There are people who argue: if a person is not interested in art, he has nothing to do in Italy. It sounds too categorical, but there is some truth in this: to be in Italy and pass by Italian art is simply to rob yourself. According to experts, two thirds of all works of fine art are concentrated in Italy. Think about it: in small Italy - two thirds, but in everything big world- the remaining third.
For us, Tuscany will forever remain the birthplace of the Renaissance, which gave the world dozens of brilliant names. Such titans as Giotto di Bondone, Michelangelo Buanarotti, Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli were born here, and in Tuscan Florence the artists Raphael Santi, Perugino, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio were formed. All over the world, following the Italians, Tuscan geniuses are called not by their surnames, but simply by their first names: Giotto, Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo... Like, say, we - Alexander Sergeevich...
We would not look so closely at centuries distant from us if the Renaissance were only one of the stages in the development of art. No, the Renaissance of the 15th-16th centuries meant a revolutionary turn in the way of life: it was the emergence of humanity from the Middle Ages with its feudal relations, a turn from the dictates of the system to an awareness of the value of the individual, its freedom and beauty. The trading city-republics that flourished in Tuscany, whose population - merchants, artisans, bankers - were not involved in ossified medieval relations, decisively turned to the meanings that still form the basis of the Western European lifestyle. In contrast to church ones, secular cultural centers began to be created. It was then that printing began in Europe. In philosophy and public consciousness ideas of humanism formed and began to prevail.
When you walk through the museums and palaces of Florence, you drive between the Tuscan hills covered with vineyards and olive groves, you can’t help but think about why the Renaissance began here in Tuscany. What is the reason? Why did this particular land give birth to so many gigantic talents in a short time?
Is it the fact that this soil is so generous and favorable to people? Or is it that the simple, the earthly, coexist so closely with the beautiful and sublime? Or maybe the reason is the natural Tuscan temperament, artistry and sense of beauty? Or is everything simpler, and it’s all about wonderful wine and wonderful food that give a person lightness, optimism and tireless vitality? How can we explain the fact that the Tuscan rulers and rich people, first of all the Medici, knowing a lot about art, generation after generation paid for talent and innovation, but did not pay for vulgarity and routine?
Renaissance periods
As a rule, the beginning of the Renaissance is considered to be the first half of the 15th century, but sometimes researchers identify the so-called Proto-Renaissance of the 13th-14th centuries, associated with the activities of Giotto, di Combio, Cimabue, and the Pisano family, which anticipated and laid the foundations for the subsequent Renaissance.
The Early Renaissance dates back to 1420-1500. (XIV century) During this period, new approaches, techniques, and views on art were just growing through the centuries-old canon. This is the heyday of Gerlandaio, Verrocchio, Fra Filippo Lippi.
The High Renaissance dates back to 1500-1527. This period of art is associated with the appearance of the new Pope Julius II in the Vatican. It was on the initiative of Julius II that many new palaces and temples were built in Rome in those years, including main temple Catholics St. Peter's Cathedral, beautiful frescoes and sculptures are created. The legacy of the Middle Ages has been completely eliminated, the playful beauty of the Early Renaissance is replaced by mature calm and dignity. Architecture, sculpture and painting exist in harmony and complement each other. The grandiose orders of Julius II were carried out by Raphael, Michelangelo, Perugino, Leonardo. At the same time, Botticelli created his best works in Florence.
Many researchers end the Renaissance with the year 1527 - the year of the sack of Rome by armies of renegade mercenaries and the expulsion of the Medici from Florence under the influence of the socially accusatory sermons of Savonarola. But more often it is customary to single out the Late Renaissance from 1527 to the 1620s. Most of the outstanding artists of the Renaissance passed away, mannerism was gaining strength in art, but Michelangelo, Correggio, Titian and Palladio, who continued to create, extended the Renaissance for several more decades.
Renaissance in fine arts
Renaissance art replaced medieval art, in which the Byzantine icon-painting canon dominated. The overwhelming majority of the subjects of the images were religious, even in cases where the customer was not a church. The heroes are usually saints, very often the Virgin Mary surrounded by angels. The figures were idealized (saints are not supposed to have flesh and blood), the characters’ feelings were schematic: repentance, humility, religious tenderness, religious fear; the composition was flat and had no background; the high pathos of the plot was emphasized by a smooth golden background. Art called for submission to fate and had little in common with life - in fact, nothing else was required from art.
Rebelling against the canon, Renaissance artists increasingly began to turn to ancient Roman classical art, to revive his ideals - this is where, in fact, the term Renaissance itself came from. The themes increasingly became everyday things, the characters in the paintings experienced feelings familiar to everyone: anger, joy, despair, motherly love, melancholy, compassion. Even saints were depicted by artists as living people, not devoid of earthly emotions. The spaces of the paintings were filled with real Tuscan landscapes, green hills and olive groves, vineyards and forests. Increasingly, the subject of the image became the naked body.
In this section we have tried to provide some information about the most important figures of the Italian, mainly Florentine Renaissance, trying to focus on what distinguished each artist from the others and where in Tuscany his work can be found.
Renaissance in Europe.
Periodization and characteristic features of the Renaissance.
Renaissance (Renaissance) is an era in the history of European culture of the 13th-16th centuries, which marked the advent of the New Age.
