The emergence and development of the novel as a literary genre. Novel (literary genre)

Originally the word "novel" was not used as a literary term. A novel was originally called any work written in one of the Romance languages: French, Spanish, Catalan, Provençal, Italian, Sardinian, Romansh, Dalmatian, Romanian, Portuguese, Galician. It was only in the 19th century that the word “novel” acquired a terminological meaning.

Description of the genre

A novel began to be called a voluminous literary work, written in prose or verse, covering a significant time period of events in the life of the hero. A distinctive feature of the novel is its focus on the fate and character of an individual. At the same time, the main task of the novel is to reveal inner world hero, focus on his thoughts, experiences, aspirations, worldview. The novel has been called an epic of private life.

Common to all works of this genre is the contradiction between the character of the hero and his fate, i.e. reality in which the hero has to live. The hero has internal potentials, which circumstances do not allow him to realize. Circumstances make significant adjustments to the implementation of the hero’s plans. The hero experiences, suffers, suffers, changes, develops or dies. A novel is always a part of the hero’s life. This is a work related to life. A novel does not necessarily have a completed ending. Often the reader is left with the opportunity to figure out what will happen to the hero after the text of the novel ends.

What kinds of novels are there?

Novels can be historical, fantasy, romance, family, or biographical. A novel is a detailed narrative about the life of a private person. The heyday of the genre in Russian literature occurred in the mid-to-late 19th century, when the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky (“Crime and Punishment”, “The Brothers Karamazov”), I.S. Turgenev (“Fathers and Sons,” “Smoke”), Goncharov (“ An ordinary story", "Oblomov") and many, many others. A striking example of a novel in verse is the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin".

The novel, recognized as the leading genre of literature of the last two or three centuries, attracts the close attention of literary scholars and critics. It also becomes a subject of thought for the writers themselves.

However, this genre still remains a mystery. A variety of, sometimes opposing, opinions are expressed about the historical fate of the novel and its future. “His,” wrote T. Mann in 1936, “his prosaic qualities, consciousness and criticism, as well as the richness of his means, his ability to freely and quickly manage display and research, music and knowledge, myth and science, his human breadth, his objectivity and irony make the novel what it is in our time: a monumental and dominant form fiction».

O.E. Mandelstam, on the contrary, spoke about the decline of the novel and its exhaustion (article “The End of the Novel”, 1922). In the psychologization of the novel and the weakening of the external event element in it (which took place already in the 19th century), the poet saw a symptom of decline and the threshold of the death of the genre, which has now become, in his words, “old-fashioned.”

Modern concepts of the novel in one way or another take into account statements about it made in the last century. If in the aesthetics of classicism the novel was treated as a low genre (“A hero in whom everything is small is only suitable for a novel”; “Inconsistencies with a novel are inseparable”), then in the era of romanticism it rose to the top as a reproduction of “everyday reality” and at the same time - “ mirror of the world and<…>of his century,” the fruit of a “fully mature spirit”; as a “romantic book”, where, in contrast to the traditional epic, there is a place for a relaxed expression of the moods of the author and heroes, and humor and playful lightness. “Every novel must harbor the spirit of the universal,” wrote Jean-Paul.

Thinkers of the turn of the 18th-19th centuries wrote their theories of the novel. justified by the experience of modern writers, primarily I.V. Goethe as the author of books about Wilhelm Meister.

The comparison of the novel with the traditional epic, outlined by aesthetics and criticism of romanticism, was developed by Hegel: “Here<…>again (as in the epic - V.Kh.) the richness and versatility of interests, states, characters, living conditions, the broad background of the holistic world, as well as the epic depiction of events appear in their entirety.”

On the other hand, the novel lacks the “originally poetic state of the world” inherent in the epic; here there is a “prosaically ordered reality” and “a conflict between the poetry of the heart and the opposing prose of everyday relationships.” This conflict, Hegel notes, is “resolved tragically or comically” and often ends with the heroes reconciling with the “usual order of the world,” recognizing in it a “genuine and substantial beginning.”

Similar thoughts were expressed by V. G. Belinsky, who called the novel an epic of private life: the subject of this genre is “the fate of a private person,” ordinary, “everyday life.” In the second half of the 1840s, the critic argued that the novel and its related story “have now become the head of all other types of poetry.”

