. joined Arzamas. Orlov, N.I. Turgenev, N.M. Muravyov. The initial goal of the society was to fight “Conversation” and dilapidated classicism. Parodies, epigrams, satires, mocking messages, various types of satirical impromptu, often just puns, sharp words were methods of denunciation. “Conversation” was perceived as a symbol of inertia, routine, and absurd pedantry, and in this way the sphere of denunciation expanded socially. Young people, struggling with the inert “Conversation”, which inherited the traditions of the noble century of the past, acted as if bearers of the idea of ​​novelty and progress, a new idea of ​​the individual, freed from dogmatism and prejudices.

Pre-romanticism. Pre-Romanticism is a pan-European phenomenon in the literature of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. In Russia, it did not take shape as an independent literary movement, and the term itself appeared in the works of researchers of a later time. Pre-romanticism arose both in the depths of classicism and sentimentalism. The ideas of Rousseau, Herder, Russian enlighteners about the “natural man”, kind, moral, harmonious by nature, about the people - the custodian of primordial morality and aesthetic national specificity, the apology of poetic “primitiveness” and criticism of false civilization, the rejection of everyday virtues even in a sentimental shell constitute the social and philosophical basis of pre-romanticism. And in Russian pre-romanticism, as in English, which was noted by V.M. Zhirmunsky, a rethinking of the category of beauty was carried out, which included new aesthetic assessments: “picturesque”, “Gothic”, “romantic”, “original”.

At the beginning of the 19th century. it most obviously manifested itself in the work of writers who united in the “Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts” (1801-1825), the heyday of which dates back to 1801-1807. Its talented and active participants are I.P. Pnin, A.Kh. Vostokov, V.V. Parrots; The society also included A.F. Merzlyakov, K.N. Batyushkov, N.I. was close to them. Gnedich.

The pre-romantic stage in the development of Russian poetry played a big role in the literary activity of A.S. Pushkin, the poets of his circle, the Decembrist poets. It prevented the flourishing of Byronism and “world sorrow” on Russian soil and helped establish the principles of nationality. Russian pre-romanticism, influential thanks to Batyushkov and Gnedich, young Pushkin and his friends, contributed to the formation of original ways of development of romanticism, encouraged searches in the field of folk aesthetics, civic animation, and solidarity of fellow poets.

Romanticism. Romanticism is a pan-European literary movement, and its emergence is usually associated with the events of French history in the last third of the 18th century. Academician A.N. Pypin, clarifying the social meaning of the phenomenon, noted: “It was difficult for Russian society to remain aloof from the struggle that was going on in European life and striving to develop new social, political and moral principles.” The socio-historical cataclysms of the late 18th century and the associated Patriotic War of 1812 exposed the contradictions of life that defied reasonable explanation. His heyday in Russia was the 10-20s, but in the 30s he had his outstanding achievements. It is in romanticism that there is an acute awareness of the contradictions of life; this idea became more and more universal. Orientation towards Western Europe was losing its meaning, and gallomania became especially increasingly hateful for educated and thoughtful nobles and commoners. The consciousness of Russian romantics is increasingly turning to national-folk origins in search of new social, ethical and aesthetic supports. The demand from literature for nationality and national identity becomes commonplace in romanticism.

Philosophical foundations Romanticism were also pan-European. Although there is no identity between romanticism and philosophical idealism, the attraction to various movements of the latter and its schools is obvious, and especially to religion. The Romantics realized the high meaning of man’s spiritual life and neglected material existence as low and vulgar, worthy only of the philistine crowd. Religious faith, Christianity, was the life-giving source of their works. Pagan images and paintings of pre-Christian antiquity in romanticism were by no means the product of a rejection of Christianity, but a tribute to a new aesthetic fashion, a poetic attraction to the “unsolved past”, which updated the plots, metaphorical language, and, in general, the lyricism of the work.

At the same time, in Russian romanticism the traditions of Russian philosophizing are growing stronger in the works of the Turgenev brothers, Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, Galich and Pavlov, in the works of I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, in the artistic work of the romantics. We can highlight the following distinctive features of Russian romantic philosophizing: the predominance of ethical and then historiosophical issues, the combination of philosophizing and practical action (philanthropic, social-civil or artistic-creative, teaching). An artistic, and most of all lyrical, method of philosophizing was adopted - in the poetry of Zhukovsky, Tyutchev, Baratynsky, Lermontov and others.

Romanticism, in its leading methodological principle, opposed realism, which in the content and forms of creativity was oriented towards objective reality in all the diversity of its manifestations. In romanticism, poetic knowledge of reality was realized through oneself, the creator of artistic value.

In romantic literature, serious and usually unsmiling, one type of comic is recognized - romantic irony, which is based on the bitter smile of a dreamer who builds castles in the air over the prose of life. Rejection of reality and disappointment in it were not expressed in the notorious typical images in typical circumstances. Artistic generalizations were made on the paths symbolization of phenomena.

At the same time, romantics are characterized by a passionate desire for the ideal, because the purpose of art, according to their theories, is to comprehend the absolute principles of existence and to touch them.

