Specific features of ancient Russian literature. Features of Old Russian literature

Option 5

Read the text and complete tasks 1 – 3

(1)Learning features ancient Russian literature, researchers have repeatedly drawn attention to the fact that in different works Episodes that are similar in content are conveyed using the same literary techniques, and sometimes almost the same words. (2) Such monotony in different monuments of ancient Russian literature, some scientists

explained by the meager imagination of medieval authors who could not vividly and originally present the events in the work. (3) academician D.S. Likhachev convincingly proved in his works that medieval authors consciously sought to imitate, professing the so-called “aesthetics of identity”: they saw artistic dignity literary work is that its author follows an authoritative model.

1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Researchers of ancient Russian literature believed that the monotony of artistic techniques of medieval authors was due to the fact that these people were not able to present the material in an original way.

2) One of the most important features of Old Russian literature is that its authors sought to create their works according to a single template.

3) D.S. Likhachev, having refuted the opinion of a number of scientists, proved that in different works of ancient Russian literature, similar episodes are conveyed using the same means intentionally, since the authors consciously focus on known examples.

4) The fact that in the works of ancient Russian literature the reader finds a set of constantly repeating artistic techniques became the subject of research by academician D.S. Likhacheva.

5) The use of the same techniques when conveying similar episodes in ancient Russian literature is explained not by the poverty of imagination of medieval authors, as some scientists believed, but by the desire to follow an authoritative model, as evidenced by the works of D.S. Likhacheva.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

Therefore So However, Certainly, Moreover,

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word FOLLOW. Determine in what sense this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

FOLLOW, -blowing, -blowing; nesov.

1) Walk, move, move after, directly behind someone. Follow me.

2) Set off, go, move. The train goes to Moscow.

3) Be guided by something, act like someone. S. fashion.

4) To be the result of something, to follow from something. This is the conclusion.

5) Bezl. It is necessary, it must. The experience of leading producers should be disseminated more widely.

4. In one of the words below, an error was made in the placement of stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel sound was highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write this word down.

dowry

tamed

mosaic

dose

5. One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word incorrectly. Correct the mistake and write this word correctly.

The most amazing thing is that I can’t write his VERBAL portrait.

His face is very expressive: aristocratic, PREDATORY, long and humpbacked, the most aquiline nose, high cheekbones, deep eye sockets.

Infection weakens the body's RESISTANCE and increases the risk of a new disease.

Mercy is big topic, which finds a HOL in the heart of any person.

Krymov made no distinction between Dobrolyubov and Lassalle, Chernyshevsky and Engels.

6. In one of the words highlighted below, an error was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

WAVE your hand

six SAUCERS

BEST way

SEVEN HUNDRED answers

curtain with tulle

7. Establish a correspondence between grammatical errors and the sentences in which they were made: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

8. Identify the word in which the unstressed vowel of the root being tested is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

pl..sneeze

rel..mother

give me a hint

festival..val

unacceptable

9. Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write down these words by inserting the missing letter.

pr..deeds (temple), pr..increased

in..south, confiscation

p..yesterday, nar..singing

s..ate (apple), super..bright

pre..groovy, vz..small

10. Write down the word in which the letter E is written in the blank.

grow..grow

arrogant

man..k

de-energize (line)

11. Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.

hide..hide

wounded..in (hand)

possessed (passerby dog)

expected..my

unnoticed

12. Determine the sentence in which NOT is spelled together with the word. Open the brackets and write down this word.

People who (DID NOT) WANT to submit to the pressure of militant indifference came to the aid of the city, memory, and art.

He imagined himself as a martyr and partly even proudly thought that the cup was still (NOT) DRINKED to the bottom, that he would still suffer for his honesty.

I shook her hand twice; the second time she pulled it out, (NOT) SAYING a word.

The French were repelled at all points, but we (DID NOT) have enough strength to cross the river that same day and complete the defeat.

Let it be (NOT) IN MY opinion, I am ready to compromise.

13. Determine the sentence in which both highlighted words are written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write down these two words.

(DURING) THE CONTINUATION of the sea voyage, we (NOT) TIMES found ourselves in storms.

Lure Chekhov into political party It wasn’t THAT simple: he expressed his protest against injustice and cruelty (IN) HIS OWN.

(B) DIFFERENT from others, Zelensky was ready to speak, although he perfectly understood what Rybin had in mind when he made the appointment.

“(WHY) are you so sad?” – with excitement in her voice, tilting her head (ON) TO THE SIDE, Maria asked.

WHATEVER the guest said, he knew how to (TRULY) ignite and inspire his interlocutor...

14. Indicate all the numbers in the place of which NN is written.

I patiently examined the sandbank and the fresh wash of pebbles in search of interesting pebbles; a light breeze was blowing, the waves were gentle and calm. It seemed to me that I was wandering in a mystery (3), abandoned (4) by everyone in the world.

15. Place punctuation marks. Specify two sentences in which you need to put ONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The motif of desolation and rotting, necrosis and degradation is closely connected with the image of Plyushkin in Gogol’s “Dead Souls”.

2) Revolution and Civil War not only changed the socio-political situation in the country but also influenced the thoughts and attitudes of people.

