The culture of Ancient China is not only one of the most ancient in the history of mankind, but also one of the most unique and original. For five thousand years, it developed along its own path, away from other civilizations. The result of such a long continuous process is a rich cultural heritage that is of great value to world culture.
Development of the culture of Ancient China
The culture of Ancient China has a rich past, and the beginning of its formation is considered to be the 3rd century BC. e. It is characterized by a wealth of spiritual values, as well as amazing resilience. Despite endless wars, rebellions and destruction, this civilization was able to preserve its ideals and core values.
Since Chinese civilization existed in complete isolation until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., its culture acquired a number of unique features, which subsequently only strengthened their position.
Features of the culture of Ancient China include:
- Pragmatism. Highest value have the values of real earthly life.
- Great commitment to tradition.
- Deification and poeticization of nature. The central deity was Heaven; mountains and waters, which the Chinese had worshiped since ancient times, were held in high esteem.
Rice. 1. Nature in the art of Ancient China.
Worship of the forces of nature was reflected in the art of Ancient China. This is how the landscape movement in painting, architecture, and literature arose and became widespread in the country. Only Chinese culture is characterized by such a deep aesthetic penetration into the natural world.
Writing and literature
The writing of Ancient China can safely be called unique. Unlike the alphabetic system, each character - hieroglyph - has eigenvalue, and the number of hieroglyphs reaches several tens of thousands. In addition, ancient Chinese writing is the oldest, with the exception of cave paintings.
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Initially, texts were written on wooden tablets with thin bamboo sticks. They were replaced by soft brushes and silk fabric, and then paper - the most important invention of Ancient China. From that moment on, writing switched to new stage development.
Rice. 2. Ancient Chinese writing.
Fiction was held in high esteem, and historical and philosophical works were of greatest value. The Shijing collection, which includes 305 poetic works, became a real treasury of ancient Chinese poetry.
Architecture and painting
A distinctive feature of architecture in Ancient China is the complexity of buildings. While many ancient peoples erected simple one-story buildings, the Chinese already in the 1st millennium BC. e. knew how to build two- and three-story buildings that required certain mathematical knowledge. The roofs were covered with tiles. Each building was decorated with wooden and metal plaques with symbols of prosperity, health and wealth.
Many ancient architectural structures had a common feature - raised roof corners, which made the roof visually look like it was bent down.
In Ancient China, much attention was paid to the construction of monasteries, carefully carved into the rocks, and multi-tiered towers - pagodas. The most famous is the seven-story Wild Goose Pagoda, whose height reaches 60 meters.
Rice. 3. Monasteries carved into the rocks.
All painting of Ancient China, as well as other forms of art, is permeated with admiration for the beauty of nature and the harmony of the Universe; it is filled with contemplation and symbolism.
IN Chinese painting The genres “flowers-birds”, “people”, “mountains-water” were very popular, and for many years they did not lose their relevance. Each depicted object carried certain meaning. For example, pine symbolized longevity, bamboo symbolized perseverance, and the stork symbolized loneliness.
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When studying the topic “Culture of Ancient China,” we learned what factors influenced the development of the original and unique ancient Chinese culture. Having learned briefly about the culture of Ancient China, we determined character traits architecture, writing, painting, literature.
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Chinese culture facing the 21st century: choices and promises
Here I intend to explain in general terms how Chinese culture will develop in the new 21st century, what principles it will follow in the general flow of development with the culture of various countries of the world, what are the strategic choices and main starting positions of the Chinese government.
China, building its plans for the new century, pays great attention to the coordinated development of the economy, politics, culture and society, as well as relations between man and nature. Cultural construction is given an increasingly important place.
Consistent and continuous economic development and comprehensive social progress are the foundations of the development strategy and long-term goal of the PRC. The essence of this strategy and this goal is to achieve the all-round development of the individual and the all-round progress of society. Such a development strategy necessarily includes attention to cultural values. A progressive, scientific culture is capable of giving a spiritual charge to social development. The values of truth, kindness and beauty that it embodies nourish the heart and soul of art ministers, create wonderful relationships between people, improve people's lifestyles and actions, and raise the cultural level of the entire society, playing a unique role. At the same time, cultural values are directly involved in the creation of economic values. Any material product embodies not only economic, but also cultural values. As consumer ideas develop, the consumer level will increasingly be viewed not only in the context of material life, but also in the context of spiritual and cultural knowledge. This requires that the material product contains a high cultural component so that economic development culture was necessarily involved. And this kind of need undoubtedly plays a rather positive stimulating role, acting as a social necessity and a spiritual driving force in the harmonious development of the economy and the entire society. However, in real life, cultural values are often given insufficient attention. When people overcome difficulties and strive to develop the economy with all their might, they often easily neglect environmental protection, ignore the preservation of green landscape and clean clear rivers, very often easily neglect cultural construction, neglect the cultural heritage of their ancestors, neglect the spiritual wealth of human society. When prosperity is achieved in material life, then, looking around and remembering the past, it is difficult to refrain from many bitter regrets. We can say that there are countless such cruel lessons in the history of human development.
On the eve of the new century, the Chinese government pays close attention to cultural construction and has made it an integral part of the fundamental development program of the country, firmly adhering to the simultaneous development of material and spiritual culture and believing that without the flourishing and progress of culture, without the harmonious development of man and nature, it is impossible to achieve comprehensive development and progress of society. China is now implementing a strategy for the great development of the western regions. This work has deep and far-reaching implications for the future of the country. We are busy developing a strategy and plan for the development of culture in the western regions in accordance with the general strategy for their development, considering cultural construction as the most important component the common goal of developing the western regions. Our goal is to create a great Western China with a prosperous economy, political stability, beautiful landscape and developed culture. This is fully consistent with our general goal of building a rich and prosperous, democratic and civilized socialist modernized state. In the new century in China, along with the implementation of the central task of building the economy and accelerating material and cultural creation, increasing attention will be paid to the improvement of human personality, greater attention will be paid to building spiritual culture, consistently ensuring that economy, politics and culture stimulate each other and developed harmoniously. This is our extremely important strategic choice.
The starting point for the development of Chinese cultural policy for the new century is to serve the broad masses of China, satisfy the ever-growing cultural demands of the people, so that the broad masses enjoy all the rights in this area.
Since 1978, under the conditions of reform and opening up, when changes in the economic system entailed comprehensive and profound changes in society, the PRC government has timely adjusted and developed a number of policies and policies for the development of culture and the flourishing of literature and art. The most significant is the focus on serving culture to the broadest masses of the people. For more than 20 years of reform and opening up, China's economy and culture have developed steadily. The greatest benefit from the development of culture was the common people of China. For example, over a period of less than 20 years in China, the publication of Chinese newspapers increased from 186 to 2038 titles, and periodicals from 930 increased to 8187. Television stations increased more than 20 times, and television programs from only a few news at the beginning of the reform period and openness has increased on a massive scale with an average weekly broadcast of over 70 thousand hours. In 1999, 91.6% of China's total population was covered by television broadcasts. Thanks to the spread of television, the peasants of the most remote mountain villages of Central and Western China, like the population of Beijing, Shanghai and other large cities, can get acquainted with events in China and abroad on the same day, and enjoy live broadcasts of performances by Chinese and foreign artists. Before reform and opening up, this was unimaginable. It is well known that China's population is more than 1.2 billion people. The Chinese government, as a result of implementing the policy of reform and opening up, has successfully resolved the issue of food and clothing for a quarter of the world's population and is gradually moving the country towards prosperity. At the same time, China is successfully trying to ensure that the broadest masses enjoy ever broader rights in the field of culture. Thanks to this, their spiritual life becomes more and more rich and colorful.