In many ways, he echoes Hegel and Belinsky (at the same time complementing them), M.M. Bakhtin in works on the novel, written mainly in the 1930s and awaiting publication in the 1970s.

Based on the judgments of writers of the 18th century. G. Fielding and K.M. Wieland, a scientist in the article “Epic and Novel (On the Methodology of Research of the Novel)” (1941) argued that the hero of the novel is shown “not as ready-made and unchanging, but as becoming, changing, educated by life”; this person “should not be “heroic” either in the epic or in the tragic sense of the word, the romantic hero combines both positive and negative traits, both low and high, both funny and serious.” At the same time, the novel captures the “living contact” of a person “with an unready, becoming modernity (unfinished present).”

And it “more deeply, significantly, sensitively and quickly” than any other genre “reflects the formation of reality itself.” Most importantly, the novel (according to Bakhtin) is capable of revealing in a person not only the properties determined in behavior, but also unrealized possibilities, a certain personal potential: “One of the main internal themes of the novel is precisely the theme of the inadequacy of the hero’s fate and his position,” a person here can to be “either greater than one’s destiny, or less than one’s humanity.”

The above judgments of Hegel, Belinsky and Bakhtin can rightfully be considered axioms of the theory of the novel, which masters the life of a person (primarily private, individual biographical) in dynamics, formation, evolution and in situations of complex, usually conflicting, relationships between the hero and others.

In the novel, there is invariably present and almost dominates - as a kind of “super-theme” - artistic comprehension (to use the famous words of A.S. Pushkin) “human independence”, which constitutes (let us add to the poet) “the guarantee of his greatness”, and the source of sad falls, life dead ends and disasters. The ground for the formation and consolidation of the novel, in other words, arises where there is interest in a person who has at least relative independence from the establishment of the social environment with its imperatives, rites, rituals, who is not characterized by “herd” inclusion in society.

The novels widely depict situations of the hero’s alienation from his surroundings, emphasizing his lack of roots in reality, homelessness, everyday wandering and spiritual wandering. Such are “The Golden Ass” by Apuleius, the chivalric romances of the Middle Ages, “The History of Gil Blas of Santillana” by A.R. Lesage. Let us also remember Julien Sorel (“Red and Black” by Stendhal), Eugene Onegin (“Stranger to everyone, not connected by anything,” laments Pushkin hero to their fate in a letter to Tatyana), Herzen’s Beltov, Raskolnikov and Ivan Karamazov from F.M. Dostoevsky. Romance heroes of this kind (and there are countless of them) “rely only on themselves.”

The alienation of a person from society and the world order was interpreted by M.M. Bakhtin as necessarily dominant in the novel. The scientist argued that here not only the hero, but also the author himself appears unrooted in the world, removed from the principles of sustainability and stability, alien to tradition. The novel, in his opinion, captures the “disintegration of the epic (and tragic) integrity of man” and carries out a “ludicrous familiarization of the world and man.” “The novel,” wrote Bakhtin, “has a new, specific problem; it is characterized by eternal rethinking - revaluation." In this genre, reality “becomes a world where the first word (the ideal beginning) is not there, and the last has not yet been said.” Thus, the novel is seen as an expression of a skeptical and relativistic worldview, which is conceived as a crisis and at the same time having a perspective. The novel, Bakhtin argues, prepares a new, more complex integrity of man “at a higher level<…>development".

There are many similarities with Bakhtin’s theory of the novel in the judgments of the famous Hungarian Marxist philosopher and literary critic D. Lukács, who called this genre the epic of a godless world, and the psychology of the novel’s hero demonic. He considered the subject of the novel to be the history of the human soul, which manifests itself and discovers itself in all sorts of adventures (adventures), and its predominant tone was irony, which he defined as the negative mysticism of eras that broke with God.

Considering the novel as a mirror of growing up, the maturity of society and the antipode of the epic, which captured the “normal childhood” of humanity, D. Lukács spoke about the reconstruction of the human soul by this genre, lost in an empty and imaginary reality.