As an era in European history, it was marked by many significant milestones - including the strengthening of the economic and social liberties of cities, spiritual ferment, which ultimately led to the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the Peasants' War in Germany, the formation of an absolutist monarchy (the largest in France), the beginning of the era of the Great Geographies discoveries, the invention of European printing, the discovery of the heliocentric system in cosmology, etc. However, its first sign, as it seemed to contemporaries, was the “flourishing of the arts” after long centuries of medieval “decline,” a flourishing that “revived” ancient artistic wisdom, precisely in this sense for the first time in the 16th century. The word rinascita (from which the French Renaissance and all its European analogues come) is used by the Italian artist and art critic Giorgio Vasari.
The periodization of the Renaissance is determined by the supreme role of art in its culture.
Stages of the history of art in Italy - the birthplace of the Renaissance - for a long time served as the main point of reference. Specially distinguished:
1. Proto-Renaissance, (“the era of Dante and Giotto”, ca. 1260-1320) - (from proto... and Renaissance), a period in the history of Italian art (13th - early 14th centuries), marked by the growth of secular realistic trends, an appeal to the ancient tradition . The earliest stage in the development of Renaissance art. The art of the Proto-Renaissance first manifested itself in sculpture, and then in painting. It has a particularly noticeable secular element, attention to historical themes, portraiture, everyday life and landscape genres. The work of the poet Dante, the architect Arnolfo di Cambio, the sculptor Niccolo Pisano, the painters Pietro Cavallini and especially Giotto largely paved the way for the art of the Renaissance. Within the framework of the proto-Renaissance there are:
Ducento(Italian ducento, lit. - two hundred, - Italian name of the 13th century) characterized by the growth of realistic trends within medieval art, the awakening of interest in real world and ancient heritage.
trecento(Italian trecento, lit. - three hundred - Italian name of the 14th century) - a period of intensive development of humanism in Italian culture; Trecento art, along with the growth of Gothic features, is marked by the development of realistic quests
2. Early Renaissance or quattrocento(Italian quattrocento, lit. - four hundred - Italian name of the 15th century). became a time of experimental searches, when new trends actively interacted with the Gothic, overcoming and creatively transforming it. If in the Proto-Renaissance the artist worked based on intuition, then the Early Renaissance brought to the fore precise scientific knowledge. Art began to play the role of universal knowledge of the surrounding world. In the 15th century A number of scientific treatises on art appeared. The first theorist in the field of painting and architecture was Leon Battista Alberti. He developed the theory of linear perspective, a truthful depiction of the depth of space in a picture. In the practical use of linear perspective, the work of the artist Paolo Uccello is of great interest.
3. Cinquecento(Italian cinquecento, lit. - five hundred - Italian name of the 16th century) - the heyday of the culture of the High and Late Renaissance and the spread of mannerism.
High (Medium) Revival- period of the history of Italian art (late 15th - 1st quarter of the 16th centuries) - classical phase artistic culture Renaissance.
In the architecture, painting and sculpture of the High Renaissance (Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Giorgione, Titian), Renaissance realism and humanism, heroic ideals received a generalized expression full of titanic power; The art of the High Renaissance is characterized by monumental grandeur, a combination of sublime ideality, harmony with the depth and vital brightness of images. Late Renaissance
(until the end of the 16th century), the continuation of the traditions of the High Renaissance, a special phase of which was Mannerism.
The main features of the Renaissance culture: Anthropocentrism is the view according to which man is the center of the Universe and the ultimate goal of the entire universe, i.e. existing world
created for man.
Humanism is recognition of the value of man as an individual.
Reformation of the medieval Christian tradition.
Revival of ancient monuments of art and ancient philosophy
Formation of a new attitude towards the world.
Humanitas in the Renaissance concept implies not only the mastery of ancient wisdom, to which great importance was attached, but also self-knowledge and self-improvement. Humanitarian-scientific and human, learning and everyday experience must be united in a state of ideal virtu (in Italian, both “virtue” and “valor” - thanks to which the word carries a medieval knightly connotation). Reflecting these ideals in a natural way, the art of the Renaissance gives the educational aspirations of the era convincing and sensual clarity. Antiquity (that is, the ancient heritage), the Middle Ages (with their religiosity, as well as their secular code of honor) and Modern times (which placed the human mind and its creative energy at the center of its interests) are here in a state of sensitive and continuous dialogue.
It is natural that the time, which attached central importance to “divine” human creativity, brought forward personalities in art who, with all the abundance of talents of that time, became the personification of entire eras of national culture (personal “titans,” as they were romantically called later). Giotto became the personification of the Proto-Renaissance; the opposite aspects of the Quattrocento - constructive severity and soulful lyricism - were respectively expressed by Masaccio, Angelico and Botticelli. The "Titans" of the Middle (or "High") Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo are artists - symbols of the great turn of the New Age as such. Key Stages Italian Renaissance architecture - early, middle and late - are monumentally embodied in the works of F. Brunelleschi, D. Bramante and A. Palladio.
Italian Renaissance
Early Renaissance in Italy.
14-15th century for Italy it is a time of rapid economic development. Italian cities had a fairly developed industry in the form of manufactories and were large trading centers connecting Italy with the countries of Europe and the East. In the cities there were banks that conducted operations of international importance. With the advent of a new attitude to trade and the emergence of banking houses, cities revived and flourished: Pisa, Milan, Genoa, Venice, Naples, Florence.