Stand up national character culture and diversity of world culture, preserve and develop the best cultural traditions of the Chinese people, preserve and deepen national cultural characteristics.
The world is rich and colorful, and culture should have its own specificity. It can be argued that without national cultural characteristics there would be no diversity in world culture. The more national a culture is, the more it belongs to the whole world. Each nationality in the world has its own specific culture and traditions; this gives rise to the diversity of world culture, creates conditions for the life of the nation and its prolongation, and at the same time is the basis for the development of world culture. The cultural traditions and cultural heritage of each nationality, as its special spiritual heritage, are an important source that feeds the creative power of culture. Culture is the soul of a nation and its essence. Cultures of different nationalities are not capable of interchange. The Chinese nation, along the long path of its development, has created its own wonderful cultural traditions. This is its colossal spiritual heritage, these are the spiritual ties that have bound countless generations of the Chinese nation, this is the spiritual foundation of the country’s unity and the cohesion of the people. We value and protect them extremely, we must constantly emphasize their greatness. President Jiang Zemin clearly summarized and explained the main features and best historical and cultural traditions of China, namely the tradition of “cohesion and unity,” the tradition of “independence and self-reliance,” the tradition of “peacefulness,” and the tradition of “relentlessly striving forward.” These historical and cultural traditions have continuously spread and developed over time and with the development of social progress. These traditions have survived to this day as carriers of culture and the personification of national destinies; they have a profound influence on the spiritual values, way of life of the current generation of Chinese, as well as on the path of development of China. China's culture, which has ancient roots, is known throughout the world for its distinctly Chinese character, and the effective preservation of this cultural heritage is an extremely important and urgent task of cultural construction in China in the new century. Socialist culture with Chinese characteristics is the continuation and renewal of Chinese culture in its historical continuation. Only by being deeply rooted in the national soil is it able to forever retain its clear character and special captivity. In the new century, we must support each state in the development of its national culture, and especially must protect and support the culture of developing states more, and actively prevent the emergence of a uniform culture in the process of economic globalization. As for culture in China, it will continue to stand on the basis of modern Chinese reality, the national culture with Chinese characteristics will be continuously updated and actively developed, so that it is based on the deep culture of the East, so that the distinct national style and deep spirit of the era will come to life on the world stage and so that it stands out in the host of world cultures.
The efforts of Chinese cultural figures, their important mission, should be aimed at creating such a new modern culture of China, which would be aimed at modernization, facing the world, towards the future, which would be aimed at renewal, would develop a distinct spirit of the era, would be national, scientific and folk.
Any wonderful cultural traditions are able to maintain their vibrant vitality, reflect the life-giving modern life and play an inexhaustible stimulating role for it only if, following the pace of the era, they are constantly spreading, transforming and updating. Culture is the soul of the people. In renewal lies the life and vitality of cultural development. The development of culture is a continuous renewal in the process of accumulation and continuous accumulation in the process of renewal. Only accumulation lays the basis and only renewal determines development. In Chinese culture of the 21st century, the importance of renewal will become even stronger. Its focus on modernization deeply embodies the process of China's modernization and its inextricable ties with it. Its appeal to the world means even greater openness, wide access to knowledge, study, borrowing of valuable things, absorption of the best of cultural achievements in human activity, means a sincere search for contacts and friendship with the world. The focus of culture on the future means an even more responsible, positive and creative attitude towards national development and the development of human civilization. Culture does not lag behind the pace of the era, raises the national spirit, stands up for justice, democracy and a scientific approach, opposes bias, discrimination and dark superstition, as well as against everything decaying and backward that hinders national progress and the development of human civilization. Chinese culture is part of world culture, and it will be even more closely connected by blood ties with the broad masses of China. At the same time, it will be closely turned to the world and wage a persistent struggle to achieve a wonderful, bright tomorrow for humanity. China is a great cultural power that considers it its duty to contribute to the development of human civilization and world culture, just as China has done during its historical development. We will spare no effort so that in the new century, in achieving the creation of a new modern culture of China, facing modernization, facing the world, the future and aimed at renewing and developing the distinct spirit of the era, national, scientific and popular culture, to satisfy the ever-growing spiritual and cultural demands of the Chinese people and at the same time contribute to the construction of human civilization of the new century.
Connecting with the international community through greater openness and further expanding cultural exchanges with foreign countries is China's firm and unchanging policy in the cultural sphere.
Modern culture is created in the conditions of modernization of computer science and economic globalization. As the progress of mankind deepens and the era develops, any civilization cannot develop alone or exist in isolation. It can be said that the long-term coexistence and mutual exchanges between the civilizations of the East and the West, as well as between the cultures of different countries, followed passing streams and corresponded to popular aspirations. There was no better form of contact for humanity than culture. In the 21st century, the role of culture and its status in international relations is increasingly increasing, and cultural exchanges and cooperation between countries are becoming increasingly relevant, since various cultural contacts help eliminate national disunity and prejudices, and promote the development of interstate political and economic ties. The development of Chinese culture is inseparable from the general achievements of human civilization. External openness is not only a fundamental government policy in building the Chinese economy, but also one of the fundamental guiding policies for building a modern culture in the PRC. Thanks to this course, the openness of Chinese culture, aimed at modernization, towards the world and the future, has already fully emerged in the cultural construction of China. Currently, the PRC has entered into cultural cooperation agreements with 123 countries, and also participates in 430 cultural exchange plans. Some form of cultural contact is maintained with more than 160 countries and regions, various kinds connections are made with thousands of foreign countries and international cultural organizations. China has become familiar with a large number of famous works of foreign literature and social sciences in translation. China also became acquainted with a lot of the best works of foreign art. The holding of the “Year of International Symphonic Music”, “Year of International Opera and Ballet”, “Year of International Fine Arts” and the festival events “Meetings in Beijing 2000” by the Ministry of Culture of the PRC was warmly received by the Chinese people. They brought together the best artists and works from almost a hundred countries of the world. By actively hosting and popularizing the best foreign art, we at the same time make efforts to promote our national culture into the world. The quality of cultural and artistic programs offered abroad is increasingly improving. Our artists took part in music, choreography, circus and many other international art competitions or international arts festivals. In all this, the openness of the process of building modern Chinese culture is fully revealed. It is this unprecedented openness that powerfully stimulates the development of the entire Chinese culture and the flowering of literature and art. Life confirms that openness means life and development, and closedness symbolizes stagnation and decline. China's policy of expanding external openness is unshakable.
China's fundamental platform and position regarding the development of world culture is as follows: full respect for the diversity and differences of nationalities and civilizations, promoting the coexistence of different civilizations rather than conflicts between them, dialogue rather than confrontation, exchanges rather than isolation, mutual tolerance and not rejecting, learning from each other, establishing cooperation and developing together.