3) The appearance of a stranger in the city was talked about the next day and a week later and even a month later.

4) Every day I tried to learn something new and did not want to waste a single hour or a single minute.

5) And in the morning the gray and hazy sea still roared and heavy splashes of surf flew onto the embankment.

16. Place all punctuation marks:

In the evening, grandfather Trofim (1), putting on a sheepskin coat (2), left the hut and appeared on the threshold only a couple of hours later with a bundle of firewood; covered with (3) gray frost (4) he looked like Santa Claus.

17. Place all the missing punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.

“I have a presentiment,” said the doctor, “that (1) poor Grushnitsky (2) will be your victim...

The princess said that your face is familiar to her. I noticed to her that (4) it’s true (5) she met you in St. Petersburg, somewhere in the world... I said your name... She knew it. It seems (6) your story made a lot of noise there... The princess began to talk about your adventures, adding (7) probably (8) her comments to the social gossip... If (9) you want, I will introduce you...

18. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.

Late German romantics presented passions as external, often deceptive and hostile forces to man (1) as a toy in the hands (2) of which (3) he is (4) and likened love to fate.

19. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.

We did not know (1) that in these rude hearts there is enough space (2) to serve as a battlefield between God and the devil (3) and (4) that the idea of ​​merging with the people or being separated from them is important only for us (5) and not for

public consciousness.

20. Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error, excluding unnecessary word. Write this word down.

Now the steppe opened up, distant and silent, now low, blood-stained clouds, and now people, the steam engine, and the thresher all at once drowned in the blackening darkness.

Read the text and complete tasks 21 – 26

(1) The sky was overcast with evil clouds, the rain sadly pounded the windows and made me sad. (2) In a thoughtful pose, with his vest unbuttoned and his hands in his pockets, the owner of the city pawnshop, Polikarp Semyonovich Iudin, stood at the window and looked at the gloomy street.

(3) “Well, what is our life? - he reasoned in unison with the crying sky. - (4) What is she? (5) Some kind of book with a lot of pages on which more suffering and grief are written than joys... (6) Why was it given to us? (7) After all, God, the good and omnipotent, did not create the world for sorrows! (8) But it turns out the other way around. (9) There are more tears than laughter..."

(10) Judah took his right hand out of his pocket and scratched the back of his head.

(11) “Well,” he continued thoughtfully, “in terms of the universe, obviously, there was no poverty, corruption and shame, but in reality they exist. (12) They were created by humanity itself. (13) It itself gave birth to this scourge. (14) And for what, one might ask, for what?”

(15) He took out left hand and sadly passed it over his face.

(16) “But how easily it would be possible to help people’s grief: one would only have to lift a finger. (17) For example, there is a rich funeral procession. (18) A set of horses in black blankets is carrying a magnificent coffin, and a line of carriages is driving almost a mile behind. (19) The torchbearers step forward with lanterns. (20) Cardboard coats of arms are dangling from the horses: an important person is being buried, the dignitary must have died. (21) Has he done at least one good deed in his entire life? (22) Did you warm the poor man? (23) Of course not... tinsel!

- (24) What do you want, Semyon Ivanovich?

- (25) Yes, I find it difficult to evaluate the costume. (26) In my opinion, it is impossible to give more than six rubles for it. (27) And she asks for seven; He says the kids are sick and need to be treated.

- (28) And six rubles will be too much. (29) Don’t give more than five, otherwise we’ll go bankrupt. (30) Just take a good look around to see if there are any holes or stains left somewhere...

(31) “Okay, sir, so this is life that makes you think about human nature. (32) Behind the rich hearse is a cart, on which a pine coffin is loaded. (33) Only one old woman trudges behind her, splashing through the mud. (34) This old woman, perhaps, is burying her breadwinner son... (35) But let me ask if the lady sitting in the carriage will give her even a penny? (36) Of course, he won’t, although maybe he will express his condolences...”

-(37) What else is there?

- (38) The old woman brought a fur coat... how much should I give?

- (39) Rabbit fur... (40) Nothing, strong, worth five rubles. (41) Give three rubles, and interest, of course, forward... (42) “Where, in fact, are people, where are their hearts? (43) The poor are dying, but the rich don’t even care..."

(44) Judah pressed his forehead to the cold glass and thought. (45) Tears appeared in his eyes - large, shiny, crocodile tears.

(according to A.P. Chekhov*)

*Alexander Pavlovich Chekhov (1855–1913)- Russian writer, prose writer, publicist, elder brother of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.

21. Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.

1) The city pawnshop is on the verge of bankruptcy, so Judin, the owner of this pawnshop, cannot afford to engage in charity.

2) The lady in the carriage gave one kopeck to the old woman who was burying her son that day.

3) Funeral processions - rich and poor - led Polikarp Semyonovich to talk about the poor and the rich.

4) The owner of the pawnshop, despite his philanthropic reasoning, strictly looks after the financial interests of the establishment.

5) Polikarp Semyonovich is convinced that it is very easy to help people.

22. Which of the following statements are faithful? Please provide answer numbers.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) Sentence 2 contains a description.