Symbols of an ideal world in romanticism: sea, wind - freedom; star - ideal world; sun, ray of dawn - happiness; spring, morning - moral awakening; fire, roses - love, love passion. The romantic system also accepted ancient folklore or literary traditions of the symbolism of color and the symbolism of flowers and plants: white - innocence, moral purity (birch, lily), red, pink - the color of love (rose), black - sadness. Although their flower symbolism became more complex, multi-valued and bizarre. The ideal received an aesthetic assessment as sublimely beautiful, raised above everyday life. At the same time, it was combined with a special aesthetic assessment put forward by this particular literary movement. The aesthetic categories of the beautiful, sublime, and tragic are also placed on a par with category pomantic. Romance was found in exceptional, exotic characters and situations, in fairy-tale and fantastic episodes.

A new one has also formed aesthetic ideal. The romantic aesthetic ideal usually destroyed the external correctness of artistic drawing, the strict thoughtfulness of all plot and pictorial lines, the logic and completeness of the composition. They defended freedom from the “rules” of art, introduced new genres into literature, and modified the old ones.

Romanticism knows different style trends:“Gothic” style, “antique”, “old Russian”, “folklore”, “pantheistic-lyrical”, “meditative-philosophical”, etc. In the works of Zhukovsky, Ryleev and A. Odoevsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, Baratynsky, Tyutchev one can find examples of these stylistic trends.

Romanticism is an outstanding and unique literary movement, under the spell of which almost all the poets of the first half of the last century found themselves; in any case, they experienced a passion for it and retained deep connections with this sublime art. Russian classical literature in general and the prose and poetry of the last century are imbued with romantic spirituality.

Literature:

1. History of Russian literature of the 19th century (first half) / Ed. CM. Petrova. M., 1973

2. Kuleshov V.I. History of Russian literature of the 19th century. M., 1997.

3. Mann Yu.V. History of Russian literature of the 19th century. The era of romanticism. M., 2001.

4. History of Russian literature of the 19th century. 1800-1830s. In 2 parts. Part 1 /Ed.

V.N. Anoshkina, L.D. Thunderous. M., 2001.

5. Yakushin M.I. Russian literature of the 19th century (first half). M., 2001.

Rogover E.S. Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. SPb., M., 2004.

Essay
on the topic: Literary movements and movements of the 17th-19th centuries.
(classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism)

Abstract on the discipline
"Culturology"
performed by a student of group YURZ-09-3
Eremeeva Olga Olegovna

Irkutsk, 2011
Content

Page
Introduction .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. ....... 3 – 4

General characteristics of literary trends and movements XVII-XIX centuries .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .......... 5 – 7
Literary trends and movements of the 17th-19th centuries. .............................. . 8

INTRODUCTION
Russian literary life of the early 19th century. proceeded under the sign of the ever-deepening collapse of classicism and fierce disputes around its artistic heritage.
Various events of the late 18th century. - which began under the influence of the growth of capitalism and the collapse of feudal-serf relations, the involvement in this culture of the country, increasingly wider sections of the landowner class and the “third estate” - this whole chain of heterogeneous phenomena led to the decline and decomposition of the dominant style of the previous era.
The overwhelming majority of writers abandoned what classicism so lovingly cultivated - the decorous and cold normativism that carefully separated the “high” forms of art from the “mean” types that served the interests of the despicable “rabble.” The democratization of literature is accompanied by the democratization of language.
The organization of the literary base of the Old Belief at the beginning of the century was taken over by Admiral A.S. Shishkov, expressing his ideas in the essay “Discourse on the old and new syllable of the Russian language,” which was published in 1803 and quickly became a confession of faith for all supporters of the “good old” classical art.
This center of literary “Old Belief” was opposed by two societies that united opponents of classicism.
The earliest in terms of the time of its emergence and at the same time the most radical in its political tendencies was the “Sick Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.”
The purpose of this essay is to study literary trends and movements of the 17th-19th centuries.
Based on the purpose of the test, I have identified the following tasks:
- consider the general characteristics of literary trends and movements of the 17th-19th centuries;
- identify the characteristic features of classicism;
- identify the characteristic features of sentimentalism;
- identify the characteristic features of romanticism;
- identify the characteristic features of realism.

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERARY DIRECTIONS AND TRENDS
XVII-XIX centuries.
Literary direction is often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. The laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed in the struggle and change of directions.
The concept " direction » are characterized by the following features:

the commonality of the deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations of artistic content, due to the unity of cultural and artistic traditions;
the same type of worldview of writers and the life problems they face;
the similarity of the epochal socio-cultural-historical situation.