The industrial, commercial and usurious bourgeoisie of Italian cities needed the development of the exact sciences, natural sciences, and mathematics for their economic activities. At the same time, amassing huge fortunes, she sought to create comfortable living conditions for herself and decorate her palaces with works of art. The bourgeoisie and rulers (kings, popes, republican lords) needed educated officials, notaries, doctors, teachers - and in general, people of mental labor who could conduct trade and credit affairs within the country and abroad.
Thus, along with the emerging bourgeoisie, an intelligentsia appeared in Italian cities: writers, philosophers, historians, poets, musicians, architects, artists, engineers, doctors, etc., who had a decisive influence on the formation of the new ideology.
One of the most important features of the new ideology was individualism. The emerging bourgeoisie, strong and rich, now argued that it was not nobility and birth, but the personal qualities of an individual Man: his intelligence, dexterity, courage, enterprise and energy that ensure success in life. The worldview of the figures of the new culture, which was expressed in their philosophical, political, scientific and literary views, is usually designated by the term “humanism”. Because a person was now viewed as the smith of his own happiness, the creator of all values, moving forward in defiance of fate and achieving success through the power of his mind, fortitude, activity, and optimism. A person should enjoy nature, love, art, science. Representatives of the new ideology were alien to the idea of the sinfulness of man, in particular his body; on the contrary, harmony becomes recognized human soul and bodies.
Italian society aroused a deep interest in ancient civilization and culture, where even the gods were endowed with a human appearance and human character. Hence the attempt to resurrect a bygone culture and place it on a pedestal.
Cultural figures tried in their works to imitate the style of Latin writers of the “golden age” of Roman literature, especially Cicero. There was an interest in Greek literature and the Greek language. Florence and Venice became the spiritual centers of the Italian Renaissance.
The Early Renaissance is inextricably linked with the names of Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio.
The founder of humanism in Italy is considered to be Francesco Petrarch(1304-1374). He was a collector of ancient manuscripts and monuments, a historian, and a promoter of ancient Roman culture (he tried to write the history of Rome in biographies (“On Famous Men” contains 21 biographies of great Romans from Romulus to Caesar)). All of Petrarch’s works can be divided into two unequal parts: Italian poetry (“Canzoniere”) and various works written in Latin. "Canzoniere" ("Book of Songs") includes sonnets, canzones, ballads, madrigals dedicated to love Petrarch to Laura during her life and after her death; several poems of political and religious content; and the allegorical picture of the poet's love - Triumphs, which depicts the victory of love over man, chastity over love, death over chastity, glory over death, time over glory and eternity over time. "Canzoniere", which survived until the beginning of the 17th century. OK. 200 editions and commented by a whole mass of scientists and poets determine the significance of Petrarch in the history of Italian and world literature. He created a truly artistic form for Italian lyric poetry: poetry for the first time is for him the inner history of individual feeling. This interest in the inner life of man runs like a red thread through the Latin works of Petrarch, which determine his significance as a humanist.
Petrarch's contemporary Giavanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) became famous thanks to the Decameron written in Italian - a collection of short stories on themes of Florentine city life, which emphasizes the human right to happiness, to sensual joys, to love that knows no social barriers. The collection contains folk humor and freethinking, criticism of the ignorance and hypocrisy of the Catholic clergy. Boccaccio's "Decameron" became a model of perfection of language and style for Italian authors, a classic of world literature. The Decameron presents one hundred stories told on behalf of noble Florentine ladies and young men; The narrative takes place against the backdrop of a plague epidemic (“Black Death”), from which noble society is hiding in a country estate, and is full of subtle psychologism and unexpected collisions.
Together with Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio are the creators of the literary Italian language. Their works in the 15th century. were translated into many European languages and took pride of place in world literature.
The art of the early Renaissance was represented by new painting, sculpture and architecture.
An outstanding master of the early Renaissance, who continued the realistic tradition of Giotto, was the Florentine artist Masaccio(real name Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai) (1401-1428). He painted on church and religious subjects (mainly wall paintings inside churches), but gave them realistic features with the help of chiaroscuro, plastic physicality, three-dimensionality, compositional linkage with the landscape, and transferred the action of religious subjects to the streets of Florence. For the first time in wall painting (the fresco “Trinity” in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence) he creates a centrally perspective structure, giving the composition majesty and at the same time proportionality to human scale. His work became a model for the work of subsequent generations of artists.
Artist Sandro Botticelli was close to the Medici court and the humanist circles of Florence. He wrote works on religious and mythological themes (“Spring”, “Birth of Venus”, around 1483-1484), although his images are flat, they are marked by spiritual poetry, the play of linear rhythms, subtle color, and a mood of sadness. But the sadness of Venus and the condescending smile of Spring are addressed to the audience, to his world, and not to the heavenly transparency as in the icons.