2) Sentences 11–14 present the narrative.

3) Proposition 23 contains the answer to the question formulated in sentences 21–22.

4) Sentences 34–36 present the reasoning

5) Proposition 45 explains the reason for what is said in sentence 44.

23. From sentences 39–45, write down antonyms (antonymous pair).

24. Among sentences 15–23, find one(s) that is related to the previous one using coordinating conjunction and personal pronoun. Write the number(s) of this sentence(s).

25. “Chekhov’s stories are compact in form and deep in content, and the author avoids direct value judgments - his voice sounds quiet, but at the same time firm and distinct. This is facilitated by a complex composition and, of course, competent selection figurative and expressive funds. In the presented fragment it is worth noting the trope – (A)__________ (“angry clouds” in sentence 1, “gloomy street” in sentence 2), lexical device – (B)__________ (“hanging out” in sentence 20, “we’ll burn out” in sentence 29 , “travels, spanking...” in sentence 33), syntactic device – (B)__________ (sentences 3, 14, 21). It is worth paying attention to such a technique as (D)__________ (sentence 11), which becomes, perhaps, one of the main ones in the construction of this text.”

List of terms:

1) phraseological units

2) antithesis

3) epithets

4) colloquial vocabulary

5) rows homogeneous members offers

6) interrogative sentences

7) lexical repetition

8) hyperbole

9) synecdoche

26. Write an essay based on the text you read.

Formulate one of the problems posed by the author of the text.

Comment on the formulated problem. Include in your comment two illustrative examples from the text you read that you think are important for understanding the problem in the source text (avoid excessive quoting).

Formulate the position of the author (storyteller). Write whether you agree or disagree with the point of view of the author of the text you read. Explain why. Argue your opinion, relying primarily on reading experience, as well as knowledge and life observations (the first two arguments are taken into account).

The volume of the essay is at least 150 words.

ANSWERS:

1. Answer: 35|53.

2. Answer: however.

3. Answer: 3.

4. Answer: mosaic.

5. Answer: response.

6. Answer: tulle.

7. 94372

8. Answer: irreconcilable

9. Answer: ate superbright

10. Answer: little man

11. Answer: hurting

12. Answer: lacking

13. Answer: why sideways?

14. Answer: 234.

15. Answer: 12

16. Answer: 124

17. Answer: 345678

18. Answer: 14.

19. Answer: 1235.

20. Answer: blackening|blackening.

21. Answer: 345

22. Answer: 134.

23. Answer: 21

25. Answer: 3462

Explanation.

* To formulate a problem, the examinee may use vocabulary that differs from that presented in the table. The problem may also be cited from the source text or indicated by reference to sentence numbers in the text.

An essay based on the text “The sky is clouded with evil clouds... (A. Chekhov)”

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

Old Russian literature (DRL) is doubly specific, because in addition to national traits bears the features of the Middle Ages (XI – XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and human psychology Ancient Rus'.

Two blocks can be distinguished specific features.

The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely related to inner world personality of a person in the Russian Middle Ages.

Let's talk about the first block very briefly. Firstly, ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of Russian literary process the writing material was parchment (or parchment). It was made from the skin of calves or lambs and therefore it was called “veal” in Rus'. Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and the most important things were written on it. Later, paper appeared instead of parchment, which partly contributed, in the words of D. Likhachev, to “the breakthrough of literature to the masses.”

In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI - XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV - XVI centuries) - semi-charter, the third (XVII century) - cursive.

Since writing material was expensive, the book’s customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the most interesting works of various subjects and the time of their creation to be collected under one cover.

Works of ancient Russian literature are usually called monuments.

Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.

Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of DRL.

1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only by the high price of the book. Old Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedicism. Therefore, ancient Russian collections often contain monuments of various themes and issues.

2. In the first centuries of the development of DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as an independent area of ​​creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was simultaneously a monument of literature, a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which existed in Ancient Rus' in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles until the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianova-Peretz did the chronicles become the object of literary criticism.

At the same time, the special philosophical richness of ancient Russian literature in subsequent centuries of Russian literary development not only survive, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with certainty: “ Fiction is a treasure trove of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>basic ones are often developed philosophical problems, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an unbiased and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just “literary” or “artistic,” but philosophical and ingenious.”

3. Old Russian literature was anonymous (impersonal) in nature, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often called scribes) did not strive to leave their name for centuries, firstly, due to the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves “unreasonable,” “sinful” monks who dared to become creators of the artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of one’s work as part of an all-Russian, collective endeavor.

At first glance, this trait seems to indicate a poorly developed personal element in the Old Russian author compared to Western European masters of artistic expression. Even the name of the author of the brilliant “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can “boast” of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no talk of the “backwardness” of ancient Russian literature or its “impersonality.” We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and the Old Russian one with a choir. Is choral singing really less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Is there really no manifestation in it? human personality?

4. The main character of ancient Russian literature is the Russian land. We agree with D. Likhachev, who emphasized that the literature of the pre-Mongol period is the literature of one theme - the theme of the Russian land. This does not mean at all that ancient Russian authors “refuse” to depict the experiences of an individual human personality, “get fixated” on the Russian land, depriving themselves of individuality and sharply limiting the “universal” significance of the DRL.

Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments national history, for example, in the first decades Tatar-Mongol yoke, strived through the richest Byzantine literature join highest achievements cultures of other peoples and civilizations. Thus, in the 13th century, the medieval encyclopedias “Melissa” (“Bee”) and “Physiologist” were translated into Old Russian.

Secondly, and this is the most important thing, we must keep in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European are formed on different ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance and exclusivity. This is due to the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the individual himself and for his environment. Russian classic literature- from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of the individualistic personality and affirms his heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.

5. Old Russian literature did not know fiction. This refers to a conscious orientation towards fiction. The author and the reader absolutely believe in the truth of the literary word, even if we are talking about fiction from the point of view of a secular person.

A conscious attitude towards fiction will appear later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century during a period of intensified political struggle for leadership in the process of unifying the original Russian lands. Rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. This is how the genre of political legend will arise. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”, which naturally took on a topical political overtones, as well as “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. In Veliky Novgorod - “The Legend of the Novgorod White Cowl.”

6. In the first centuries of DRL, they tried not to depict everyday life for the following reasons. The first (religious): everyday life is sinful, its image prevents earthly man from directing his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. Both grandfather, father, and son wore the same clothes, weapons did not change, etc.

Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life penetrates more and more into the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday stories (“The Tale of Ulyany Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday stories will become the most popular.

7. DRL is characterized by a special attitude to history. The past is not only not separated from the present, but is actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Story of the Crime of the Ryazan Princes”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc.

8. Old Russian literature wore teacher character. This means that ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to entice the reader with a wonderful fiction, to take him away from life’s difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from the beginning of the 17th century, when the Western European influence on Russian life becomes obvious.

So, we see that certain specific features of DID will gradually be lost over time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature that determine the core of its ideological orientation will remain unchanged until the present time.

The problem of authorship of literary monuments of Ancient Rus' is directly related to the national specifics of the first centuries of the development of the Russian literary process. “The author’s beginning,” noted D.S. Likhachev, “was muted in ancient literature. <…>The absence of great names in ancient Russian literature seems like a death sentence.<…>We are biased based on our ideas about the development of literature - ideas brought up<…>centuries when it flourished individual, personal art is the art of individual geniuses.<…>The literature of Ancient Rus' was not the literature of individual writers: it, like folk art, was supra-individual art. It was an art created through the accumulation of collective experience and making a huge impression with the wisdom of traditions and the unity of all - mostly nameless- writing.<…>Old Russian writers are not architects of free-standing buildings. These are city planners.<…>Every literature creates its own world, embodying the world of ideas of its contemporary society.” Hence, anonymous (personal) the nature of the creativity of ancient Russian authors is a manifestation national identity Russian literature and in this regard namelessness“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is not a problem.

Representatives of the skeptical school of literary criticism (the first half of the 19th century) proceeded from the fact that “backward” Ancient Rus' could not “give birth” to a monument of such a level of artistic perfection as “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Philologist-orientalist O.I. Senkovsky, for example, was sure that the creator of the Lay imitated examples of Polish poetry of the 16th – 17th centuries, that the work itself could not be older than the time of Peter I, and that the author of the Lay was a Galician who moved to Russia or was educated in Kyiv. The creators of “The Lay” were also called A.I. Musin-Pushkin (the owner of the collection with the text “Words”), and Ioliy Bykovsky (the one from whom the collection was purchased), and N.M. Karamzin as the most gifted Russian writer late XVIII century.

Thus, the “Lay” was presented as a literary hoax in the spirit of J. Macpherson, who allegedly discovered in the mid-18th century the works of the legendary Celtic warrior and singer Ossian, who according to legend lived in the 3rd century AD. in Ireland.

The traditions of the skeptical school in the 20th century were continued by the French Slavist A. Mazon, who initially believed that the “Word” was supposedly created by A.I. Musin-Pushkin to justify the aggressive policy of Catherine II on the Black Sea: “We have here a case when history and literature deliver their evidence at the right time.” In many ways, the Soviet historian A. Zimin agreed with A. Mazon, calling Ioliy Bykovsky the creator of the Lay.

The arguments of supporters of the authenticity of the Lay were very convincing. A.S. Pushkin: the authenticity of the monument is proven by “the spirit of antiquity, which cannot be imitated. Which of our writers in the 18th century could have had enough talent for this? V.K. Kuchelbecker: “in terms of talent, this deceiver would have surpassed almost all the Russian poets of that time, taken together.”

““Attacks of skepticism,” V.A. rightly emphasized. Chivilikhin, “were to some extent even useful - they revived scientific and public interest in the Lay, encouraged scientists to look more closely into the depths of time, and generated research done with scientific care, academic objectivity and thoroughness.”

After disputes related to the time of creation of the “Word” and “Zadonshchina”, the overwhelming majority of researchers, even, ultimately, A. Mazon, came to the conclusion that the “Word” is a monument of the 12th century. Now the search for the author of the Lay has focused on the circle of contemporaries of the tragic campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, which took place in the spring of 1185.