The differences and non-identity of cultures and civilizations are an objective reality and at the same time an objective pattern. It is only thanks to the presence of non-identity that culture has its own specificity, and the world is so rich in color. Isn’t it precisely such an important reason as the attractiveness of other cultures that people go thousands of kilometers to other countries on excursions and tourist trips? However, “non-identity” is by no means equivalent to the absence of mutual connections, and certainly does not mean conflict. Between different cultures there must necessarily be an element of “togetherness,” and “togetherness” involves harmony, learning from each other, and borrowing. Only the presence of the element of “togetherness” is capable of generating new phenomena and development. After all, the principle of “shared, but not identical” contained in ancient Chinese philosophy precisely reflects this position. An important reason for the uninterrupted development of Chinese culture for five thousand years is its adherence to its national cultural traditions and at the same time its attention to the absorption of everything valuable from foreign culture. Therefore, in the course of historical development, an amazing spectacle of unique landscapes opened up, and the treasury of Chinese and foreign culture was enriched. China is a multinational state. In the long history of the development of Chinese culture, in the process of joint work and creativity, in the process of fighting against foreign aggression and upholding the unity of the country and national cohesion, a pluralistic and united culture of China was ultimately formed, and at the same time the cherished humane dreams of preserving differences while achieving harmony were born. That is why Chinese culture is alive to this day and full of vitality. The culture of various nationalities of the world contains both nationally specific and universal elements. One should treat with full respect the diversity and differences of different nationalities, discard the “thinking of the times” cold war”, dissociate ourselves from calls for a “clash of civilizations” and, on the basis of mutual respect, equality, and the search for commonalities while maintaining differences, deepen the positive role of various civilizations, promoting the continuous development of human society and the general progress of all countries and peoples of the world. As humanity enters the 21st century, economic globalization is accelerating more and more, and culture is moving from the regions into the world. This general trend in the spiritual development of humanity looks even more clear; elements of community in general culture humanity in the future. However, this does not mean that the world will move towards monoculture. And if the world's garden of a hundred flowers became monochromatic, even if they were peonies, it would still seem completely lifeless. Only if a hundred flowers compete in beauty, then whatever the weather, the garden will be abundant and beautiful. That is why we advocate for the diversity of world culture. In the process of development in the future, the culture of each country should be diverse and rich, but at the same time retain its distinct individuality and characteristic character. All peoples of the world, along with preserving the uniqueness of their own culture, must bear common responsibility for those common spiritual values and principles that are characteristic of the development of human culture, and make a joint contribution to this. We are deeply confident that the principle of “joint, but not the same” is capable of helping to develop diversity in world culture, is capable of generating new ideas, new approaches, and stimulating the progress of human civilization. We must have a broad and comprehensive approach, have a completely new historical point of view, show common concern for the fate of humanity, truly take into account the needs of the development of human civilization, searching for ways to build a new culture, developing equal cultural exchanges between countries and jointly creating a rich and a multi-colored world culture.
→ Culture of Ancient China
The ideological core of Chinese culture was Confucianism - philosophical and ethical doctrine that arose in the 6th century BC. Its founder was the sage Confucius(551 -479 BC). Confucianism asserted the eternity and immutability of society and the world as a whole. Each member of society must occupy the place initially predetermined for him. Humanity and mercy must permeate relations between people. Everyone is obliged to help others, to achieve what they themselves strive for and not to do what they do not want for themselves. This ethical position was later formulated in and received the name golden rule of morality.
Confucius identified society with the state. The state was understood by Confucius as a large family, in which the sovereign (emperor) is "Son of Heaven" , And "Father and Mother of the People" . In such a state, strict rather than legal mechanisms dominated. For a long time, Confucianism performed a state function in China. ideology.
Another important direction of Chinese philosophy was Taoism (founder Lao Tzu 6th century BC). The central concept of Taoism was proclaimed "dao" - path. From the point of view of Taoism, everything in the world is in motion, in change, in transit, everything is impermanent and finite. It is necessary to follow the established world order corresponding to the Tao. To ensure immortality, you need to perform special exercises reminiscent of yoga.
The Chinese for a long time adhered to the belief in their exclusivity and considered all other peoples to be barbarians until the middle of the 18th century.
Chinese civilization is the oldest of civilizations. Already in the 10th century BC. it was a highly developed culture. China gave the world hieroglyphic writing, silk, paper, phosphorus, compass, plow, gunpowder, engine. The achievements of Chinese medicine, astronomy, and mathematics are known throughout the world.
In China there was no concept of God. The world is not created by God, it is revealed from its own hidden basis, like from a flower bud.
In Chinese culture there was no concept of spirit and body, no idea of matter. The world was perceived as undivided into spirit and matter. Man is equal to the cosmic forces of Heaven and occupies a central place in the universe. The approach to any phenomenon of life begins, first of all, with the concepts of morality (Confucianism).
Among the categories of Chinese culture, the most important CI . It is not translated into Russian. It is understood approximately like this: just as ice, when heated, turns into water, and water into steam, so Qi, condensing, becomes a substance, thinning out in spirit. Everything that exists in the world is QI; there is nothing except QI. Qi is the primordial spirit in primordial nature. The stone also contains the beginnings of spirituality. Qi is mobile, like everything in the world. Here is the mountain. It is a mountain when it arose, but over time it will age, crumble with the wind, become sand, and sooner or later a new mountain will arise from the sand. So, Qi is the vital energy that fills the world.
Chinese thinking was different from the cause-and-effect mentality of Europeans. For example, what do metal, the West, the color white, light and justice have in common? The European will not see the connection here. Everything is clear to the Chinese: the primary element in all this is metal.
This type of thinking is based on theory of sympathy. Positive sphere of life - Ian
, negative - Yin
. Like interacts with like. “You cannot pick a flower without disturbing the stars,” said the Chinese poet.
Chinese culture optimistic. The cosmos is harmonious, orderly, full of life and energy. The sky is the masculine principle, full of Yang charge. The earth, as the opposite of the sky, is the feminine principle of Yin. The soil signifies the harmony of Yang and Yin.
Space : the east is dominated by a young positive force (tree), which has matured in the south. South is fire, West is metal, North is water. The North was perceived by the Chinese as a kingdom of cold and darkness, from where wild nomads launched raids. The south is the source of bright and hot Yang power. This was reflected in the planning of Chinese cities: they were built strictly in a square with the main gate in the south. Facing south, the emperor sat on the throne. At first, the Chinese believed that the sky was round and the earth was square. Then they realized that the sky is an emptiness in which the life force of Qi is diffused.
Concept of life and death: “Life is just swimming with the flow, death is just a rest along the way.” This is how the Chinese imagined the world. There were no teachings about the immortality of the soul in Chinese philosophy. Life and death are two indispensable phases of a single process of time. Life is good, death is evil and must be overcome. One of the religions, Taoism, developed ways to prolong life: special sexual practices, breathing exercises, meditation, gymnastics.
Arts and literature: The Chinese universe is built on beauty. The cosmos is “patterned”; the pattern later became the meaning of “written sign”, writing, “culture expressed in a written sign”. One of the main concepts of Chinese culture is the concept WEN . Wen is a cosmic principle that expresses patterning and decoration in the Universe. The shaman always had this patterned tattoo as a sign of sacredness. Wen is a manifestation of the cosmos in a person. Raising his head up, the sage studies the constellations. Lowering your head down - comprehends hidden meaning animal and bird tracks. The result of this peering was the emergence of hieroglyphic writing and culture. Writing, according to the Chinese, carries the great Tao - the path. Hence the truly reverent attitude of the people towards the written text. Pursuing literature is a noble and worthy cause. But under real literature What was understood was not a novel, but philosophical prose.
Chinese art - this is an image not of things, but of ideas, meanings. One-color paintings occupy a special place in it. The image is applied with black ink on white paper or lightly tinted silk. The artists sought to convey the idea of emptiness, the airy “groundlessness” of all things. The focus in Chinese painting was on the search for harmony and unity with the cosmos.