CHAPTER 2. LITERARY DIRECTIONS
Classicism
Classicism – (from Latin classicus - exemplary) - a direction in the literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, focusing on aesthetically reference images and forms of ancient (“classical”) art. The poetics of classicism began to take shape in Italy, but classicism took shape as the first independent literary movement in France in the 17th century. - in the era of the heyday of absolutism. F. Malherbe is recognized as the official founder of classicism; the poetic canons of classicism were formulated in N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art” (1674) 3 . The aesthetics of classicism is based on the principles of rationalism: a work of art is considered by classicism as intelligently constructed, logically verified, capturing the enduring, essential properties of things. The external diversity, disorder, and chaos of empirical reality are overcome in art by the power of reason. The ancient principle of “imitation of beautiful nature”: art is designed to present an ideal, reasonable model of the universe. It is no coincidence that the key concept in classicism is the model: that which is perfect, correct, and unshakable has aesthetic value.
Interest in the intelligible universal laws of life, as opposed to the “stuff” of everyday life, led to an appeal to ancient art - modernity was projected onto history and mythology, the momentary was verified by the eternal. However, by asserting the priority of rational order over the current variability of living life, the classicists thereby emphasized the opposition of reason and feeling, civilization and nature, the general and the individual. The desire to capture the “intelligent beauty” of the world in a work of art also dictated strict regulation of the laws of poetics.
Classicism is characterized by a strict genre hierarchy: genres are divided into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (comedy, satire, fable). The subject of depiction in high genres are historical events, state life, the heroes are monarchs, generals, and mythological characters. Low genres are aimed at depicting the private life, everyday life, and everyday activities of “ordinary people” 4 . Each genre has strictly defined formal characteristics: for example, in dramaturgy, the fundamental rule in organizing stage action was the rule of three unities - the unity of place (the action should take place in one house), time (the action should fit into one day) and action (events in the play should be combined a single node of conflict, and the action develops within the framework of one storyline). Tragedy has become the leading classic genre: its main conflict is the confrontation between the private, individual and social, historical existence of man. The hero of the tragedy is faced with the need to choose between feeling and duty, free will and moral imperative. The main subject of artistic research is the internal split between the real and ideal “I” of a person.
In low genres, history and myth faded into the background - the verisimilitude and recognition of situations from modern everyday life became more important.
In Russian literature, the formation of classicism occurs in the 18th century; it is associated primarily with the names of M. Lomonosov, A. Sumarokov, A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky.
The greatest importance in the genre system of Russian classicism is given to satires (A. Cantemir), fables (I. Krylov), comedies (D. Fonvizin). Russian classicism is distinguished by its predominant development of national-historical issues, rather than ancient ones, and its focus on modern themes and specific phenomena of Russian life.
Among the high genres, the central place belongs to the ode (M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin), which combined patriotic pathos with high lyrical, subjective experience.
Russian classicism went through 3 periods:
1) from the 30s to the 50s of the 18th century - the efforts of writers at this stage were aimed at the development of education and science, the creation of literature and a national language. This problem will be solved in the works of A.S. Pushkin.
2) 60s, end of the 18th century - the tasks of educating a person - a citizen - come to the fore. The works angrily denounce personal vices that prevent a person from serving for the benefit of the state.
3) the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries - there was a decline in classicism; National motives are intensifying, writers are no longer interested in just the type of ideal nobleman, but in the type of Russian ideal nobleman.
Thus, Russian classicism at all stages was distinguished by high citizenship.
The decline of classicism:
In Russia, classicism as a literary direction of liberal-noble orientation arose in the 30s of the 18th century. and reached its peak in the 50s and 60s. At the beginning of the 19th century. Outstanding supporters of classicism, M.M. Kheraskov and G.R. Derzhavin, still lived and wrote. But by this time, Russian classicism as a literary movement was losing its former progressive features: civic-educational and state-patriotic pathos, the affirmation of human reason, opposition to religious-ascetic scholasticism, a critical attitude towards monarchical despotism and the abuses of serfdom.
Some properties of the poetics of classicism are used by individual writers and later (for example, Kuchelbecker and Ryleev) 5 are perceived by advanced romantics. However, as a literary movement, classicism becomes an arena of epigonism (i.e., imitative literary activity devoid of creative originality). The defense of autocracy and serfdom evoked the full support of classicism among the ruling circles.

Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism (French sentimentalism, from sentiment - feeling) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which established feeling, rather than reason, as the dominant of the human personality and human existence. The normativity of the aesthetics of sentimentalism lies in the given ideal: if in classicism the ideal is “a reasonable man,” then in sentimentalism it is a “feeling man,” capable of releasing and improving “natural” feelings. The hero of sentimentalist writers is more individual; his psychological world is more diverse and mobile, the emotional sphere is even hypertrophied.
Sentimentalism - as opposed to classicism - asserts the value of a person beyond the class (the democratization of the hero is a distinctive feature of sentimentalism): the wealth of the inner world is recognized for every person.
The aesthetic features of sentimentalism begin to take shape in the works of J. Thomson, E. Jung, T. Gray: writers turn to the depiction of an idyllic landscape, conducive to thinking about the eternal; The atmosphere of the work is determined by melancholic contemplation, focus on the process of formation and the dynamics of experience. Attention to the psychological world of man in its contradictory features is a distinctive feature of the novels. Richardson (“Clarissa,” “The History of Sir Charles Grandison”) 6. The standard work that gave its name to the literary movement is “Sentimental Journey” by L. Stern.
A distinctive feature of English sentimentalism is “sensitivity” combined with irony and sarcasm. Russian sentimentalism is marked by a focus on didacticism, the imposition of an ethical ideal on the reader (the most typical example is “Letters of a Russian Traveler” by N. Karamzin).
In Russian literature, sentimentalism manifested itself in two directions: reactionary (Shalikov) and liberal (Karamzin, Zhukovsky). Idealizing reality, reconciling, obscuring the contradictions between the nobility and the peasantry, reactionary sentimentalists painted an idyllic utopia in their works: autocracy and social hierarchy are sacred; serfdom was established by God himself for the sake of the happiness of the peasants; serf peasants live better than free ones; It is not serfdom itself that is vicious, but its abuse. Defending these ideas, Prince P.I. Shalikov in “Travel to Little Russia” depicted the life of peasants full of contentment, fun, and joy. In the play by playwright N.I. Ilyin’s “Liza, or the Triumph of Gratitude” the main character, a peasant woman, praising her life, says: “We live as cheerfully as the red sun.” The peasant Arkhip, the hero of the play “Generosity, or Recruitment” by the same author, assures: “Yes, such good kings as there are in holy Rus', go out into the whole wide world, you will not find others” 7 .
The idyllic nature of creativity was especially manifested in the cult of the beautifully sensitive personality with its desire for ideal friendship and love, admiration for the harmony of nature and a cutesy mannered way of expressing one’s thoughts and feelings. Thus, playwright V.M. Fedorov, “correcting” the plot of Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza,” forced Erast to repent, abandon his rich bride and return to Liza, who remains alive. To top it all off, the tradesman Matvey, Lisa’s father, turns out to be the son of a wealthy nobleman (“Liza, or the Consequence of Pride and Seduction,” 1803).
However, in the development of domestic sentimentalism, the leading role belonged not to reactionary, but to progressive, liberal-minded writers: A.M. Kutuzov, M.N. Muravyov, N.M. Karamzin, V.A. Zhukovsky. Belinsky rightly called “a remarkable person”, “a collaborator and assistant of Karamzin in the transformation of the Russian language and Russian literature” I.I. Dmitriev - poet, fabulist, translator.
Liberal-minded sentimentalists saw their calling in, as far as possible, comforting people in suffering, troubles, sorrows, and turning them to virtue, harmony and beauty. Perceiving human life as perverse and fleeting, they glorified eternal values ​​- nature, friendship and love. They enriched literature with such genres as elegy, correspondence, diary, travel, essay, story, novel, drama. Overcoming the normative and dogmatic requirements of classicist poetics, sentimentalists largely contributed to the rapprochement of the literary language with the spoken language. According to K.N. Batyushkova, the model for them is the one “who writes the way he speaks, whom the ladies read!” Individualizing the language of the characters, they used elements of popular vernacular for peasants, official jargon for clerks, Gallicisms for the secular nobility, etc. But this differentiation was not carried out consistently. Positive characters, even serfs, spoke, as a rule, in literary language.

Romanticism
Romanticism (etymologically goes back to the Spanish romance; in the 18th century the concept of “romantic” was interpreted as an indication of unusualness, strangeness, “literariness”) - a literary movement that formed in European literature at the beginning of the 19th century. Historically, the emergence of romanticism and the development of its ideological and aesthetic principles occurred during the era of the crisis of educational ideas. The ideal of a rationally organized civilization began to be perceived as a great mirage of a bygone era; The “victory of reason” turned out to be ephemeral, but aggressively real - the prosaic everyday life of the world of “common sense”, pragmatics and expediency.
Bourgeois civilization of the late 18th century. only caused disappointment. It is no coincidence that the attitude of the romantics is described using the concept of “world sorrow” 8: despair, loss of faith in social progress, the inability to resist the melancholy of monotonous everyday life grew into cosmic pessimism and caused a tragic discord between man and the entire world order. That is why the principle of romantic dual worlds, which presupposes a sharp contrast between the hero and his ideal and the surrounding world, becomes fundamental to romanticism.
The absolutism of the spiritual claims of the romantics determined the perception of reality as obviously imperfect, devoid of inner meaning. The “terrible world” began to seem like a kingdom of the irrational, where a person’s personal freedom is opposed to the inevitability of fate and fate. The incompatibility of ideal and reality was expressed in the departure of the romantics from modern themes into the world of history, folk tales and legends, the world of imagination, sleep, dreams, fantasy. The second - ideal - world was necessarily built at a distance from reality: distance in time - hence the attention to the past, national history, myth; in space - hence the transfer of action in a work of art to distant exotic countries (for Russian literature the Caucasus became such an exotic world); The “invisible” distance ran between sleep and reality, dream and reality, imagination and reality.
The spiritual world of man appeared in romanticism as a microcosm, a small universe. The infinity of human individuality, the intellectual and emotional world is the central problem of romanticism.
The cult of individuality was maximally expressed in the work of J. Byron; It is no coincidence that a special designation appeared for the now canonical romantic hero - “Byronic hero”. Proud loneliness, disappointment, tragic attitude and at the same time rebellion and rebellion of spirit are the circle of concepts that define the character of the “Byronic hero.”
In the field of aesthetics, romanticism - as opposed to classicism - asserted the artist’s right not to “imitate nature”, but to creative activity, the creation of his own, individual world - more real than the empirical reality “given to us in sensation.” This principle is reflected in the system of genre forms of romanticism: the fantastic story (short story), the ballad (built on the combination and reciprocity of the real and fantastic worlds) are becoming widespread, and the genre of the historical novel is being formed.
The romantic worldview was most clearly manifested in the poems: in the center of the image they were “an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances,” and his inner world was presented in dynamics, at the “peak points” of emotional tension (“Prisoner of the Caucasus” and “Gypsies of A. Pushkin, “ Mtsyri" by M. Lermontov).
Romanticism as a method and direction, which developed at the turn of the 18th - 9th centuries, is a complex and contradictory phenomenon. Disputes about romanticism, its essence and place in literature have been going on for more than a century and a half, and there is still no recognized definition of romanticism. The romantics themselves persistently emphasized the national uniqueness of each literature, and indeed, romanticism in each country acquired such pronounced national features that in connection with this, doubt often arises whether it is possible to talk about any general features of romanticism. Romanticism at the beginning of the 19th century also captured other forms of art: music, painting, theater.
The achievements of Russian romanticism are associated primarily with the names of V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, E. Baratynsky, M. Lermontov, F. Tyutchev.