The largest sculptor of the early Renaissance - Florentine Donatello- reflecting on the experience of ancient art, for the first time he created classical forms and types of Renaissance sculpture: a new type of round statue and sculptural group (“St. George”, “David”, “Judith and Holofernes”), a monumental equestrian monument (statue of the condottiere Gattamelata in Padua - the first equestrian monument of the Renaissance), a picturesque relief (the altar of the Church of Sant'Antonio in Padua), a sculptural portrait, a majestic tombstone (the tomb of Antipope John XXIII in the Florentine Baptistery - a classic example for all later Renaissance tombs). His sculpture "David" is the first completely nude figure created during the Renaissance. The forms of Donatello's sculptures acquire plastic clarity, the volumes become solid, the typical expression of faces is replaced by portraiture, the folds of clothes naturally envelop the body and echo its curves and movement. He tried to give his sculptures features real people: Christ looks like a peasant; Florentine citizens are depicted as evangelists and prophets. In creating sculptures, Donatello aims to reproduce the new ideal of the era - the individual heroic personality.
Architecture achieved great success in the early Renaissance. If the beginning of the Renaissance was marked by the construction of the symbol of the city community - the cathedral, then by the end of the 15th century. The ruler's palace becomes the center of the city. The square turned from a place of public assembly into a front yard.
A type of secular palace (palazzo) is formed: quadrangular in plan, closed around a courtyard, which then becomes open on one side or is separated only by a portico.
The memory of medieval fortress architecture was preserved in the use of masonry made of rough stone blocks, which later became a common decorative element (“rust”), mainly when laying the lower ground floors.
Free development is being replaced by planned development. The new architecture of the Renaissance - huge buildings, high domes, grandiose colonnade, required strict mathematical calculations. Thanks to the improvement of construction technology, the construction of large buildings, cathedrals and palaces began to be carried out in a shorter period than in the Middle Ages, sometimes within several years.
Major architects who created the Renaissance style of architecture were Fillippo Brunulleschi and Leon Battista Alberti.
Three cities became the main centers of new art in Northern Italy: Padua, Ferrara, and Venice.
Padua was one of the oldest university cities in Europe. The University of Padua, founded in 1222, attracted many students from different countries. The heritage of antiquity was intensively studied here. A circle of humanists, experts and lovers of antiquity was created at the university. Here they collected manuscripts of ancient authors and collected works of art. Dante and Petrarch visited Padua. Giotto and Donatello came here to work and had a strong influence on local artists.
In Ferrara, the center of humanistic culture became the court of local rulers - the Dukes of Este.
Venice is a republic of merchants who trade with the whole world and concentrate in their hands most of the trade turnover between East and West. The Venetians borrow everything beautiful from the Muslim East, decrepit Byzantium, and “barbarian” Germany, and try to turn their city into the most brilliant and magnificent in the world. And financial well-being allows them not to skimp in the implementation of their plans.
High Renaissance.
In the first decade of the 16th century. the center of Italian artistic life moves to Rome. Back at the end of the 15th century. The Papal States began to play an important role among the largest Italian states. Less developed economically than Florence or Venice, it had high international importance (as a center of Catholicism). Dreaming of uniting all of Italy under the rule of Rome, the popes tried to turn it into a leading political and cultural center. This was facilitated by the patronage policy of the popes, which attracted the best artists to Rome. And the historical past of the “eternal city” perfectly suited its new role. The memory of the greatness of the Roman Empire, which did not die throughout the Middle Ages, now acquired special significance. In this regard, at the beginning of the 16th century. interest in ancient history and culture revived. It was in Rome, with its numerous monuments that always attracted artists, that the classical heritage was perceived fully and deeply.
The art of the High Renaissance absorbed the ideas of humanism; it was imbued with faith in the creative powers of man, in the unlimited possibilities of his capabilities, in the rational structure of the world. At the same time, the naive narrative and everydayism common in Quattrocento art is being replaced by the problem of civic duty and heroic deed. The leitmotif of culture becomes the image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed, strong in body and spirit person, rising above the level of everyday routine.
At the beginning of the 16th century. achieves harmonious unity the new kind a synthesis of arts, which, unlike the medieval one (when all types of art are subordinated to architecture), presupposes the equality of painting and sculpture in relation to architecture. The liberation of painting and sculpture from strict subordination to architecture leads to the isolation and development of new genres of art: portraiture, landscape and historical painting.
The formation of High Renaissance art began at the end of the 15th century. – his cradle was Florence, where such great masters as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo came from. The traditions of the Florentine school and early Quattrocento were the basis of 16th century art.
At the beginning of the 16th century, Rome took the leading position in the development of architecture, painting and sculpture. The architecture of gardens, parks and country residences of the nobility is being developed. Utopian city projects are emerging. The distinctive qualities of High Renaissance architecture are: monumentality, impressive grandeur inspired by ancient Rome and grandeur of plans. This was most clearly manifested in the reconstruction of the Vatican and the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, the architect of which was Donato D'Angelo Bramante(1444-1514), who with his creativity determined the development of architecture in the 16th century. The small chapel of Temppietto, built by Bramante, is one of the best works of architecture of the mature Renaissance; it is distinguished by the integrity of its composition, the sophistication of its proportions, and the depiction of details. Bramante planned to make the main cathedral of Rome (St. Peter's Cathedral) also according to a centric plan, and he was guided not by practical considerations (convenience during worship), but by the concept of centric composition, favorite during this period, striving for balance, stability and completeness. But the construction of the cathedral began in 1506, so Bramante did not have time to complete the cathedral and the following were successively involved in the construction: Raphael, Peruzzi, Antonio da Sangalo the Younger, Michelangelo.