V.A. Chivilikhin in his novel-essay “Memory” gives the most full list the alleged authors of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and indicates the names of the researchers who put forward these assumptions: “they named a certain “Grechin” (N. Aksakov), the Galician “wise scribe” Timofey (N. Golovin), " folk singer" (D. Likhachev), Timofey Raguilovich (writer I. Novikov), "The notorious singer Mitus" (writer A. Yugov), "the thousandth Raguil Dobrynich" (V. Fedorov), some unknown court singer close to the Grand Duchess of Kyiv Maria Vasilkovna (A. Soloviev), “the singer Igor” (A. Petrushevich), the “alms-giver” of Grand Duke Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, the chronicle Kochkar (American researcher S. Tarasov), the unknown “wandering book singer” (I. Malyshevsky), Belovolod Prosovich ( anonymous Munich translator of "The Lay"), Chernigov voivode Olstin Aleksich (M. Sokol), Kyiv boyar Pyotr Borislavich (B. Rybakov), the likely heir of the family singer Boyan (A. Robinson), the nameless grandson of Boyan (M. Shchepkin), in relation to a significant part of the text - Boyan himself (A. Nikitin ), mentor, adviser to Igor (P. Okhrimenko), unknown Polovtsian storyteller (O. Suleimenov)<…>».

V.A. himself Chivilikhin is sure that the creator of the word was Prince Igor. At the same time, the researcher refers to a long-standing and, in his opinion, undeservedly forgotten report by the famous zoologist and at the same time a specialist in the “Word” N.V. Charlemagne (1952). One of the main arguments of V. Chivilikhin is the following: “it was not for the singer or the warrior to judge the contemporary princes, to indicate what they should do; this is the prerogative of a person standing on the same social level with those to whom he addressed"

Old Russian literature has a number of features due to the unique worldview of medieval people and the nature of the creation of written texts:

1) The religious-Christian views of the world inherent in medieval people determined the special nature of the depiction of events and people.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism: the heroes of the works are famous historical figures; writers strive to avoid “self-thinking” (fiction) and strictly follow the facts.

The historicism of Old Russian literature is distinguished by its specific medieval character and is inextricably linked with providentialism. From the point of view of the ancient Russian writer, any events occurring in people’s lives were perceived as a manifestation of the action of higher powers. The source of good is God; the devil, who hates the human race, pushes people into sinful acts. God not only has mercy on people, but also punishes: “for the sake of sins,” he sends diseases, foreign conquerors, etc. to people. In some cases, God sends people signs of his anger in advance - signs that should enlighten his foolish “slaves” and warn them of the need for repentance.

2) Old Russian literature was closely connected with political life Rus'. This circumstance determines the interest of writers in a certain topic and the nature of writing works. One of the central themes is the theme of the Motherland. Writers glorify its power and strength, actively oppose feudal civil strife that weakens the state, and glorify princes who serve the interests of the people.

Old Russian writers are not inclined to impartial presentation of facts. Being sincerely convinced that they know what life in Rus' should be like, they strive to convey their beliefs to those whom they address in their works. Therefore, all works of ancient Russian literature (spiritual and secular) as a rule are of a journalistic nature.

3) Another characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence and distribution.

Even if a work was simply rewritten, it rarely became an exact copy original. Many texts were copied several times, and each copyist could act as a kind of co-author. As a result, new lists of works(this term refers to handwritten copies) and editorial staff(varieties of texts in which certain, often quite significant, changes have been made).

4) The works created in Ancient Rus' are mostly anonymous. This is a consequence of the religious-Christian attitude towards people, characteristic of the Middle Ages. The person perceived himself as a “servant of God,” a dependent person, completely dependent on higher powers. The creation and rewriting of a work was seen as something happening at the behest of above. In this case, to sign your name under the work meant to show pride, that is, to commit a sin. Therefore, in most cases, the authors of the works preferred to remain unknown.

5) As noted earlier, ancient Russian literature was inextricably linked with folklore, from which writers drew themes, images and visual means.

Thus, ancient Russian literature has a number of features that distinguish it from the literature of modern times. Old Russian texts are the product of a certain time, characterized by a rather unique worldview of people, and therefore should be considered as unique monuments of a certain era.

Genre system of ancient Russian literature

Modern literature has a certain genre-clan system. There are three types of literature: epic, lyric, drama. Within each of them there are certain genres(novel, tragedy, elegy, story, comedy, etc.). Genres(from the French genre - genus, type) are called historically established types of literary works.

There were no genres in ancient Russian literature yet. modern understanding this word. The term “genre” in relation to works created in the 11th– XVII centuries, is used conditionally.

The genres of ancient Russian literature are divided into spiritual(church) and worldly(secular).

Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted the system spiritual (church) genres adopted in Byzantium. Spiritual genres include a number of works (books of Holy Scripture (the Bible), hymns and “words” related to the interpretation of scripture, lives of saints, etc.)