Realism
Realism (from Latin realis - real, real) - a literary movement that established itself in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century. and passed through the entire twentieth century. Realism affirms the priority of the cognitive capabilities of literature (hence the affirmation of literature as a way of special - artistic - exploration of reality), strives for in-depth knowledge of all aspects of life, typification of life facts 9.
Unlike the classicists or romantics, the realist writer approaches the depiction of life without a predetermined intellectual template - reality for him is a world open to endless knowledge. A living image of reality is born thanks to the recognition, concreteness of the details of everyday life and being: the depiction of a specific place of action, the chronological assignment of events to a specific historical period, and the reproduction of the details of everyday life.
Realism involves the study of the relationship between characters and circumstances, shows the formation of characters under the influence of the environment. The relationship between character and circumstances in realism is two-sided: a person’s behavior is determined by external circumstances - but this does not negate his ability to oppose his free will to them. Hence the deep conflict nature of realistic literature: life is depicted in the most acute clashes of the heroes’ multidirectional personal aspirations, their conscious opposition to the will of extrapersonal, objective circumstances.
At the beginning of the twentieth century. Russian realism was influenced by the literary modernism that opposed it. There has been a major update in the aesthetics and style of realism. The work of M. Gorky and his followers affirmed the ability of the individual to transform social circumstances. Realism produced great artistic discoveries and continues to be one of the most influential literary movements.

CONCLUSION
The artistic culture of modern times has completed a long stage in the evolution of European culture since antiquity. In the 17th - 20th centuries, the question of the forms of reflection of reality in art was constantly being resolved.
From medieval symbolism in the Renaissance, the transition to a mimetric (from the Greek “imitation”) naturalistic depiction of man and nature begins.
Realistic art moved along the path of liberation of content and genre forms from mythological schemes of world perception.
etc.................

CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic movement that originated in the Renaissance and continued its development until the first decades of the 19th century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Its main features were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art” (1674). Classicism was considered as a movement oriented towards ancient art. The definition of classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, comparison to ancient models and strict adherence to rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of “three unities” (“unity of time”, “unity of place”, “unity of action”) were mandatory, which became a symbol for the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in drama. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this movement understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchangeable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmony of composition, a set of specific themes, motives, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although prose genres such as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.

The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of “good taste”, developed by the so-called “good society”. The taste of classicism prefers brevity to verbosity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity, extravagant - decency. The basic law of classicism is artistic verisimilitude, which depicts things and people as they should be according to moral standards, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which should turn them into universal human types.

The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.

SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; French - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art of the 18th century. Sentimentalism received its name after the publication of the novel “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” by the English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimental writers is on the life of the human heart; the external world of nature in their works is closely connected with the inner world of the human soul, with intense interest in the emotional sphere and experiences of an individual person. The sublime principle, fundamental in the works of the theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of the touching, sympathy for one’s neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, and a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated back in the 18th century and enjoyed great reader success and had a significant influence on domestic writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its highest flowering in the works of N.M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”, “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”, “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravyova, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitrieva.

ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant movements in European and American art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, which became widespread worldwide and discovered many talented artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, the desire for a sublime, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between ideal and reality, a feeling of a gap between them and at the same time a thirst for their reunification is the defining beginning of romantic art.

Romantics have always been attracted to fantastic plots and images, folk legends, parables, and fairy tales; they were interested in unknown distant countries, the life of tribes and peoples, heroic turning points in historical eras, the fertile and bright world of living nature, with which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed the high and the low, the tragic and the comic, the real and the fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - the historical novel, the lyric-epic poem, the fairy tale. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change existing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyric poetry. The artistic discoveries of romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.