Many cultural figures were the embodiment of “homo universale” - a universal person, gifted in all spheres of creative and scientific activity, creating masterpieces of painting, sculpture, architecture, writing treatises on various scientific topics.
Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) - the greatest painter, sculptor, architect, scientist and engineer. Leonardo left few paintings, since scientific interests consumed a lot of time and energy.
Already in his first paintings, the main features of Leonardo’s art are present: interest in psychological solutions, laconicism, emphasis on spatial arrangement and three-dimensionality of forms.
Combining the development of new means of artistic language with theoretical communications, Leonardo created a harmonious image of a person that meets humanistic ideals; Thus, he summed up the experience of the Quattrocento and laid the foundations of the art of the High Renaissance.
In the service of the ruler of Milan, Lodovico Moro, Leonardo da Vinci acts as a military engineer, hydraulic engineer, and organizer of court extravaganzas. The creative flowering of Leonardo the painter also occurred during this same period. In “Madonna of the Rocks,” the master’s favorite subtle chiaroscuro (“sfumato”) appears as a new halo that replaces the medieval halos: this is equally a divine-human and natural mystery, where the rocky grotto, reflecting Leonardo’s geological observations, plays less dramatic role than the figures of saints in the foreground. In addition, Leonardo introduces a new motif into Italian painting - the image of the Virgin Mary with children in a landscape.
In the refectory of the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Leonardo creates the painting “The Last Supper”. In "The Last Supper" - introduced into art psychological conflict and mathematical calculations in composition construction. The high religious and ethical content of the image, which represents the stormy, contradictory reaction of Christ’s disciples to his words about the impending betrayal, is expressed in clear mathematical laws of the composition, powerfully subjugating not only the painted, but also the real architectural space. The clear stage logic of facial expressions and gestures, the combination of strict rationality with an inexplicable mystery made “The Last Supper” one of the most significant works in the history of world art. Also involved in architecture, Leonardo develops various versions of the “ideal city” and the central-domed temple.
In the portrait of Mona Lisa (“La Gioconda”), the image of a wealthy city dweller appears as the embodiment of a sublime ideal of femininity, without losing its intimate human charm; An important element of the composition is the cosmically vast landscape, melting into a cold haze. “La Gioconda” forms the basis for all subsequent Italian portraiture.
Among the late works of Leonardo da Vinci is “Saint Anne with Mary and the Child Christ,” which completes the master’s search in the field of light-air perspective and harmonious pyramidal composition. Leonardo's last painting, “Saint John the Baptist,” is full of erotic ambiguity: the young Forerunner here looks not like a holy ascetic, but like a tempter full of sensual charm.
The most important source for studying the views of Leonardo da Vinci are his notebooks and manuscripts (about 7 thousand sheets). These notes were systematized after the artist’s death by his student F. Melzi in his “Treatise on Painting.” This work had a huge influence on European artistic practice and theoretical thought.
A tireless experimental scientist and a brilliant artist, Leonardo da Vinci remained in the tradition as a personality-symbol of the era.
Rafael Santi(1483-1520) - artist of synthesis and harmony. His art is distinguished by the features of balance of mind and feelings, reality and ideals, impeccable clarity of composition and forms; he is the classic embodiment of the High Renaissance. Already in early paintings(“Madonna Conestabile”, “The Dream of a Knight”, “The Three Graces”, “The Betrothal of Mary”) was reflected in Raphael’s inherent harmonious talent, his ability to find an impeccable harmony of forms, rhythms, colors, movements, gestures.
He glorified the earthly existence of man, the harmony of spiritual and physical forces in the paintings of stanzas (ceremonial chambers) of the Vatican, achieving an impeccable sense of proportion, rhythm, proportions, euphony of color, unity of figures and majestic architectural backgrounds. In the majestic multi-figure compositions on the walls (uniting from 40 to 60 characters) “Disputa” (“Dispute about Communion”), “School of Athens”, “Parnassus”, without repeating a single figure or pose, not a single movement, Raphael weaves them together flexible, free, natural rhythm, flowing from figure to figure, from one group to another. In “The Miraculous Escape of the Apostle Peter from Prison,” Raphael, with a pictorial subtlety unusual for an artist of Central Italy, conveys the complex effects of night lighting - the dazzling radiance surrounding the angel, the cold light of the moon, the reddish flame of torches and their reflections on the armor of the guards.
Among the best works of Raphael the monumentalist are also the paintings of the vaults of the Chigi Chapel in Rome and the fresco “The Triumph of Galatea” (Villa Farnesina, Rome) full of pagan cheerfulness.
One of the main themes of Raphael's painting was the Madonna and Child. In his works “Madonna with the Goldfinch”, “Madonna in the Greens”, “The Beautiful Gardener”, he uses the same motif - he depicts a young mother and small children playing at her feet - Christ and John the Baptist - against the backdrop of an idyllic landscape; he unites figures with a stable, harmoniously balanced rhythm of the compositional pyramid, beloved by the Renaissance masters. A new, polyphonically complex interpretation of the image of the Madonna found its most complete expression in one of Raphael’s most perfect creations - the Sistine Madonna altarpiece.