However, the novel does not completely plunge into the atmosphere of demonism and irony, the disintegration of human integrity, the alienation of people from the world, but it also resists it. The hero's self-reliance in classical novels of the 19th century. (both Western European and domestic) was most often presented in a dual light: on the one hand, as worthy of a person“independence”, sublime, attractive, enchanting, on the other - as a source of delusions and defeats in life. “How wrong I was, how I was punished!” - Onegin exclaims sadly, summing up his solitary free path. Pechorin complains that he did not guess his own “high purpose” and did not find a worthy use for the “immense powers” ​​of his soul. At the end of the novel, Ivan Karamazov, tormented by his conscience, falls ill with delirium tremens. “And may God help the homeless wanderers,” it is said about the fate of Rudin at the end of Turgenev’s novel.

At the same time, many novel heroes strive to overcome their solitude and alienation, they long for “a connection with the world to be established in their destinies” (A. Blok). Let us recall once again the eighth chapter of Eugene Onegin, where the hero imagines Tatyana sitting at the window of a rural house; as well as Turgenev's Lavretsky, Goncharov's Raisky, Tolstoy's Andrei Volkonsky, or even Ivan Karamazov, in his best moments, directed towards Alyosha. This kind of novel situation was characterized by G.K. Kosikov: “The “heart” of the hero and the “heart” of the world are drawn to each other, and the problem of the novel lies<…>the fact that they will never be able to unite, and the hero’s guilt for this sometimes turns out to be no less than the guilt of the world.”

Another thing is also important: in novels, a significant role is played by heroes whose independence has nothing to do with the solitude of consciousness, alienation from the environment, and reliance only on themselves. Among the novel characters we find those who, using the words of M.M. Prishvin about himself can rightfully be called “communication and communication figures.” Such is Natasha Rostova, “overflowing with life,” who, in the words of S.G. Bocharova, invariably “renews, liberates” people, “defines them<…>behavior". This heroine L.N. Tolstoy naively and at the same time confidently demands “immediately, now open, direct, humanly simple relations between people.” Such are Prince Myshkin and Alyosha Karamazov in Dostoevsky.

In a number of novels (especially persistently in the works of Charles Dickens and Russian XIX literature c.) the emotional contacts of a person with the reality close to him and, in particular, family and tribal ties are presented in an elevating and poetic way (“The Captain’s Daughter” by A.S. Pushkin; “The Cathedral People” and “The Seedy Family” by N.S. Leskov; “ Noble Nest» I.S. Turgenev; “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina” by L.N. Tolstoy). The heroes of such works (remember the Rostovs or Konstantin Levin) perceive and think of the surrounding reality as friendly and familiar rather than alien and hostile to themselves. What is inherent in them is that M.M. Prishvin called it “kindred attention to the world.”

The theme of Home (in the high sense of the word - as an irreducible existential principle and indisputable value) persistently (most often in intensely dramatic tones) sounds in the novels of our century: in J. Galsworthy (The Forsyte Saga and subsequent works), R. Martin du Gard (“The Thibault Family”), W. Faulkner (“The Sound and the Fury”), M.A. Bulgakov (“The White Guard”), M.A. Sholokhov (“Quiet Don”), B.L. Pasternak (“Doctor Zhivago”), V. G. Rasputin (“Live and Remember”, “Deadline”).

Novels of eras close to us, as can be seen, are to a large extent focused on idyllic values ​​(although they are not inclined to highlight situations of human harmony and reality close to him). Also Jean-Paul (meaning, probably, such works as “Julia, or New Eloise» J.J. Rousseau and “The Priest of Wakefield” by O. Goldsmith) noted that the idyll is “a genre akin to the novel.” And according to M.M. Bakhtin, “the significance of the idyll for the development of the novel<…>was huge."

The novel absorbs the experience of not only the idyll, but also a number of other genres; in this sense he is like a sponge. This genre is able to include the features of an epic into its sphere, capturing not only the private lives of people, but also events of a national-historical scale (“The Parma Monastery” by Stendhal, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “ gone With the Wind"M. Mitchell). Novels are able to embody the meanings characteristic of a parable. According to O.A. Sedakova, “in the depths of the “Russian novel” usually lies something similar to a parable.”