Under conditions different from those of Western Europe, Russian romanticism arose and developed, becoming the main event of literary life in the 1820s. Its most important features were less distinctness of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. The period of origin of the romantic movement in Russia falls on the years 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a huge influence on subsequent literature. The years 1816 - 1825 became a time of intensive development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity of the Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delviga. A.S. becomes the central figure of Russian romanticism. Pushkin. In the third period, covering 1826-1840, romanticism became most widespread in Russian literature. The culmination of this direction was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutchev, early works of N.V. Gogol. Subsequently, the influence of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Romantic traditions continue to this day.

REALISM(from Late Lat. - material, real) - the leading literary movement of the 19th-20th centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and the human personality in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory became a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubova, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the clear manifestation of certain “unrealistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a complete, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (albeit optionally) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged quite late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is experiencing constant changes and renewals, while revealing a natural “survival” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.

MODERNISM(from French - newest) - an aesthetic concept that emerged in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s-1930s. Modernism arose as a result of a revision of the philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles of artistic culture of the 19th century, which occurred during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and movements as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, they are all united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible changes, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, allowing us to talk about a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, drama, and prose.

POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - a term used in recent decades, but still not received a clear and unambiguous interpretation, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is polysemantic and multi-level, subject to the influence of national-historical , social and other circumstances, a complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, determined by the specifics of worldview, attitude and assessment of a person’s cognitive capabilities, his place and role in the world around him. The origin of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of the Second World War, however, as a socio-aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its entirety, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he is trying to resist. In this regard, the concepts with which theorists of this direction operate are not accidental: “the world as chaos”, “postmodern sensitivity”, “the world as a text”, “consciousness as a text”, “intertextuality”, “crisis of authorities”, “author’s mask”, “parody mode of narration”, fragmentation of narration, meta-story, etc.

Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- advanced detachment) avant-garde- a general name for movements in world art, primarily in European art, that emerged at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The brightest representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:

· futurism - Alexey Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;

· expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.

Dramaturgy

The pioneer of avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and worldview are consolidated in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, the late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hofmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama was enriched with the techniques of absurdist literature. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrowicz, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received complete expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel developed absurdist motifs in their dramas.

Literary direction is an ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers of a certain country and era, which has received a programmatic justification. The belonging of writers to one direction is determined by the unity of cultural tradition, the relative similarity of worldview and methods of reproducing reality. In the history of Russian literature, the most significant trends were classicism, romanticism and realism.

A literary movement is different from a current. Writers may belong to one direction,

Different in ideological views and aesthetic features of creativity, that is, in one literary direction there can be different movements. The movement presupposes a commonality of ethical and social ideals, artistic principles and techniques.

Thus, in Russian classicism the “Sumarokov” and “Lomonosov” movements stand out.

Classicism- a literary movement that originated in the 17th century. but France in the conditions of the formation of an absolutist state. Classical writers chose ancient art as a role model, but interpreted it in their own way. Classicism is based on

The principle of rationalism (racio). Everything must be subject to reason, both in the state and in personal life, and selfish feelings and passions must be brought within the framework of civil and moral duty by reason.

The theorist of classicism was the French poet Nicolas Boileau, who outlined the program of the movement in the book “Poetic Art”. In classicism, certain creative rules (norms) were established:

– The main conflict of the works is the struggle between egoistic feeling and civic duty or between passion and reason. In this case, duty and reason always win.

– In accordance with their attitude to public duty, the actors were divided into positive and negative. The characters had only one quality, one dominant trait (cowardice or courage, deceit or nobility, etc.), i.e. the characters were one-line.

– A strict hierarchy of genres was established in literature. All of them were divided into high (ode, heroic poem, tragedy) and low (fable, satire, comedy). Outstanding events were depicted in high genres; the heroes were monarchs, statesmen, and generals.

They glorified deeds for the benefit of the state and the monarchy. The language in works of high genres was supposed to be solemn and majestic.

In low genres, the life of people of the middle classes was depicted, everyday phenomena and individual character traits of a person were ridiculed. The language of fables and comedies was close to colloquial.

Dramatic works in the aesthetics of classicism were subject to the requirement of three unities: time, place and action. The unity of time and place meant that the action in the play should take no more than a day and take place in one place. The unity of action dictated a plot line that was not complicated by side episodes.

In France, the leading writers of classicism were playwrights P. Corneille and J. Racine (in the genre of tragedy), Moliere (comedy), J. Lafontaine (fable).

In Russia, classicism developed from the 18th century. Although Russian classicism had much in common with Western European, in particular with French, national specificity was clearly manifested in literature. If Western European classicism turned to ancient subjects, then Russian writers took material from national history. In Russian classicism, a critical note sounded clearly, the denunciation of vices was sharper, and the interest in the folk language and in folk art in general was more pronounced.

Representatives of classicism in Russian literature are A. D. Kantemir, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin.