Raphael left a noticeable mark on Italian architecture. He participated in the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome. Among his buildings is the small church of San Eligio degli Orefici with its austere interior, the Chigi Chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, the interior of which is an example of a unity of architectural design and decoration developed by Raphael, rare even for the Renaissance, - paintings, mosaics, sculptures.
Michelangelo Buonarotti(1475-1564) - sculptor, painter, architect, poet. Michelangelo far outlived his illustrious contemporaries (Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael) and witnessed the humiliation of Italy and the collapse of all ideals and hopes. Therefore, with the greatest force he expressed the deeply human ideals of the High Renaissance, full of heroic pathos, as well as the tragic feeling of the crisis of the humanistic worldview during the Late Renaissance.
Renaissance philosophy
Revival, renaissance is called transition period from the Middle Ages to the New Age, covering several centuries (Italy 14-16 centuries, other European countries 15-16 centuries), when the Middle Ages in its economic, social, political, spiritual forms had already exhausted itself, and the new bourgeois system had not yet established itself.
This is the era of the formation of a simple commodity-money economy, the increasing social and political role of cities, in which free and independent labor of artisans dominated, trade and banking flourished, and manufactories appeared. The spiritual situation in society is also changing. An urban secular culture is emerging, whose figures—artists, writers, philosophers—subject to a significant revision of traditional religious, moral, aesthetic views the Middle Ages, but do not completely break with them. In search of an ideal, most representatives of secular culture of this era widely turn to values ancient culture, as a spiritual source of a new worldview, freed from medieval scholasticism.
Unlike medieval culture directed towards God, new culture directed towards the person. It is based on the principles anthropocentrism, the idea of free, strong man who asserts his individuality and independence. At the same time, this often gave rise to the absolutization of individualism and moral nihilism. New diverse needs of the human personality found their expression in humanism(Latin humanus - human, humane, educated), existing not only as a worldview, but also as a socio-political movement, social practice in the sphere of politics, morality and other areas of public life.
All the contradictions of this transitional era, changes in the spiritual life of society were fully expressed in the philosophy of the Renaissance, and above all in Italian philosophy.
Basic ideas of early Italian Renaissance.
The philosophical thought of the early Italian Renaissance developed in parallel with medieval scholasticism. By arguing with its representatives, Italian humanists sought to revive the ideas and spirit of ancient culture, preserving the basic tenets of Christian doctrine.
In the work of the great poet who inspired the humanistic movement Dante Alighieri(1265-1321) for the first time elements different from the medieval worldview appear. Without denying scholastic dogma, Dante tries to rethink the nature of the relationship between God and man. He believes that the divine and the human exist in unity. God cannot be opposed to human creativity. Human existence is conditioned, on the one hand, by God, and on the other, by nature. Dante constantly emphasizes that man is a product of the realization of the capabilities of his own mind, which are realized in his practical activities.
Founder of the humanistic movement, poet and thinker Francesco Petrarca(1304-1374) considered the main task to be the development of the “art of living.” From Petrarch's point of view, a person has the right to happiness in real earthly life, and not only in the other world, as religious dogmas claim. Based on the ethical concepts of Stoicism, Petrarch emphasizes the dignity of the human person, the uniqueness inner world a person with his hopes, experiences and anxieties. At the same time, individualistic tendencies characteristic of the philosophy of the Renaissance find a place in Petrarch’s work. He believes that personal improvement is possible only if it is isolated from the “ignorant rabble.” Only in this case, in a person’s struggle with his own passions and constant confrontation with the world around him, can a creative person achieve complete independence, self-control and peace of mind.
The Renaissance has come to replace European culture Middle Ages. This phenomenon originates in Italy, and it was here that its first signs were noticed. The Italian Renaissance took place from the 13th to the 2nd half XVII centuries. It is based on the principle of humanism, that is, the affirmation of human dignity and beauty. At this time, a secular culture began to form, liberation from church scholasticism and religious dogma occurred. Culture becomes anthropocentric. The term "Renaissance" was introduced. He characterized this time as a period of revival of antiquity. Otherwise, the era is called the Renaissance.
The Renaissance was accompanied by some contradictions, this is due to the fact that its peak occurred during wars, and after they ended, values changed dramatically. The priority became not moral, but material, the development of philistinism took place, and the influence of the church increased.
Literature
Dante Alighieri is considered to be the founder of the Renaissance in Italy; it was he who managed to reveal this period in literary work « The Divine Comedy" The works of Renaissance authors expressed humanistic ideals and glorified the creative freedom of the individual. Petrarch revealed man in all his emotional diversity. One cannot fail to note the novellas of Boccaccio, the treatises of Machiavelli, the poems of Ariosto and Tasso. Literature was based on the traditions of antiquity and folk poetry. It combined rationality and poetic fantasy. Comic genres became increasingly popular. It was during this period that such world-famous works as “The Decameron” and “Don Quixote” were written.
Architecture
The Italian Renaissance in architecture followed for a long time medieval traditions, this was expressed in the use of Gothic elements. Italian Gothic was significantly different from the Gothic of other European countries. The buildings had large, calm forms, wide walls with horizontal divisions. One of the most famous churches of that time is the Church of Santa Croce, its construction began by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 13th century. Diamond rustication finishing, wooden ceilings, unity of internal space - all this distinctive features temple.