Dominant position among genres of secular literature occupied by stories. This word denoted narrative works of various natures (tales, lives, and even chronicles (“The Tale of Bygone Years”) were called stories). Along with this, “words” occupied a prominent place among worldly genres (“The Lay of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Lay of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, etc.). They differed from church “words” in their content, in that they were devoted not to the interpretation of Holy Scripture, but to topical matters. modern problems. Obviously, by calling their works “words,” their authors wanted to emphasize that the texts were intended to be spoken in front of listeners.

The genre-clan system of Old Russian literature does not remain unchanged over the centuries. Particularly significant changes in it were noted in the 17th century, when the foundations of such previously unknown types of literature as lyricism and drama were laid.

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

Old Russian literature (ORL) is doubly specific, since in addition to national features it contains features of the Middle Ages (XI-XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and human psychology of Ancient Rus'.

Two blocks of specific features can be distinguished.

The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely connected with the inner world of the personality of a person in the Russian Middle Ages.

Let's talk about the first block very briefly. Firstly, ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of the Russian literary process, the writing material was parchment (or parchment). It was made from the skin of calves or lambs and therefore it was called “veal” in Rus'. Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and the most important things were written on it. Later, paper appeared instead of parchment, which partly contributed, in the words of D. Likhachev, to “the breakthrough of literature to the masses.”

In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI–XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV–XVI centuries) was called the semi-ustav, the third (XVII century) was called cursive.

Since writing material was expensive, the book’s customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the most interesting works of various subjects and the time of their creation to be collected under one cover.

Works of ancient Russian literature are usually called monuments.

Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.

Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of DRL.

1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only by the high price of the book. Old Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedicism. Therefore, ancient Russian collections often contain monuments of various themes and issues.

2. In the first centuries of the development of DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as an independent area of ​​creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was simultaneously a monument of literature, a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which existed in Ancient Rus' in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles until the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianova-Peretz did the chronicles become the object of literary criticism.

At the same time, the special philosophical richness of Old Russian literature in subsequent centuries of Russian literary development will not only be preserved, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with certainty: “Fiction is a storehouse of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>The main philosophical problems are often developed, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an unbiased and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just “literary” or “artistic,” but philosophical and ingenious.”

3. Old Russian literature was anonymous (impersonal) in nature, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often called scribes) did not strive to leave their name for centuries, firstly, due to the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves “unreasonable,” “sinful” monks who dared to become creators of the artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of one’s work as part of an all-Russian, collective endeavor.

At first glance, this trait seems to indicate a poorly developed personal element in the Old Russian author compared to Western European masters of artistic expression. Even the name of the author of the brilliant “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can “boast” of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no talk of the “backwardness” of ancient Russian literature or its “impersonality.” We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and Old Russian literature with a choir. Is choral singing really less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Is there really no manifestation of human personality in him?

4. The main character of ancient Russian literature is the Russian land. We agree with D. Likhachev, who emphasized that the literature of the pre-Mongol period is the literature of one theme - the theme of the Russian land. This does not mean at all that ancient Russian authors “refuse” to depict the experiences of an individual human personality, “get fixated” on the Russian land, depriving themselves of individuality and sharply limiting the “universal” significance of the DRL.

Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments of Russian history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. Thus, in the 13th century, the medieval encyclopedias “Melissa” (“Bee”) and “Physiologist” were translated into Old Russian.

Secondly, and this is the most important thing, we must keep in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European are formed on different ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance and exclusivity. This is due to the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the individual himself and for his environment. Russian classical literature - from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of the individualistic personality and affirms its heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.

5. Old Russian literature did not know fiction. This refers to a conscious orientation towards fiction. The author and the reader absolutely believe in the truth of the literary word, even if we are talking about fiction from the point of view of a secular person.

A conscious attitude towards fiction will appear later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century during a period of intensified political struggle for leadership in the process of unifying the original Russian lands. Rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. This is how the genre of political legend will arise. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”, which naturally took on a topical political overtones, as well as “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. In Veliky Novgorod - “The Legend of the Novgorod White Cowl.”

6. In the first centuries of DRL, they tried not to depict everyday life for the following reasons. The first (religious): everyday life is sinful, its image prevents earthly man from directing his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. Both grandfather, father, and son wore the same clothes, weapons did not change, etc.

Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life penetrates more and more into the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday stories (“The Tale of Ulyaniya Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday stories will become the most popular.

7. DRL is characterized by a special attitude to history. The past is not only not separated from the present, but is actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Story of the Crime of the Ryazan Princes”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc.

8. Old Russian literature wore teacher character. This means that ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to entice the reader with a wonderful fiction, to take him away from life’s difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from the beginning of the 17th century, when the Western European influence on Russian life becomes obvious.

So, we see that certain specific features of DID will gradually be lost over time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature that determine the core of its ideological orientation will remain unchanged until the present time.

Old Russian literature, like any medieval literature, has a number of features that distinguish it from the literature of modern times. A characteristic feature of literature of the medieval type is a broad interpretation of the concept of “literature” as a written word with the obligatory inclusion of functional genres that usually perform religious, ritual or business functions. It is worth paying attention to the fact that in the Middle Ages the basis of the genre system was precisely functional genres that had special extra-literary functions. On the contrary, genres with weakened functionality are on the periphery of this system. In the transition period from the Middle Ages to the culture of modern times, a reverse process occurs: genres with weakened functionality move to the center of the system, and functional genres are pushed to the periphery.