There is no doubt that the novel is involved in the traditions of hagiography. The hagiographic principle is very clearly expressed in Dostoevsky’s works. Leskovsky’s “Soboryan” can rightfully be described as a novel-life. Novels often acquire the features of a satirical description of morality, such as, for example, the works of O. de Balzac, W.M. Thackeray, “Resurrection” by L.N. Tolstoy. As shown by M.M. Bakhtin is far from alien to the novel (especially the picaresque and adventurous) and the familiarly funny, carnival element, originally rooted in the comedy-farce genres. Vyach. Ivanov, not without reason, characterized the works of F.M. Dostoevsky as “tragedy novels”. “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov is a kind of myth-novel, and R. Musil’s “Man Without Qualities” is an essay-novel. In his report on it, T. Mann called his tetralogy “Joseph and His Brothers” a “mythological novel”, and its first part (“The Past of Jacob”) - a “fantastic essay”. The work of T. Mann, according to the German scientist, marks the most serious transformation of the novel: its immersion into mythological depths.

The novel, apparently, has a dual content: firstly, it is specific to it (“independence” and the evolution of the hero, revealed in his private life), and secondly, it came to him from other genres. The conclusion is valid; the genre essence of the novel is synthetic. This genre is capable of combining, with effortless freedom and unprecedented breadth, the substantive principles of many genres, both funny and serious. Apparently, there is no genre principle from which the novel would remain fatally alienated.

The novel as a genre, prone to syntheticism, is sharply different from others that preceded it, which were “specialized” and operated in certain local “areas” of artistic comprehension of the world. He (like no other) turned out to be able to bring literature closer to life in its diversity and complexity, inconsistency and richness. The novel's freedom to explore the world has no boundaries. And writers from different countries and eras use this freedom in a variety of ways.

The many faces of the novel create serious difficulties for literary theorists. Almost everyone who tries to characterize the novel as such, in its universal and necessary properties, faces the temptation of a kind of synecdoche: replacing the whole with its part. So, O.E. Mandelstam judged the nature of this genre from the “career novels” of the 19th century, the heroes of which were carried away by the unprecedented success of Napoleon.

In novels that emphasized not the willful aspiration of a self-affirming person, but the complexity of his psychology and internal action, the poet saw a symptom of the decline of the genre and even its end. T. Mann, in his judgments about the novel as full of soft and benevolent irony, relied on his own artistic experience and to a large extent on the novels of the education of J. V. Goethe.

Bakhtin's theory has a different orientation, but also local (primarily on the experience of Dostoevsky). At the same time, the writer’s novels are interpreted by scientists in a very unique way. Dostoevsky's heroes, according to Bakhtin, are, first of all, bearers of ideas (ideology); their voices are equal, as is the author’s voice in relation to each of them. This is seen as polyphony, which is the highest point of novelistic creativity and an expression of the writer’s non-dogmatic thinking, his understanding that a single and complete truth is “fundamentally incompatible within the limits of one consciousness.”

Dostoevsky's novelism is considered by Bakhtin as an inheritance of the ancient “Menippean satire”. Menippea is a genre “free from tradition,” committed to “unbridled fantasy,” recreating “the adventures of an idea or truth in the world: on earth, in the underworld, and on Olympus.” It, Bakhtin argues, is a genre of “last questions” that carries out “moral and psychological experimentation” and recreates “split personality,” “unusual dreams, passions bordering on madness.

Other varieties of the novel that are not involved in polyphony, where the writers’ interest in people rooted in reality close to them predominates, and the author’s “voice” dominates over the voices of the heroes, Bakhtin rated less highly and even spoke about them ironically: he wrote about the “monological” one-sidedness and the narrowness of “manor-house-room-apartment-family novels” that seem to have forgotten about a person’s presence “on the threshold” of eternal and insoluble questions. At the same time they were called L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov.

In the centuries-old history of the novel, two types of it are clearly visible, more or less corresponding to two stages of literary development. These are, firstly, works of acute events, based on external action, the heroes of which strive to achieve some local goals. These are adventurous novels, in particular picaresque, knightly, “career novels,” as well as adventure and detective stories. Their plots are numerous concatenations of event nodes (intrigues, adventures, etc.), as is the case, for example, in Byron’s “Don Juan” or in A. Dumas.