Religion: Confucianism can hardly be considered a religion. This is an ethical-political doctrine. There were many mixed beliefs and cults. This is a syncretic belief, like Taoism. The religions of China allowed for the existence of different beliefs. There was no monotheism. Buddhism came to China from India and was transformed. The Chinese could confess three religions at the same time: at work to be a Confucian, with friends and in the lap of nature - a Taoist, alone with oneself a Buddhist (reflections on life and death).
Social values:
Belief in the possibility of creating a moral society, which required ideal, highly developed leaders;
The family is a special clan, the prototype of the state. A man who properly supports his family can govern the state;
The ideal of a noble husband, official, monarch.
Played a huge role in ancient Chinese culture nobility of birth and the presence of high-ranking ancestors.
The ruling stratum was recruited through examinations. Any resident had the right to take an exam on knowledge of Confucian texts and commentary on literature and could receive one or another academic degree.
For a commoner who has successfully passed even the lowest district exam for a degree syutsya(a blossoming talent), my whole life changed dramatically. He was exempt from taxes, military and labor service, and wore the robe and headdress of a scientist. This is how it was formed layer of managers(tangerine - tangerines - from the word to command). The terms “official” and “intellectual” coincided in Chinese culture. All this explains the exceptional value of education.
Chinese education was of a distinctly humanitarian nature. Philology, philosophy, history were considered honorable sciences. Natural sciences were of an applied nature. Trade, business, and crafts were not rated very highly. The officials looked at the merchants with contempt. Peasants are the “good” people, traders are the “bad” people.
Family: The ideal was the “five generations under one roof” model. A family is a clan of people who are related. The main thing is that from childhood to death the Chinese feel like part of the clan. Outside of the family he is nothing.
Ancestor cult - part of the national religion.
Read the continuation of the topic “Culture of the Ancient East”:
Chinese culture is one of the most interesting and, of course, unique oriental cultures, it belongs to the circle great river civilizations, arose in ancient times. But if the cultures of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt have long sunk into oblivion, China continues to exist for the fifth millennium, being one of the oldest civilizations on Earth. The cultural tradition of China, which arose in ancient times, was never interrupted, even during periods of foreign domination. The Chinese have never abandoned their cultural heritage (as was the case in Europe in the Middle Ages in relation to ancient culture). The vast majority of traditions and customs of China, the features of the spiritual life of Chinese society, are directly derived from the cultural characteristics that arose in the earliest stages of the country's history. The history and culture of China are quite well known, supported by archaeological materials and, starting from the 13th century. BC, written sources.
The beginning of the cultural history of China dates back to the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. Since this time, the Chinese themselves have been periodizing the history of their country, based on the change of ruling dynasties of Chinese emperors. Chinese historiography begins with the reign of five legendary emperors, whose era of rule was perceived as the golden age of wisdom, justice and virtue. This is the time of the founding of the first Xia dynasty in Chinese tradition, when elected positions were replaced by hereditary power. True, the question of the historicity of this dynasty raises certain doubts among experts due to the lack of reliable written sources relating to this time. For the same reason, it is impossible to accurately resolve the question of what Chinese society of this time was like. This period, which began in the early Paleolithic and lasted until the formation of the first states, can be called Archaic China.
The oldest period of Chinese culture that can be studied on the basis of written documents begins in the 18th century. BC. It is associated with the reign of the Chinese Shang-Yin dynasty. From this time the stage of ancient history and culture of China is counted. Period Ancient China continues under the rule of Zhou (XI-V centuries BC), as well as Qin and Han (III century BC - III century AD). The era of Ancient China is very important, since it was during this time that all the basic elements, ideals and values of Chinese culture were formed.
Then the epoch is highlighted Traditional China, including the stages of the reign of six dynasties (III-VI centuries), the periods of Tang (VII-IX centuries), Song (X-XIII centuries), Yuan (XIII-XIV centuries), Ming (XIV-XVII centuries) and Qing (XVII-XX centuries). This time practically did not create fundamentally new cultural phenomena, but only developed the trends laid down earlier in Ancient China.
And from 1912 the period begins modern China, the starting point of which is the abdication of the last Chinese emperor and the establishment of a republic in the country.
Although Chinese scholars themselves insist that most of the features of Chinese culture arose during the Xia period, European researchers still focus on a later period Shang-Yin, studied in detail with the help of archaeological materials and written sources, considering that it was from here that Chinese civilization began. It was during the Shang-Yin period that bronze casting production began, the foundations of Chinese statehood (royal power) were formed, a specific worldview was formed, and writing was invented, which arose from inscriptions on oracle bones.
The most important achievements of the period Zhou began the use of iron, irrigated agriculture, plowing with the use of draft animals, petroleum products and gas (for lighting city streets and heating homes in cities actively under construction), the emergence of real money. At the same time, specific Chinese philosophy and religion (Confucianism and Taoism) were formed, a national written culture was formed, and the book was born.
During Qin The first empire of China appears. At this time, a number of economic and political reforms were carried out, during which the emerging commodity-money relations in the country were completely subordinated to state control. The most famous monuments of this era were the Great Wall of China and the Great Canal of China.
And finally, Han Empire- at this time, the main features of Chinese culture, language and writing, which remain unchanged to this day, finally took shape. Also at this time, the traditional isolation of China was overcome - the Great Silk Road was functioning, connecting the empire with other countries. Along this route, various technical and ideological innovations penetrated into China, the most significant of which was the emergence of Buddhism.
With the collapse of the Han Empire begins Traditional China. The first stage is called Six dynasties. Among the achievements of this period is the final formation of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism into the main ideological system of society, called " Three teachings" which gave the Chinese the opportunity to simultaneously practice several religions. Taoism stimulated the development of alchemy and medicine, Buddhism brought with it astronomy and mathematics. Tea becomes the national Chinese drink. A new stage begins in the development of artistic culture - anonymous folk art is replaced by author's art, the main genres in literature and fine arts are formed, which acquire a secular character.
The noted trends reach their full flowering during periods Tan And Sun, which are considered classics in Chinese culture. At this time, China was pursuing an active policy of conquest, trying to take control of the entire Great Silk Road. Close ties arise with Japan and the Arab world. Among the most important achievements of this time were the invention of printing, the emergence of libraries, and the spread of the desire for education among the broad masses. During this period, standard examples of poetic, prose and pictorial creativity were created. A full-fledged urban culture emerged, which, in turn, caused the democratization of artistic culture. This was facilitated by the examinations introduced in the country for any bureaucratic rank, during which only the knowledge of candidates was assessed, and not their origin. Therefore, obtaining an education that opened a person’s path to the very top of the social ladder and included knowledge and skills in the field artistic creativity, became the goal of most Chinese families (even peasant ones). This period can be compared to the European Renaissance.
The Mongol invasion marked the beginning of a new period in the history of the country - Yuan. It caused enormous damage to the country's economy. Trying to rule the country, the Mongols were forced to use Chinese experience in the field government controlled, ultimately internalizing the values of Chinese culture as a whole. There was also a further evolution of fine art, the theater was born, which is considered the standard in the art of drama. Popular anti-Mongol uprisings brought the Ming dynasty to power. The main trend of the period Min was the restoration of national cultural values. Ultimately, this led to the “petrification” of Chinese culture. The completion of the processes of cultural conservation was the foreign policy self-isolation of the empire. Periodically occurring military conflicts with the Portuguese, Spaniards, and Japanese only supported China's confidence in its chosen path.