Romanticism- an ambiguous phenomenon. Develops in the literature of Europe and Russia from the end of the 18th - in the first third of the 19th century. In each country, romanticism had its own characteristics. The high landmarks of romanticism were in England - J.

G. Byron, in France - V. Hugo, in Germany - E. T. A. Hoffmann and G. Heine, in Poland and Belarus - A. Mickiewicz.

In romanticism, the dominant importance is the writer’s subjective position in relation to reality, which is expressed not so much in its reconstruction as in its re-creation. Romantic writers had some common features:

– Dissatisfaction with reality, discord with it, disappointment led to the creation of a picture of the world that corresponded to the writer’s ideals. All romantic writers depart from reality. Some - into the world of foggy dreams, a mystical past, the other world (the so-called passive romanticism, or, more precisely, religious-mystical).

Others dreamed of the future, called for a struggle for the reconstruction of society, for personal freedom (active or civic romanticism).

– The heroes of romantic poetry are unusual, exceptional personalities. These are either lonely rebels disappointed in life, leaving society, or strong and courageous individuals who perform heroic deeds, ready to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the happiness of others.

– Exceptional characters act in exceptional circumstances, in which they demonstrate all their extraordinary qualities, and the heroes act outside of social and everyday conditions. The action can take place in exotic countries, in the other world.

– In romantic works, the lyrical principle predominates. Their tone is emotional, upbeat, pathetic.

In Russia, religious and moralistic romanticism is represented by the work of V. A. Zhukovsky, civil romanticism by K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker. A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, and the early M. Gorky paid tribute to romanticism.

Realism- a literary direction in which the surrounding reality is depicted specifically historically, in the diversity of its contradictions, and “typical characters act in typical circumstances.”

Literature is understood by realist writers as a textbook of life. Therefore, they strive to comprehend life in all its contradictions, and a person - in psychological, social and other aspects of his personality.

Common features of realism:

– Historicism of thinking.

– The focus is on the patterns operating in life, determined by cause-and-effect relationships.

– Fidelity to reality becomes the leading criterion of artistry in realism.

– A person is depicted in interaction with the environment in authentic life circumstances. Realism shows the influence of the social environment on a person’s spiritual world and the formation of his character.

– Characters and circumstances interact with each other: character is not only conditioned (determined) by circumstances, but also itself influences them (changes, opposes).

– Works of realism present deep conflicts, life is given in dramatic clashes. Reality is given in development. Realism depicts not only already established forms of social relations and types of characters, but also reveals emerging ones that form a trend.

– The nature and type of realism depends on the socio-historical situation - it manifests itself differently in different eras.

In the second third of the 19th century. The critical attitude of writers to the surrounding reality has intensified - both to the environment, society, and to man. A critical understanding of life, aimed at denying its individual aspects, gave rise to the name realism of the 19th century. critical.

The largest Russian realists were L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov.

The depiction of the surrounding reality and human characters from the point of view of the progressiveness of the socialist ideal created the basis of socialist realism. The first work of socialist realism in Russian literature is considered to be M. Gorky’s novel “Mother”. A. Fadeev, D. Furmanov, M. Sholokhov, A. Tvardovsky worked in the spirit of socialist realism.