Secondly, these are novels that have prevailed in the literature of the last two or three centuries, when one of the central problems of social thought, artistic creativity and culture in general became the spiritual independence of man. Here the internal action successfully competes with the external action: the eventfulness is noticeably weakened, and the consciousness of the hero in its diversity and complexity, with its endless dynamics and psychological nuances, comes to the fore.

The characters in such novels are depicted not only as striving for some private goals, but also as comprehending their place in the world, clarifying and realizing their value orientation. It was in this type of novel that the specificity of the genre that was discussed was reflected with maximum completeness. The reality close to man (“daily life”) is mastered here not as a deliberately “low prose”, but as involved in genuine humanity, the trends of a given time, universal principles of existence, and most importantly - as an arena of the most serious conflicts. Russian novelists of the 19th century. they knew well and persistently showed that “amazing events are less of a test for human relationships than everyday life with minor displeasures.”

One of the most important features of the novel and related stories (especially in the 19th-20th centuries) is the close attention of the authors to the microenvironment surrounding the heroes, the influence of which they experience and which they influence in one way or another. Outside of recreating the microenvironment, it is “very difficult for the novelist to show the inner world of the individual.” The origins of the now established novel form are the dilogy of I.V. Goethe about Wilhelm Meister (T. Mann called these works “deep into the inner life, sublimated adventure novels”), as well as “Confession” by J.J. Rousseau, “Adolphe” by B. Constant, “Eugene Onegin,” which conveys the “poetry of reality” inherent in the works of A. S. Pushkin. Since that time, novels focused on a person’s connections with reality close to him and, as a rule, giving preference internal action, became a kind of center of literature. They seriously influenced all other genres, even transformed them.

According to M.M. Bakhtin, the novelization of verbal art has occurred: when the novel comes to “great literature,” other genres are sharply modified, “to a greater or lesser extent “romanized”.” At the same time, the structural properties of genres are also transformed: their formal organization becomes less strict, more relaxed and free. We will turn to this (formal-structural) side of genres.

V.E. Khalizev Theory of literature. 1999

Introduction

Chapter 1. The emergence and development of the novel as a literary genre

1Definition of a novel

1.2Literary and historical context in the development of the novel

3Ancient novel

Chapter 2. Artistic and aesthetic originality of Apuleius’s novel “Metamorphoses”

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

In the theory of the novel, a number of problems that are still being solved are significant: the question of defining this term is sharp, and the question of the genre model of the novel is no less heterogeneous. According to M.M. Bakhtin, “It is never possible to give any kind of comprehensive formula for the novel as a genre. Moreover, researchers are unable to indicate a single definite and firm feature of a novel without such a reservation that this feature, as a genre feature, would not be completely annulled.”

IN modern literary criticism There are different definitions of a novel.

TSB (Great Soviet Encyclopedia): “The novel (French roman, German Roman), a type of epic as a type of literature, one of the largest epic genres in volume, which has significant differences from another similar genre - the national-historical (heroic) epic , is actively developing in Western European literatures ah since the Renaissance, and in modern times it has acquired dominant significance in world literature."

“The newest literary dictionary-reference book” by N.V. Suslova: “Novel - epic genre, revealing the history of several, sometimes many human destinies, sometimes entire generations, unfolded in a wide artistic space and time of sufficient duration.”

“The novel is one of the free literary forms, involving a huge number of modifications and embracing several main branches of the narrative genre. In the new European literature This term usually means some kind of imaginary story that arouses the reader’s interest with the depiction of passions, the depiction of morals, or the fascination of adventures, always unfolded into a broad and complete picture. This completely determines the difference between a novel and a story, fairy tale or song.”

In our opinion, the most complete definition of this term is given by S.P. Belokurova: “Novel - (from the French roman - originally: a work written in one of the Romance (i.e. modern, living) languages, as opposed to written in Latin) is a genre of epic: a large epic work that comprehensively depicts the life of people in a certain period of time or during an entire human life. Characteristic properties of the novel: multi-linear plot, covering the fate of a number of characters; the presence of a system of equivalent characters; coverage of a wide range of life phenomena, formulation of socially significant problems; significant duration of action.” The author of one of the dictionaries of literary terms correctly notes the original meaning that was put into this concept, while also indicating its modern meaning. At the same time, the very name “novel” in different eras had its own interpretation, different from the modern one.