Sculpture
The art of the Renaissance is characterized not only by the introduction of innovations in architecture, but also by changes in sculpture, which at this time was flourishing. Government and merchant orders are becoming increasingly popular. The most famous sculptors of that time were Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca della Robbia and others. Robbia, for example, became famous for the fact that he began to use the glaze technique in sculpture and relief. He created majolica busts of saints, the Madonna and Christ. The art of this sculptor deservedly received recognition from his contemporaries.
Painting
The Italian Renaissance cannot be imagined without painting. It was made using fresco technique. Plaster artists painted with paints on water. In the middle of the 15th century, cardboard drawings made on paper or fabric became widespread. In Venice, buildings were decorated not with frescoes, but picturesque drawings made with oil paint. Also, the Italian Renaissance gave the world such as engraving. They also did it in wood. It is also worth noting that Renaissance artists paid attention to landscape, human anatomy, and light. The landscape becomes not just a background, but an element of the plot in the picture.
The great masters of the era in the art of the Renaissance include Brunelleschi, Verrocchio, Mantegna, Donatello, Masaccio, Botticelli and others. Giotto is considered to be the first artist to depict three-dimensionality.
Philosophers of this era include Nicolaus Copernicus, Jean Bodin, Nikolas Cusanus,
It is no coincidence that many navigators and scientists who gained worldwide fame during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries - P. Toscanelli, X. Columbus, J. Cabot, A. Vespucci - were Italians. Italy, fragmented politically, was at that time the country with the most developed economy and culture in Europe. In modern times, it entered the midst of a grandiose cultural revolution, called the Renaissance, or in French - Renaissance, because it originally meant the revival of the ancient heritage. However, the Renaissance was a continuation of the Middle Ages no less than a return to antiquity; it was born on the basis of the highly developed, sophisticated and complex culture of the Middle Ages.
The concept of the Renaissance. Humanism
Along with the concept of “Renaissance”, the concept of “humanism”, derived from the Latin humanis - human, is widely used. It is closely related to the concept of “Renaissance”, but is not equivalent to it. The term “Renaissance” denotes the entire complex of cultural phenomena characteristic of a given historical era. “Humanism” is a system of views formed in the Renaissance era, according to which the high dignity of the human person, its right to free development and manifestation of its creative abilities are recognized.
During the Renaissance, the concept of “humanism” also meant a complex of knowledge about man, his place in nature and society. A special issue is the attitude of humanists to religion. Humanism coexisted well with Christianity, the most striking evidence of which was the active participation of clergy in the humanistic movement and, especially, the patronage of the popes. During the Renaissance, religion turned from a subject of blind faith into an object of doubt, reflection, scientific study, and even criticism. But despite this, Italy as a whole remained a religious, predominantly Catholic country. All sorts of superstitions still persisted in Italian society, and astrology and other pseudosciences flourished.
The revival went through several stages. Early Renaissance (XIV and most of the XV centuries) characterized by the emergence of Renaissance literature and related humanities, and the flourishing of humanism in general. During period B High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first third of the 16th century) There was an unprecedented flowering of fine art, but there was already a clear crisis in the humanistic worldview. During these decades, the Renaissance expanded beyond Italy. Late Renaissance (most of the 16th century)- a period when its development continued in parallel with the religious Reformation in Europe.
The capital of the Italian Renaissance was main city Tuscany - Florence, where a unique combination of circumstances developed that contributed to the rapid rise of culture. At the height of the High Renaissance, the center of Renaissance art moved to Rome. Popes Julius II (1503-1513) and Leo X (1513-1521) then made great efforts to revive their former glory Eternal City, thanks to which it has truly turned into a center of world art. The third largest center of the Italian Renaissance was Venice, where Renaissance art acquired a unique coloring due to local characteristics.
Art of the Italian Renaissance
The cultural upsurge that took place in Italy during the Renaissance. most clearly manifested in fine arts and architecture. They reflected with particular force and clarity the great turning point of the era that determined the path further development world art.
One of the most prominent figures of the Italian Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who combined many talents - painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, original thinker. He lived a stormy and creative life, creating his masterpieces in the service of the Florentine Republic, for the Duke of Milan, the Pan of Rome and the King of France. Fresco by Leonardo " Last Supper"represents one of the peaks in the development of all European art, and La Gioconda is one of its greatest mysteries.
Painting was for Leonardo a universal means of not only reflecting the world, but also understanding it. By his own definition, this is “an amazing skill, it all consists of the most subtle speculations.” With his experimental observations, this brilliant artist enriched almost all areas of science of his time. And his technical inventions included, for example, a parachute project.
Leonardo competed with genius no less great artist Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), whose star began to rise at the turn of the century. It was hard to imagine such different people: Leonardo is sociable, not alien to secular manners, always searching, with a wide range of frequently changing interests; Michelangelo is reserved, stern, immersed in his work, focused on each of his new works. Michelangelo became famous as a sculptor and architect, painter and poet. Among his first masterpieces is the sculptural group “Lamentation of Christ”. In 1504, the people of Florence carried in a triumphal procession the colossal figure of David, which is the masterpiece of this master. It was solemnly installed in front of the city council building. His frescoes brought him even greater fame. Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, where in four years Michelangelo painted 600 square meters. m scenes from the Old Testament. Later, in the same chapel, his famous fresco"The Last Judgment."