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26. Classicism as a movement emerged at the turn of the 16th – 17th centuries. Its origins lie in the activities of the Italian and partly Spanish academic schools, as well as the association of French writers “Pleiades”, who in the late Renaissance turned to ancient art, trying to find in its harmonious images new support for the ideas of humanism that had experienced a deep crisis. The emergence of classicism in full [...]
27. Back in the 40s. XIX century poetry was clearly giving way to prose. Relatively little time passed and the situation changed. Already in the next decade, poetry again occupied its rightful place in the literary movement, in some cases it even preceded and stimulated artistic searches in the field of prose. In Russian poetry of the mid-19th century. It is generally accepted that there are two directions. WITH […]...
28. Never before in the history of Russian literature has there been such a variety of literary trends, fighting among themselves and influencing each other, as in the first quarter of the 19th century. Russian classicism lives and attracts with its civil themes and sublime style. It is reflected, for example, in the early poetry of Ryleev, Pushkin and other poets. Classicism is also promoted by conservative writers, [...]
29. Why does A. N. Radishchev call the “eighteenth century” both crazy and wise? Radishchev assessed the eighteenth century as a century of contradictions. On the one hand, Russia has made great progress in the political sphere, in strengthening statehood and authority in the international arena. Russia's borders expanded and strengthened. Radishchev undoubtedly highly appreciated the dissemination and development of educational ideas and their influence on social and [...]
30. Classicism is an artistic style and aesthetic movement in European literature and art of the 17th – early 18th centuries. Its most important feature was its appeal to examples of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. The writers were guided by the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle and the Roman poet Horace. The aesthetics of classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres and styles. High genres – […]...
31. Chapter 1. Characteristics of European literature of the 17th century 1.5. Literary process: classicism Classicism - from lat. classicus - exemplary. The main feature of European classicism is a deep appeal to the ancient heritage. The classicists focused their artistic creativity on ancient art, on the works of Aristotle and Horace. Hence the strict regulation of literary genres and styles, the orderliness of thought, supported by the nature of rationalistic philosophy. […]...
32. Historical and literary process. Literary trends and movements The historical and literary process is a set of generally significant changes in literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries. The study of the patterns of development of literature constitutes the concept of “historical-literary process”. The development of the literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary directions and trends. Continuous change in literature – [...]
33. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, in Russian literature, as in most European literatures, the leading role was played by modernist trends, which were most clearly manifested in poetry. The era of modernism in Russian literature is called the “Silver Age”. The specificity of the “Silver Age” lies in the fact that, carrying out creative searches on the general principles of modernism at the end of the 19th century, writers at the beginning of the 20th century should […]...
34. Romanticism, as a literary movement, is characterized by dissatisfaction with the present, modern reality. This dissatisfaction gives rise to dreams of what should be, of what is desired. But this desired thing, what one would like to see in life, was presented to romantic writers in different ways. Therefore, two main movements emerged in romanticism - conservative and revolutionary. Representatives of revolutionary romanticism are focused on the future, full of liberation ideas, associated with […]...
35. The authors of the underground (or “underground”) set the requirements for themselves. In choosing topics and searching for a new aesthetic, they did not have to adapt to the requirements of editors. The writers have one very significant thing in common. They are sharply polemical in relation to Soviet reality and to all, without exception, recommendations of socialist realism on how to depict this reality, first of all […]...
36. Literature of the Peter the Great era: panegyric and “private”. Sermons by Feofan Prokopovich. Formation of secular literature. The formation and evolution of classicism: the origins of world classicism: the main features (cult of reason, citizenship, idealization of heroes, a clear division of heroes into absolutely positive and negative, schematism in the plot-compositional organization of the text). Basic principles of aesthetics: imitation of models (the standard is the art and culture of antiquity), imitation of nature. The principle of three unities [...]
37. Chapter 1. Characteristics of European literature of the 17th century 1.2. Literary process: Renaissance realism of the 17th century continues to implement Renaissance traditions in literature in the context of a changing historical picture of the world. Renaissance realism did not form into an independent movement in the 17th century, but had a significant influence on the artistic worldview of writers of Baroque and Classicism. In contrast to the humanism of the Renaissance, Renaissance realism [...]
38. REALISM AND REALITY In the teaching environment, the student’s answer to the question about realism is widely known: “realism truthfully depicts reality.” The simple-minded student does not realize that, using such a simple criterion, we classify Fonvizin’s “Undergrowth”, and Derzhavin’s “Felitsa”, and Karamzin’s “Poor Liza”, and even more so “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by the frantic Radishchev as realism - That's why […]...
39. The works of A. I. Kuprin amaze the reader with a variety of topics. This wonderful Russian writer makes actors, manufacturers, engineers, officers, the noble aristocracy and other contemporaries the heroes of his books. He took knowledge about them from life, since he moved in different social environments and communicated with a variety of people. Kuprin traveled all over Russia, changing one profession […]...
40. ROMANTICISM is a creative method and literary movement that arose initially in Europe and then in Russia at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries (Byron, Shelley, A. Chenier, V. Hugo, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, early Pushkin, Ryleev, etc.) . Subsequently, romanticism turned out to be a completely viable method and repeatedly appeared in literature right up to the present day (Lermontov, Fet, Tyutchev, Blok, Gorky […]...

Before talking about specific ones, you first need to learn about literary trends. They represent the historical embodiment of artistic knowledge and reproduction of the world, manifested in the ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers.

In the history of literature, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism and postmodernism are distinguished.

A literary direction is a special synthesis of the way of understanding reality through art and the individual style of the creator. Any literary movement includes a collection of works that have common features. Within a literary period, several literary movements may appear, for example, in the Age of Enlightenment - classicism and sentimentalism, as well as rococo. The name of the dominant movement often becomes the name of an entire period in literature, and its time frame may extend beyond clear limits. Literary movements can form movements or schools.

Periodization of the main literary trends:

1. classicism (XVIII – early XIX centuries);
2. sentimentalism (second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries);
3. romanticism (second half of the 18th – early 20th centuries);
4. realism (second half of the 19th century);
5. modernism (late 19th – 20th centuries): impressionism, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, etc.;
6. postmodernism (since the 1980s of the 20th century).

In addition to these main areas, the following are often distinguished:

• Impressionism (the last third of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century), with the desire to convey the first fleeting impression, captures the focus of attention on a riot of feelings and emotions. The composition of the work is clearly fragmentary. Attention is directed not to the general, but to the specific and individual. Guy de Maupassant and M. Proust are worthy representatives of this trend.
• Expressionism (1910–1920s) combines critical pathos and horror at the cruel picture of existence. The death of man and humanity, the attraction to abstraction and the grotesque are features of some of the works of L. N. Andreev and F. K. Sologub.
• Existentialism (mid-twentieth century) gives a feeling of the collapse of all values. The tragedy of human existence is insurmountable. J. P. Sartre and A. Camus saw a lonely person in familiar society.