Thus, DRL is a complex conglomerate of artistic and business monuments (1). This feature was due to close connection with history, the Christian religion and writing in general.

Handwritten nature of the existence of DRL works (2) fundamentally distinguishes it from the literature of modern times. A work, as a rule, appeared not in one, but in several lists. The scribe sometimes simply copied the manuscript, creating a new list, but often changed its ideological orientation in accordance with the requirements of the time, shortened or expanded the text, and changed the style of the monument. In this case we are talking about a new editorial staff works. The author's list of text is called autograph. In the process of processing a work, its editorial staff. Since writing in DRL existed for several centuries and in different regions, then there could be several editions. The list, which turns out to be the basis for processing, is called protographer. It may not always be the author's version. Researchers of movement and text development in DRL – textualists and paleographers– consider the types of handwriting of scribes, features of spelling, grammar, identify individual language differences and, on the basis of this, draw up a hypothetical scheme for the development and distribution of editions of the monument. Textology and paleography- These are auxiliary disciplines that help in the study of handwritten texts. Textual criticism studies the text itself, while paleography examines the material on which and with the help of which a handwritten monument was created.

Anonymity (3) most of DRL's works - her other distinctive feature, associated with the Christian concept of human personality, according to which pride was considered one of the greatest sins, and humility was the height of virtue. Because of this, the individual characteristics of the writer’s personality in medieval literature did not receive such a vivid manifestation as in the literature of modern times. However, anonymity should not be confused with impersonality. It has long been proven that individual authorship existed in DRL, but the forms of its expression were different than in the literature we are accustomed to. The attitude towards copyright in DRL was completely different. Anonymity allowed authors to use parts of “other people’s” texts to compose their own. Exceptions were made only for authoritative works - texts of the Holy Scriptures and Tradition, writings of the church fathers, state documents. References were necessarily made to the names of their creators. However, authoritative church texts were recognizable due to their wide popularity.

Medieval historicism (4). DRL began as literature devoid of fiction. The scribe strictly followed the facts, connecting his work with a specific historical event or person. Even when we are talking about supernatural phenomena, about persons and events that, from our point of view, did not exist or were impossible in reality, all the same, both the compiler of the work and the reader in Ancient Rus' perceived everything written as something that actually happened. And this attitude towards the written text remained very long time. Perhaps only in the 17th century this tradition was destroyed.

The principle of historicism is associated with providentialism (5), that is, the idea of ​​predestination. Thus, any hero of hagiographic literature, even in childhood, shows a tendency towards a holy life. If he begins his life sinfully, then his belief, a change in the quality of his spiritual state is inevitable, predetermined from above. The suffering of the Russian people “for our sins” is also predetermined in the stories about the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

The peculiarities of the worldview of medieval man determined the authoritarian thinking of the ancient Russian scribe and authoritarianism (6) like hell artistic method DRL. A reference to historical, literary or political authority is very important for an Old Russian person (this has already been mentioned above). Often new works were signed with the names of church fathers and hierarchs of past years just to give them greater weight. The reader who first becomes acquainted with the monuments of the DRL draws attention to the abundance of direct quotes and indirect references to the texts of the New and Old Testaments, numerous references to the works of authoritative church writers. In these quotes, the author seemed to consolidate his moral, didactic, political and aesthetic assessment of a fact, event, person, and asserted its universal significance and universal acceptance.

Closely related to authoritarian thinking principle of retrospective historical analogy (7) , which is the most important means of the author’s assessment of a particular historical event. Here is what V.V. writes about this. Kuskov: “A retrospective historical analogy allows us to more deeply reveal the meaning of a particular historical event, assess the behavior of its participants, glorify them or condemn them, establish a unique typological commonality between the events of Ancient Rus' and the events of world history and thereby indicate their certain pattern.” Using the material from the monuments of the Kulikovo cycle, the researcher shows how an unbroken chain of victories won by the Russian princes Yaroslav the Wise, Alexander Nevsky, and Dmitry Donskoy is established. “Traditional reception,” continues V.V. Kuskov, - a retrospective historical analogy with biblical characters in “The Tale of the Battle of Mama” emphasizes the significance of the victory won on the Kulikovo field. It is equated to the victory of Gideon over Midian, Moses over Amalek and Pharaoh, David over Goliath. The troops of the Moscow prince are similar to the army of Alexander the Great, the courage of the Russian soldiers is similar to Gideon’s allies. AND heavenly powers They help Dmitry just as they once helped Tsar Constantine in his fight against the wicked. The regiments of Dmitry Volynets are like the youths of David, “those who had hearts, like the lvovs, like the luthiers, who came to the flock of sheep.” In his prayers, Dmitry asks God to help him in the same way as Hezekiah - to tame the heart of the ferocious beast Mamai.”

Authority also dominated in the area artistic form. DRL can be called exemplary literature, literature of sustainable etiquette. Traditional (8) covers not only the content of works, but also their form: principles of depicting a person, plot, composition, language. The traditionalism of medieval literature cannot be perceived as the result of “childish spontaneity”, inability or “ineptitude” of the scribe. This is a phenomenon of the era, an urgent need of the time, a fact of man’s moral consciousness, without which he could not explain the world and navigate in it.