A number of works by modern scientists question the legitimacy of using the term “novel” in relation to works of ancient artistic and narrative prose. But the point, of course, is not only in the term, although behind it there is a definition of the genre of these works, but in a whole series of problems that arise when considering them: the question of the ideological and artistic prerequisites and the time of appearance of this new type of literature for antiquity, the question of its relationship with reality, genre and style features.

Despite many theories about the origin of the Hellenistic novel, its beginnings “remain obscure, like many other questions related to the history of Hellenistic prose. Attempts to “derive” the novel from any earlier genre or from a “fusion” of several genres have not led to results; generated by a new ideology, the novel does not arise mechanically, but constitutes a new artistic unity that has absorbed diverse elements from the literature of the past."

Despite the existing problem associated with the development of the novel genre, namely the origin of the ancient novel and the fact that it has not yet received its final resolution, regarding the place of the ancient novel in the general world literary process It seems to us that the assertion of most researchers that there has been no continuous development of the novel genre from antiquity to the present day is indisputable. The ancient novel arose and ended its existence in antiquity. The modern novel, the appearance of which dates back to the Renaissance, arose independently, apparently, outside the influence of the established forms of the ancient novel. Subsequently, having emerged independently, the modern novel experienced some ancient influences. However, denying the continuity of development of the novel genre does not at all deny, in our opinion, the existence of the novel in antiquity.

The relevance of this topic is due to the extraordinary interest in mysterious person Apuleius and the language of his work.

Subject of study - artistic originality novel "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass".

The object of study is the named novel.

The main goal of the study is to highlight all theories of the origin and development of the ancient novel, as well as to identify the artistic and aesthetic value of Apuleius’ novel.

Target course work involves solving a number of problems:

1.Familiarize yourself with the existing theory on the course topic, with different views on the emergence and development of the genre in question.

.Define the genre of the ancient novel.

.Explore the artistic and aesthetic features of Apuleius’s “Golden Ass”.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters and a conclusion.

CHAPTER 1. THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL AS A LITERARY GENRE

.1 DEFINITION OF A NOVEL

novel literary narrative genre

The term “novel,” which arose in the 12th century, has undergone a number of semantic changes over the nine centuries of its existence and covers an extremely diverse range of literary phenomena. Moreover, the forms called novels today appeared much earlier than the concept itself. The first forms of the novel genre go back to antiquity (love and love-adventure novels by Heliodorus, Iamblichus and Longus), but neither the Greeks nor the Romans left a special name for this genre. Using later terminology, it is usually called a novel. Bishop Yue at the end of the 17th century, in search of the predecessors of the novel, first applied this term to a number of phenomena of ancient narrative prose. This name is based on the fact that the ancient genre that interests us, having as its content the struggle of isolated individuals for their personal, private goals, represents a very significant thematic and compositional similarity with certain types of later European novels, in the formation of which the ancient novel played a significant role. The name “novel” arose later, in the Middle Ages, and initially referred only to the language in which the work was written.

The most common language of medieval Western European writing was, as is known, the literary language of the ancient Romans - Latin. In the XII-XIII centuries. AD, along with plays, tales, stories written in Latin and existing mainly among the privileged classes of society, the nobility and clergy, stories and stories began to appear written in Romance languages ​​and distributed among democratic strata of society who did not know the Latin language, among trading bourgeoisie, artisans, villans (the so-called third estate). These works, unlike the Latin ones, began to be called: conte roman - a Romanesque story, a story. Then the adjective acquired an independent meaning. This is how a special name arose for narrative works, which later became established in the language and over time lost its original meaning. A novel began to be called a work in any language, but not just any one, but only one that is large in size, distinguished by certain features of theme, compositional structure, plot development, etc.