However, this policy did not help, and the Manchu troops invited to suppress popular unrest brought a new dynasty to power - Qing. The Manchus were a semi-nomadic people. Having taken the place of the privileged class, they tried to preserve their ethnic purity and traditions. But it was impossible to rule a huge country with only archery and horse riding skills (this was mandatory for all Manchu youths). Therefore, just as during the period of Mongol rule, the Manchus accepted Chinese spiritual values and the political experience of Chinese civilization, but left all spiritual activities to the Chinese, who were humiliated in every possible way. The conservatism and ignorance of the ruling Manchu circles, contempt for spiritual creativity, which also penetrated into the circles of the Chinese intelligentsia, led to the stagnation of Chinese culture, and then to its degeneration. The “three teachings” degenerate into orthodox, dogmatic systems. Education becomes completely formal, turning into simple cramming. State exams are turning into a farce, corruption is reaching unprecedented proportions. Degradation processes also affect artistic culture, whose works become pompous, pretentious (similar to European Rococo).
From the second half of the 19th century. The country was shaken by popular anti-Manchu uprisings and colonial wars waged in China by European powers. The influence of European culture was twofold. On the one hand, it was perceived with hostility as a culture of invaders. On the other hand, the failure of the ruling regime forced many members of the intelligentsia to turn to the scientific, philosophical and political thought of Europe. And at the beginning
XX century in Chinese culture, three main trends could be clearly distinguished - the denial of patriarchal foundations in the form in which they existed in the Qing era; the growth of patriotic sentiments and a call to return to the true values of Chinese culture; admiration for European civilization.
With the abdication of the last Chinese emperor, the period of Traditional China ended, giving way to Modern China. Since 1911, China formally became a republic, but until 1949 (the formation of the People's Republic of China) little changed in the country. The country broke up into many semi-state entities, between which conflicts periodically arose. Japanese intervention complicated the existing situation. However, in this Time of Troubles“There were intensive processes of renewal in the spiritual sphere - based on the reform of the old elite writing, new literature and art were created, experiencing serious European influence.
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Chinese culture (as well as political life) extremely contradictory processes occur. During the so-called "cultural revolution" a policy of criticizing the past and banning all traditional values was proclaimed; many representatives of the Chinese intelligentsia were physically destroyed. But since the beginning of the 1980s, there has again been a tendency to return to cultural roots. Thus, in 1989, the 2540th anniversary of the birth of Confucius was celebrated on a huge scale. An extensive network of museums was created in the country, broad support was provided to religious denominations, and a large number of scientific research and educational institutions working in the field of studying national culture. Classic works are published in large editions.
Today China, having taken a lot from European civilization in the field of science and technology, having created modern industrial production and financial structures, in general retained its traditional spiritual appearance, most of the values of its culture.
The culture of China dates back to very ancient times and is distinguished not only by the richness of its material and spiritual values, but also by its enormous vitality. Despite countless wars, rebellions, and destruction caused by the country's conquerors, the culture of China not only did not weaken, but, on the contrary, always defeated the culture of the conquerors. Throughout history, Chinese culture has not lost its activity, maintaining its monolithic nature. Each of cultural eras left for descendants values unique in beauty, originality and diversity. Works of architecture, sculpture, painting and crafts are priceless monuments of China's cultural heritage. Each of the cultural eras is closely connected with the socio-political, economic and other features of a given historical period and represents a certain stage in the development of culture. There are several such cultural eras in Chinese history. The history and culture of ancient China covers the period from the 2nd century. BC e. - until the 3rd century n. e. This era includes the culture of China during the Shang (Yin) dynasty and the Zhou dynasty, as well as the culture of the Qin and Han empires. Culture of China III-IX centuries. covers two historical periods: the period of the Southern and Northern dynasties and the period of the unification of China and the creation of the Tang state. Culture of China X-XIV centuries. includes the period of the Five Dynasties and the formation of the Song Empire, as well as the period of the Mongol conquests and the introduction of the Yuan Dynasty. Culture of China XV-XIX centuries. - This is the culture of the Ming Dynasty, as well as the period of the conquest of China by the Manchus and the reign of the Manchu Qing Dynasty. The abundance and variety of ceramic products - from household utensils to sacrificial vessels - and their technical perfection indicate that the culture of this period was undoubtedly higher than the Yangshan culture. The first oracle bones, on which there are signs made by drilling, date back to this time. The invention of writing is the most important sign that a society has emerged from a period of barbarism and entered an era of civilization. The oldest Chinese inscriptions make it possible to trace the process of emergence and initial development of hieroglyphic writing. The development of writing was facilitated by the transition from writing on narrow bamboo tablets to writing on silk, and then on paper, first invented in the world by the Chinese at the turn of our era - from that moment on, writing material ceased to limit the volume of written texts. At the end of the 1st century BC. e. mascara was invented.
To convey the entire richness of the Chinese language, signs (hieroglyphs) were used to record certain units of the language. The vast majority of signs were ideograms - images of objects or combinations of images that convey more complex concepts. But the number of hieroglyphs used was not enough. In Chinese writing, each monosyllable word had to be expressed by a separate hieroglyph, and even numerous homophones - similar-sounding monosyllable words - are depicted with different hieroglyphs depending on their meaning. Now the number of signs has been replenished in order to take into account rarer concepts, and has been brought to 18 thousand; the signs have been strictly classified. Dictionaries began to be compiled. Thus, the prerequisites were laid for the creation of an extensive written literature, which includes not only poetry and aphorisms, designed for oral memorization, but also literary prose, primarily historical. The most outstanding historian-writer was Sima Qian (about 145 - 86 BC). His personal views, sympathetic to Taoist sentiments, diverged from orthodox Confucian ones, which could not but affect his work. Apparently, the historian fell into disgrace for this dissent. In 98 BC. e. on charges of sympathy for the commander slandered before Emperor Wu Di, Sima Qian was sentenced to a shameful punishment - castration; Rehabilitated later, he found the strength to return to his official career with one goal - to complete the work of his life. In 91 BC. e. he completed his wonderful work “Historical Notes” (“Shi Ji”) - a consolidated history of China, which also included a description of neighboring peoples from ancient times. His work influenced not only all subsequent Chinese historiography, but also general development literature. In China, many poets and writers worked in different genres. In the elegiac genre - the poet Song Yu (290 - 223 BC). The lyrics of the poet Qu Yuan (340 -278 BC) are famous for their sophistication and depth. The Han historian Ban Gu (32 -92) created the work “History of the Han Dynasty” and many others in this genre. The surviving literary sources, mostly works of the so-called classical literature ancient China, allow us to trace the process of the emergence and development of Chinese religion, philosophy, law and the emergence of very ancient socio-political systems. We can observe this process for a whole millennium. Chinese religion, as well as the religious views of all peoples of antiquity, goes back to fetishism, to other forms of the cult of nature, the cult of ancestors and totemism, closely associated with magic. Specifics religious structure and the psychological characteristics of thinking throughout the spiritual orientation in China are visible in many ways. In China, too, there