The authoritarianism of the DRL reflects the estate-corporate principle of the existence of ancient Russian people. A clear awareness of the impossibility of breaking the estate-corporate principle leaves its mark on literature. If you are a prince, then you are obliged to be one and behave in accordance with the idea of ​​worthy princely behavior. “Just as a cauldron cannot be freed from blackness and burning, so a slave cannot be freed from servitude” (“Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik). Human behavior in medieval society is determined by rank. Likhachev called this feature of life etiquette. But it is more accurate to use the terms decorum and orderliness. Even the clothing of a medieval person is a sign of rank. Decency is order. Disorder, disorder - disorder. A person must take his place in the general ranks. Order and rowness become indicators of the structure of the world. In the 17th-century work “The Officer of the Falconer’s Way,” created not without the participation of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the credo of human behavior and order is clearly formulated. Old Russian "rank" as literary concept corresponds to some extent to the modern concept of “rhythm,” for it is the measured adherence to order and decorum that creates the vital basis for the ceremonial nature of Russian literature.

Traditionality becomes a type of medieval creativity, the most important factor in the intellectual development of reality. It rests on the deep conviction that there is only one correct worldview in the world - Christian ideology. Traditionalism of ideological and artistic thinking, reflecting medieval ideas about the new as heretical, did not allow a different approach to assessing the phenomenon, regarding any other point of view as coming from the devil.

An ancient Russian writer creates within a certain tradition. True Value He sees medieval art as strictly following a model. The highest example and the highest truth is, of course, the authority of Holy Scripture.

D.S. Likhachev introduced the concept literary etiquette (9) , by which we will understand the system of canonical literary techniques - compositional, systems of images, language, stylistic clichés, etc., necessary to create works of certain genres, images of certain characters.

An essential feature of DRL is its direct and more stable connection with ideology (10) . A.N. Robinson explains this by saying that in the Middle Ages “artistic literary creativity did not develop independently (as a special form of ideology), but as if “within” or as part of various practically purposeful genres of writing (for example, in chronicle writing, and in solemn sermons, and in hagiography, etc.) ... Similar the combined and practically purposeful functions of literature delayed the identification of the actual artistic creativity from writing and determined a more direct (than in modern literature) dependence of aesthetics on ideology as a whole.” It follows from this that didacticism DRL. The author always set practical and didactic goals for his work, for medieval literature is utilitarian, it is created for the benefit of the soul. Even history is always an edifying lesson.

The process of creating a literary work in Ancient Rus' was closely connected with the process of cognition, which in turn was determined by the peculiarities of the worldview of medieval man. The worldview of the ancient Russian scribe is characterized by binary, the opposition of the real to the unreal, the temporary to the eternal. These features of the vision of the world affected the theory of knowledge: the scribe comprehends the surrounding reality and everyday things with “bodily eyes.” The secrets of the ideal world are revealed to man through spiritual insight, divine revelation, therefore knowledge of the heavenly is possible only with “spiritual eyes.”

From the point of view of a medieval person, divine powers could manifest themselves in life either directly or indirectly, with the help of various hints. Perceiving reality as a symbol of the ideal world, a person perceived any phenomenon, any object real world as a sign expressing the sacred essence of this phenomenon or object. Based on this vision of the world, the symbolism (11) - one of the most characteristic features of medieval literature. The emergence of symbolism in the DRL should not be associated solely with the dominance of Christian ideology. It is inherent in the art of pre-Christian eras. So, A.N. Veselovsky distinguished between pagan symbolism and Christian symbolism. In his opinion, in paganism “the symbol came out of life,” while in Christianity “life begins to be determined by the mental material introduced into it.”

Medieval literature and art are built on symbols. Dionysius the Areopagite states: “Manifest things are images of invisible things.” Each thing is a symbol of the invisible. In the medieval consciousness, the world doubles. The real, earthly world is a symbol and prototype of the ideal, heavenly world. Only one who has achieved perfection through internal contemplation can penetrate into the heavenly world; then the inner eyes open and prophets are born. Let us note that literature does not forget anything. Based on the principle of doubling the world, images of poet-prophets appear in romantic aesthetics.

Events also double up. They have analogues in the past, primarily in biblical and evangelical history, which is thought of as reality. IN historical event it is important to find the hidden meaning. God is an intelligent and wise mentor who is trying to educate humanity with his batog. Please note that symbolism, like the historicism of the DRL, turns out to be associated with the idea of ​​predestination, providentialism. Objects are symbolic. The sword is a symbol of power and justice, the shield is protection, defense. The church is a symbol of heaven, the earthly sky, the ark of salvation (just as God saved Noah in the ark, so the temple saves man). Gold symbolizes eternity and Christ. The cross is salvation, the torment of the cross. Let us note that the symbolism of the DRL gave rise to the predominance of the parable genre, which was the fundamental basis of genre systems.

Of course, all these features of DRL could not remain unchanged for seven centuries; they gradually transformed as literature developed.