Michelangelo achieved no less impressive successes in architecture. From 1547 until the end of his life, he led the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, intended to become the main Catholic church in the world. Michelangelo radically changed the original design of this grandiose structure. According to his ingenious design, a dome was created, which to this day is unsurpassed in either size or grandeur. This Roman cathedral is one of the greatest creations world architecture.
As a city planner, Michelangelo expressed the full power of his talent in creating the architectural ensemble on the Capitol Square. He actually formed a new image of Rome, which has since been inextricably linked with his name. Italian Renaissance painting reached its peak in the work of Raphael Santi (1483-1520). He took part in the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral, and in 1516 he was appointed chief superintendent of all Roman antiquities. However, Raphael showed himself primarily as an artist, in whose work the pictorial canons of the High Renaissance were completed. Among artistic achievements Raphael - painting of the state rooms Vatican Palace. He painted portraits of Julius II and Leo X, thanks to which Rome turned into the capital of Renaissance art. The artist’s favorite image has always been the Mother of God, a symbol of maternal love. It is no coincidence that his greatest masterpiece is the stunning Sistine Madonna.
An honorable place in the history of Renaissance art is occupied by the Venetian school of painting, the founder of which was Giorgione (1476/77-1510). His masterpieces such as “Judith” and “Sleeping Venus” received worldwide recognition. . Most an outstanding artist Venice became Titian (1470/80s - 1576). Titian brought everything he learned from Giorgione and other masters to perfection, and the free style of painting he created had a great influence on the subsequent development of world painting.
Among Titian's early masterpieces is the painting “Earthly Love and Heavenly Love,” which was original in concept. The Venetian artist became widely known as an unsurpassed portrait painter. Both Roman high priests and crowned heads considered it an honor to pose for him.
Architecture and sculpture
The founders of the new architectural style become outstanding masters Florence, first of all Filippo Brunelleschi, who created the monumental dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. But the main type architectural structure During this period, it was no longer a church building, but a secular building - a palazzo (palace). The Renaissance style is characterized by monumentality, creating an impression of grandeur, and emphasized simplicity of facades and the convenience of spacious interiors. The complex design of Gothic buildings, which overwhelmed people with their grandeur, was opposed new architecture , which created fundamentally new environment
habitat that is more in line with human needs. During the Renaissance, sculpture separated from architecture and appeared separately standing monuments As an independent element of the urban landscape, the art of sculptural portraiture rapidly developed. Portrait genre
, widely spread in painting, sculpture and graphics, responded to the humanistic spirit of Renaissance culture.
Literature, theater, music Renaissance literature, which was originally created in Latin, step by step gave way to national, Italian literature. By the middle of the 16th century. The Italian language, based on the Tuscan dialect, becomes predominant. This was the first national literary language
in Europe, the transition to which contributed to the widespread spread of Renaissance education. Throughout the 16th century. originated in Italy national theater V modern understanding this word.
Italian folk comedies were the first in Europe to be written in prose and had a realistic character, that is, they corresponded to reality. Passion for music has always been more widespread in Italy than in any other European country. It was widespread and represented an integral element Everyday life musical instruments, the violin comes out on top from the strings.
A New Understanding of History and the Birth of Political Science
Renaissance thinkers developed an original view of history and created a fundamentally new periodization historical process, radically different from the mythical scheme borrowed from the Bible. The realization that a new one has arrived historical era, became the most original feature of the Italian Renaissance. Contrasting themselves to the Middle Ages, the humanists turned to the masters of the ancient world as their direct predecessors, and designated the millennium between their “modern” time and antiquity as the nameless “Middle Ages.” So was born completely new approach to the periodization of history, which is still accepted today.
The largest thinker of the Italian Renaissance, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of both historical and political thought, was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). A native of Florence, he held senior positions in the government and carried out important diplomatic assignments during the years when Italy became the scene of bitter international rivalry. It was during this catastrophic era for his country that the Florentine thinker tried to answer the most pressing problems of our time. For him, history represented political experience the past, and politics - modern history.
The main concerns for Machiavelli were the “common good” of the people and the “interest of state.” It is their protection, and not private interests, that, in his opinion, should determine the behavior of the ruler. “The evidence of my honesty and fidelity is my poverty,” wrote Machiavelli in support of his conclusions. His political testament was the words: “not to deviate from good, if possible, but to be able to take the path of evil, if necessary.” This call is often perceived as a justification for immoral policies that do not disdain any means to achieve their goals, for which the concept of “Machiavellianism” was even invented.
From the book “The Prince” by N. Machiavelli
“My intention is to write something useful for someone who will understand it, which is why it seemed to me more correct to seek the real rather than the imaginary truth of things.” After all, “the distance from how life actually flows is so great to how one should live.”
“Both well-established states and wise princes tried especially hard not to embitter the nobles and at the same time satisfy the people, to make them happy, because this is one of the most important affairs of the prince.” And “those in whose hands power is given must never think about themselves.”
The sovereign “must seem merciful, faithful, humane, sincere, pious; it should be like this, but you need to strengthen your spirit in such a way that, if necessary, you become different... turn into the opposite.” “After all, anyone who would always want to profess faith in goodness will inevitably perish among so many people who are alien to goodness.”
References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century