is a higher divine principle - Heaven. But the Chinese Heaven is not Yahweh, not Jesus, not Allah, not Brahman and not Buddha. This is the highest supreme universality, abstract and cold, strict and indifferent to man. You cannot love her, you cannot merge with her, you cannot imitate her, just as there is no point in admiring her. But in the system of Chinese religious and philosophical thought, in addition to Heaven, there is also Buddha (the idea of him penetrated into China along with Buddhism from India at the beginning of our era), and Tao (the main category of religious and philosophical Taoism). Moreover, Tao in its Taoist interpretation (there is also another interpretation, Confucian, which perceived Tao in the form of the Great Path of Truth and Virtue) is close to the Indian Brahman. However, it is Heaven that has always been the central category of supreme universality in China. The specificity of the religious structure of China is also characterized by another moment that exists to characterize the entire Chinese civilization - the insignificant and socially non-existent role of the clergy, the priesthood. All these and many other important features of the religious structure of China were laid down in ancient times, starting from the Shang-Yin era. The Yin had a considerable pantheon of gods and spirits, which they revered and to which they made sacrifices, most often bloody, including human ones. But over time, Shandi, the supreme deity and legendary ancestor of the Yin people, their ancestor - a totem, came more and more clearly to the fore among these gods and spirits. Shandi was perceived as the first ancestor who cared about the well-being of his people. The shift in the cult of Shandi's emphasis towards his functions as an ancestor played a huge role in the history of Chinese civilization: it was this that logically led to the weakening of the religious principle and to the strengthening of the rational principle, which manifested itself in the hypertrophy of the cult of ancestors, which then became the basis of the foundations of the religious system of China. The Zhou people had such a religious idea as the veneration of Heaven. Over time, the cult of Heaven in Zhou finally replaced Shandi in the main function of the supreme deity. At the same time, the idea of a direct genetic connection between divine powers and the ruler spread to Heaven: the Zhou Wang began to be considered the son of Heaven, and this title was retained by the ruler of China until the 20th century. Starting from the Zhou era, Heaven, in its main function as the supreme controlling and regulating principle, became the main all-Chinese deity, and the cult of this deity was given not only a sacred-theistic, but also a moral and ethical emphasis. It was believed that the great Heaven punishes the unworthy and rewards the virtuous. The cult of Heaven became the main one in China, and its full implementation was the prerogative of only the ruler himself, the son of Heaven. The practice of this cult was not accompanied by mystical awe or bloody human sacrifices. There is also a cult of dead ancestors in China, a cult of the Earth, closely associated with magic and ritual symbolism, with witchcraft and shamanism. All the noted systems of belief and cults in ancient China played a huge role in the formation of the main traditional Chinese civilization: not mysticism and metaphysical abstractions, but strict rationalism and concrete state benefit; not the emotional intensity of passions and the personal connection of the individual with the deity, but reason and moderation, the rejection of the personal in favor of the social, not the clergy, directing the emotions of believers in the direction of exalting God and enhancing the significance of religion, but priest-officials performing their administrative functions, partly which had regular religious services.
All these specific features , which took shape in the Yin-Zhou Chinese system of values over the millennium preceding the era of Confucius, prepared the country for the perception of those principles and norms of life that forever went down in history under the name of Confucianism. Confucius (Kunzi, 551-479 BC) was born and lived in an era of great socialist and political upheaval, when Zhou China was in a state of severe internal crisis. The highly moral Jun Tzu, constructed by the philosopher as a model, a standard to follow, should have had two of the most important virtues in his mind: humanity and a sense of duty. Confucius also developed a number of other concepts, including loyalty and sincerity (zheng), decency and observance of ceremonies and rituals (li). Following all these principles will be the duty of the noble Junzi. The “noble man” of Confucius is a speculative social ideal, an edifying set of virtues. Confucius formulated the foundations of the social ideal that he would like to see in the Celestial Empire: “Let the father be a father, the son a son, the sovereign a sovereign, an official an official,” that is, let everything in this world of chaos and confusion fall into place, everyone will know your rights and responsibilities and do what you are supposed to do. And society should consist of those who think and rule - the top, and those who work and obey - the bottom. Confucius and the second founder of Confucianism, Mencius (372 - 289 BC), considered such a social order eternal and unchanging, coming from the sages of legendary antiquity. One of the important foundations of social order, according to Confucius, was strict obedience to elders. Any elder, be it a father, an official, or finally a sovereign, is an unquestioning authority for a younger, subordinate, subject. Blind obedience to his will, word, desire is an elementary norm for juniors and subordinates, both within the state as a whole and within the ranks of a clan, corporation or family. The success of Confucianism was greatly facilitated by the fact that this teaching was based on slightly modified ancient traditions, on the usual norms of ethics and cult. Appealing to the most subtle and responsive strings of the Chinese soul, the Confucians won his trust by advocating for the conservative traditionalism dear to his heart, for a return to the “good old days”, when there were fewer taxes, and people lived better, and officials were fairer, and the rulers are wiser... In the conditions of the Zhanguo era (V-III centuries BC), when various philosophical schools competed fiercely in China, Confucianism was in first place in its significance and influence. But, despite this, the methods of governing the country proposed by the Confucians did not receive recognition at that time. This was prevented by the rivals of the Confucians - the Legists. The teaching of legalists - legalists - differed sharply from Confucianism. The legalist doctrine was based on the unconditional primacy of written law. The strength and authority of which must rest on cane discipline and cruel punishments. According to legalistic canons, laws are developed by sages - reformers, issued by the sovereign, and put into practice by specially selected officials and ministers, relying on a powerful administrative and bureaucratic apparatus. In the teachings of the legalists, who hardly even appealed to Heaven, rationalism was taken to its extreme form, sometimes turning into outright cynicism, which can be easily seen in the activities of a number of legalist reformers in various kingdoms of Zhou China in the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. But it was not rationalism or the attitude towards Heaven that was fundamental in the opposition of legalism to Confucianism. What was more important was that Confucianism relied on high morality and other traditions, while Legalism placed above all else the law, which was based on strict punishments and demanded absolute obedience of a deliberately stupid people. Confucianism focused on the past, and Legalism openly challenged this past, offering extreme forms of authoritarian despotism as an alternative. The crude methods of legalism were more acceptable and effective for the rulers, because they made it possible to firmly hold centralized control over the private owner in their hands, which was of great importance for the strengthening of the kingdoms and success in their fierce struggle for the unification of China. The synthesis of Confucianism and Legalism turned out to be not so difficult. Firstly, despite many differences, Legalism and Confucianism had a lot in common: supporters of both doctrines thought rationalistically, for both of them the sovereign was the highest authority, ministers and officials were his main assistants in government, and the people were the ignorant masses who had to be led properly for her own good. Secondly, this synthesis was necessary: the methods and instructions introduced by legalism (centralization of the administration and fiscus, the court, the apparatus of power, etc.), without which it was impossible to govern the empire, in the interests of the same empire had to be combined with respect for traditions and patriarchal-clan ties. This was done.
The transformation of Confucianism into the official ideology was a turning point both in the history of this teaching and in the history of China. If earlier Confucianism, calling to learn from others, assumed that everyone had the right to think for themselves, now the doctrine of the absolute holiness and immutability of other canons and sages, their every word, came into force. Confucianism managed to take a leading position in Chinese society, acquire structural strength and ideologically substantiate its extreme conservatism, which found its highest expression in the cult of an unchanging form. Confucianism educated and educated. Starting from the Han era, Confucians not only controlled the administration of the state, but also made sure that Confucian norms and value guidelines became generally accepted and became a symbol of “true Chinese.” This led to the fact that every Chinese by birth and upbringing had to be, first of all, a Confucian, that is, from the first steps of life, a Chinese in everyday life, in treating people, in performing the most important family and social rites and rituals acted as it was sanctioned Confucian traditions. Even if he eventually becomes a Taoist or a Buddhist, or even a Christian, he still remained a Confucian, albeit not in his beliefs, but in his behavior, customs, manner of thinking, speech and much more, often subconsciously. Education began from childhood, with the family, with those accustomed to the cult of ancestors, to observing ceremonies, etc. The education system in medieval China was focused on training experts in Confucianism. Confucianism is the regulator of Chinese life. The centralized state, which existed at the expense of rent - a tax from peasants, did not encourage the excessive development of private land ownership. As soon as the strengthening of the private sector crossed acceptable boundaries, this led to a significant decrease in treasury revenues and disruption of the entire administrative system. A crisis arose, and at that moment the Confucian thesis about the responsibility of emperors and their officials for bad governance began to take effect. The crisis was overcome, but the uprising that accompanied it destroyed everything that had been achieved by the private sector. After the crisis, the central government in the person of the new emperor and his entourage became stronger, and part of the private sector started all over again. Confucianism acted both as a regulator in the country's relationship with Heaven, and - on behalf of Heaven - with various tribes and peoples inhabiting the world. Confucianism supported and exalted the cult of the ruler, the emperor, the “son of Heaven”, who ruled the Celestial Empire on behalf of the great Heaven, created back in the Yin-Zhou era. Confucianism became not just a religion, but also politics, an administrative system, and the supreme regulator of economic and social processes - in a word, the basis of the entire Chinese way of life, the organizing principle of Chinese society, the quintessence of Chinese civilization. For more than two thousand years, Confucianism shaped the minds and feelings of the Chinese, influenced their beliefs, psychology, behavior, thinking, speech, perception, their way of life and way of life. In this sense, Confucianism is not inferior to any of the great solutions of the world, and in some ways it surpasses them. Confucianism noticeably colored the entire national culture of China and the national character of the population. It managed to become, at least for old China, indispensable.
Despite the wide spread of Confucianism, another philosophical system, which belonged to Lao Tzu, was very widespread in ancient China, which differed sharply from Confucianism in its pronounced speculative character. Subsequently, from this philosophical system a whole complex religion grew, the so-called Taoism, which existed in China for over 2000 years. Taoism in China occupied a modest place in the system of official religious and ideological values. The leadership of the Confucians was never seriously challenged by them. However, during periods of crisis and great upheaval, when the centralized state administration fell into decay and Confucianism ceased to be effective, the picture often changed. During these periods, Taoism and Buddhism sometimes came to the fore, manifesting themselves in emotional popular outbursts and in the egalitarian utopian ideals of the rebels. And although even in these cases Taoist-Buddhist ideas never became an absolute force, but, on the contrary, as the crisis was resolved, they gradually lost their leading positions to Confucianism, the importance of rebellious-egalitarian traditions in the history of China should not be underestimated. Especially if we take into account that within the framework of Taoist sects and secret societies, these ideas and sentiments were tenacious, preserved for centuries, passing from generation to generation, and thus left their mark on the entire history of China. As is known, they played a certain role in the revolutionary explosions of the 20th century. Buddhist and Indo culture had a significant influence on the Chinese people and their culture. Buddhist philosophy and mythology. Much of this philosophy and mythology, from the practice of yogi gymnastics to ideas about hell and heaven, was adopted in China, and stories and legends from the lives of Buddhas and saints were intricately intertwined in the rationalistic Chinese consciousness with real ones. historical events , heroes and figures of the past. Buddhist metaphysical philosophy played a role in the development of medieval Chinese natural philosophy. A lot is connected with Buddhism in the history of China, including what would seem to be specifically Chinese. Buddhism was the only peaceful religion that became widespread in China. But the specific conditions of China and the characteristic features of Buddhism itself, with its structural looseness, did not allow this religion, like religious Taoism, to acquire a predominant ideological influence in the country. Like religious Taoism, Chinese Buddhism took its place in the gigantic system of religious syncretism that developed in medieval China, led by Confucianism. In the history and culture of medieval China, an updated and modified form of ancient Confucianism, called Neo-Confucianism, played a huge role. In the new conditions of the centralized Song Empire, in order to solve the problems of strengthening the administrative-bureaucratic principle, it was necessary to “update” Confucianism in accordance with new social conditions, create a solid theoretical basis for the existing system, and develop the principles of Confucian “orthodoxy” that could be contrasted with Buddhism and Taoism . The credit for creating Neo-Confucianism belongs to a whole cohort of major Chinese thinkers. First of all, this is Zhou Dun-yi (1017-1073), whose views and theoretical developments laid the foundations of the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism. Having laid the infinite at the foundation of the world and designated it as the “Great Limit” as the basis, as the path of the cosmos, in the movement of which the force of Light (Yang) is born, and at rest - the cosmic force of Darkness (Yin), he argued that from the interaction of these forces comes the birth from the primeval chaos of five elements, five types of matter (water, fire, wood, metal, earth), and from them - a multitude of ever-changing things and phenomena. The basic principles of the teachings of Zhou Dun-i were accepted by Zhang Zai and the Cheng brothers, but the most prominent representative of the philosophers of the Song period was Zhu Xi (1130-1200). It was he who acted as a systematizer of the basic principles of Neo-Confucianism, who for many years determined the basic ideas, character and forms of updated and adapted to the conditions of the Middle Ages, Confucian teachings. As modern scholars note, Neo-Confucianism was more religious and metaphysically inclined than early Confucianism, and in general, medieval Chinese philosophy was characterized by a religious bias. In the course of borrowing from Buddhists and Taoists various aspects of their teachings, the basis was created for the development of the logical method of Neo-Confucianism, which was elevated to the rank of one of the most important parts of the Confucian canon, the meaning of which was that the essence of knowledge is the comprehension of things. With the rise to power of the Chinese Ming dynasty, the emperors did not express much willingness to accept Confucian doctrine as the only support in state building. Confucianism was reduced to the position of only one of the three teachings about comprehending the Way of Heaven. Development public consciousness the Chinese during the Ming period led to the emergence of individualistic tendencies. The first signs of this kind of personalistic tendencies appeared at the very beginning of the Ming time. Among the Ming thinkers, and first of all, Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529), the measure of human values was not so much the Confucian socialized personality as the personalized personality. The central concept of Wang Yang-ming's philosophy is liangzhi (innate knowledge), the presence of which gives every person the right to achieve wisdom. A prominent follower of Wang Yang-ming was the philosopher and writer Li Chih (1527-1602). Li Zhi focused on the individual destiny of a person and his search for his own Path. The central concept of Li Zhi's philosophy was tong xin (children's heart), some analogue of Wang Yang-ming's liangzhi. Li chih sharply disagreed with Wang Yang-ming in his assessment of the Confucian concept of human relations, believing that they were based on urgent human needs, without the satisfaction of which no moralism makes sense. Thus, as a result of the complex process of synthesis of religions and ethical norms in late medieval China, a new complex system of religious ideas arose, a gigantic and constantly updated consolidated pantheon of deities, spirits, immortals, patrons, etc. was formed. Any religious movement, which is a manifestation human aspirations, social changes and hopes for a good result with faith in the supreme predetermination of such developments are always closely interconnected with specific socio-political, cultural and other characteristics of the region or country as a whole. A special role in the religious movement in China was played by folk sextan beliefs, doctrinal principles, ritual and organizational-practical forms of which were most fully formed by XVII century. The religious activity of sects has always been quite broad and diverse, while maintaining subordination to the main goals and values of the faith.
Throughout the history of Chinese culture, each of the existing eras has left for descendants values unique in beauty, originality and diversity. Many features of the material culture of the Shang-Yin period indicate its genetic connections with the Neolithic tribes that inhabited the Yellow River basin in the 3rd century. BC e. We see considerable similarities in ceramics, the nature of agriculture and the use of agricultural tools. However, at least three major achievements are inherent in the Shang-Yin period: the use of bronze, the emergence of cities and the emergence of writing. Shan society was on the verge of the Copper-Stone and Bronze Ages. In the so-called Yin China, there is a social division of labor into farmers and specialized artisans. The Shans cultivated grain crops, grew gardening crops, and mulberry trees for breeding silkworms. Cattle breeding also played a significant role in the life of the Yin. The most important craft production was bronze casting. There were quite large craft workshops where all ritual utensils, weapons, chariot parts, etc. were made from bronze. During the Shang (Yin) dynasty, monumental construction and, in particular, urban planning developed. The cities (approximately 6 sq. km in size) were built according to a specific plan, with monumental buildings of the palace-temple type, with craft districts, and bronze foundries. The era of Shang-Yin was relatively short-lived. In place of the Yin confederation of city-communities, an early state unification took place within the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River - Western Zhou, and culture was replenished with new industries. Examples of the most ancient poetic works have come down to us in inscriptions on bronze vessels of the 11th-6th centuries. BC e. The rhyming texts of this time have a certain resemblance to songs. They enshrined the historical, moral, aesthetic, religious and artistic experience acquired over millennia of previous development. The historical prose of this period consists of inscriptions on ritual vessels that tell of land transfers, military campaigns, rewards for victory and faithful service, etc. from about the 8th century. BC e. At the Vanir courts, events and messages are recorded and an archive is created. By the 5th century BC e. From brief records of events in different kingdoms, codes are compiled, one of which, the chronicle of Lu, has come down to us as part of the Confucian canon.
In addition to narratives describing certain events, the Confucians recorded in their works knowledge in the field of social life, but the needs Everyday life caused the emergence of the beginnings of a number of sciences and their further development. The need to count time and compile a calendar was the reason for the development of astronomical knowledge. During this period, the position of chroniclers-historiographers was introduced, whose duties included astronomy and calendar calculations. With the expansion of China's territory, knowledge in the field of geography also grew. As a result of economic and cultural contacts with other nationalities and tribes, a lot of information and legends were accumulated regarding their geographical location, way of life, specific products produced there, local myths, etc. During the Zhou dynasty, medicine was separated from shamanism and witchcraft. The famous Chinese physician Bian Qiao described the anatomy, physiology, pathology and therapy. He is one of the first doctors to perform operations under anesthesia using a special drink. In the field of military science, a significant contribution was made by the Chinese theorist and commander Sun Tzu (VI-V centuries BC). he is credited with the authorship of a treatise on the art of war, which shows the relationship between war and politics, indicates the factors influencing victory in war, and examines the strategy and tactics of warfare. Among the numerous scientific directions, there was an agricultural school (nongjia). Books devoted to the theory and practice of agricultural farming contain essays that describe methods and methods of cultivating soils and crops, storing food, breeding silkworms, fish and edible turtles, caring for trees and soils, raising livestock, etc. Period The Zhou Dynasty was marked by the appearance of many monuments of art of ancient China. Following the transition to iron tools, agricultural technology changed, coins came into circulation, and the technology of irrigation structures and urban planning improved. Following major shifts in economic life and the development of crafts, noticeable changes took place in artistic consciousness, and new types of art emerged. Throughout the Zhou period, the principles of urban planning actively developed with a clear layout of cities, surrounded by a high adobe wall and separated by straight streets intersecting from north to south and from west to east, delimiting commercial, residential and palace quarters. Applied art occupied a significant place during this period. Bronze mirrors inlaid with silver and gold are becoming widespread. Bronze vessels are distinguished by their elegance and richness of ornamentation. They became thinner and were decorated with inlays with precious stones and non-ferrous metals. Artistic products for everyday use appeared: exquisite trays and dishes, furniture and musical instruments. The first painting on silk belongs to the Zhanguo period. In the ancestral temples there were wall frescoes depicting the sky, earth, mountains, rivers, deities and monsters. One of the remarkable features of the traditional civilization of the ancient Chinese empire is the cult of education and literacy. The beginning of the official education system was laid. At the beginning of the 2nd century, the first explanatory dictionary appeared, and later a special etymological dictionary. Scientific achievements in China of this era were also significant. Compiled in the 2nd century. BC e. The treatise contains a condensed presentation of the main provisions of mathematical knowledge. This treatise sets out the rules for working with fractions, proportions and progressions, the use of the similarity of right triangles, and the solution of the system linear equations and much more. Astronomical science has achieved particular success. For example, a text dating back to 168 BC. e., indicates the movement of the five planets. In the 1st century n. e. a globe was created that reproduced the movements of celestial bodies, as well as a prototype of a seismograph. An important achievement of this period is the invention of a device called the “south indicator,” which was used as a nautical compass. A striking example of the combination of theory and practice is the history of Chinese medicine. Doctors used a large number of herbal and mineral preparations. Medicines often included up to ten or more ingredients, and their use was very strictly dosed. The imperial period of the history of ancient China is characterized by the emergence of a new genre historical works, the development of the genre of prose-poetic works “fu”, which were called “Han odes”. Literature pays tribute to sensual and fairy-tale themes; books of legends with fantastic descriptions are becoming widespread. During the reign of Wu-di, the Chamber of Music (Yue fu) was established at the court, where folk melodies and songs were collected and processed. Architecture, sculpture and painting occupy a significant place in the culture of the ancient Chinese empire. Palace complexes were erected in the capitals. Numerous complexes of tombs of the nobility were created. Portrait painting is developing. The palace premises were decorated with portrait frescoes. During the period of the Southern and Northern dynasties, active construction of new cities was carried out. From III to VI centuries. More than 400 new cities have been built in China. For the first time, symmetrical urban planning began to be used. Grandiose temple ensembles, rock monasteries, towers - pagodas are being created. Both wood and brick are used. By the 5th century, statues appeared in the form of huge figures. In grandiose statues we see the dynamics of bodies and facial expressions.
In the V-VI centuries. Among the various artistic products, ceramics occupy a significant place, which in their composition become very close to porcelain. During this period, coating ceramic vessels with pale green and olive-colored glazes became widespread. Paintings of the IV-VI centuries. take the form of vertical and horizontal scrolls. They were painted with ink and mineral paints on silk panels and were accompanied by calligraphic inscriptions. The flourishing of the creative powers of the people was especially clearly manifested in the painting of the Tang period. Her works clearly showed her love for her country and its rich nature. The works were performed on silk or paper in the form of scrolls. Transparent and dense paints, reminiscent of watercolor and gouache, were of mineral or plant origin.
The Tang period, which became the heyday of the country and the golden age of Chinese poetry, gave China genuine geniuses, including Wang Wei, Li Bo, Du Fu. They were not only poets of their time, but also heralds of a new era, for their works already contained those new phenomena that would later become characteristic of a number of writers and determine the rise of the spiritual life of the country. Prose of the 7th-9th centuries. continued the traditions of the previous period, which were collections of fables and anecdotes. These works are developed in the form of author's short stories and take the form of letters, memos, parables and prefaces. Certain plots of the short stories subsequently formed the basis of popular dramas.