We can conclude that if this term, which is closest to its modern meaning, appeared in the era of the bourgeoisie - the 17th and 18th centuries, then it is logical to attribute the origin of the theory of the novel to the same time. And although already in the 16th - 17th centuries. certain “theories” of the novel appear (Antonio Minturno “Poetic Art”, 1563; Pierre Nicole “Letter on the Heresy of Writing”, 1665), only together with the classical German philosophy the first attempts appear to create a general aesthetic theory of the novel, to include it in the system artistic forms. “At the same time, the statements of great novelists about their own writing practice acquire greater breadth and depth of generalization (Walter Scott, Goethe, Balzac). The principles of the bourgeois theory of the novel in its classical form were formulated precisely during this period. But more extensive literature on the theory of the novel appeared only in the second half of the 19th century. Now the novel has finally established its dominance as a typical form of expression of bourgeois consciousness in literature."

From a historical and literary point of view, it is impossible to talk about the emergence of the novel as a genre, since essentially “novel” is “an inclusive term, overloaded with philosophical and ideological connotations and indicating a whole complex of relatively autonomous phenomena that are not always genetically related to each other.” The “emergence of the novel” in this sense occupies entire eras, starting from antiquity and ending with the 17th or even 18th century.

The emergence and justification of this term was undoubtedly influenced by the history of the development of the genre as a whole. An equally important role in the theory of the novel is played by its formation in various countries.

1.2 LITERARY-HISTORICAL CONTEXT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL

The historical development of the novel in different European countries reveals quite large differences caused by the unevenness of socio-economic development and the individual uniqueness of the history of each country. But along with this, the history of the European novel also contains some common, recurring features that should be emphasized. In all major European literatures, although each time in its own way, the novel goes through certain logical stages. In the history of the European novel of the Middle Ages and Modern times, priority belongs to French novel. The largest representative of the French Renaissance in the field of the novel was Rabelais (the first half of the 16th century), who revealed in his “Gargantua and Pantagruel” the entire breadth of bourgeois freethinking and denial of the old society. “The novel originates in the fiction of the bourgeoisie in the era of the gradual disintegration of the feudal system and the rise of the commercial bourgeoisie. According to its artistic principle, this is a naturalistic novel, according to thematic-compositional one, it is an adventurous one, in the center of which “a hero who experiences all sorts of adventures, amuses readers with his clever tricks, a hero-adventurer, a rogue”; he experiences random and external adventures (a love affair, a meeting with robbers, a successful career, a clever money scam, etc.), without being interested in either deep social and everyday characteristics or complex psychological motivations. These adventures are interspersed with everyday scenes, expressing a penchant for crude jokes, a sense of humor, hostility towards the ruling classes, and an ironic attitude towards their morals and manifestations. At the same time, the authors failed to capture life in its deep social perspective, limiting themselves to external characteristics, showing a tendency to detail, to savoring everyday details. Its typical examples are “Lazarillo from Tormes” (XVI century) and “Gilles Blas” by the French writer Lesage (first half of the 18th century). From among the petty and middle bourgeoisie by the middle of the 18th century. an advanced petty-bourgeois intelligentsia is growing up, beginning an ideological struggle against the old order and using artistic creativity. On this basis, a psychological petty-bourgeois novel arises, in which the central place is no longer occupied by the adventure, but by the deep contradictions and contrasts in the minds of the heroes fighting for their happiness, for their moral ideals. The clearest example of this can be called “New Heloise” by Rousseau (1761). In the same era as Rousseau, Voltaire appeared with his philosophical and journalistic novel “Candide”. In Germany at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. There is a whole group of romantic writers who have created very vivid examples of psychological novels in different literary styles. Such are Novalis (“Heinrich von Ofterdingen”), Friedrich Schlegel (“Lucinda”), Tieck (“William Lovel”) and finally the famous Hoffmann. "Along with this we find psychological novel and in the style of the patriarchal noble aristocracy, perishing along with the entire old regime and realizing its death in the plane of the deepest moral and ideological conflicts.” Such is Chateaubriand with his “Rene” and “Atala”. Other layers of the feudal nobility were characterized by a cult of graceful sensuality and boundless, sometimes unbridled epicureanism. This is where the noble Rococo novels with their cult of sensuality come from. For example, Couvray’s novel “The Love Affairs of the Chevalier de Fauble.”

English novel in the first half of the 18th century. puts forward such major representatives as J. Swift with his famous satirical novel “Gulliver’s Travels” and D. Defoe, author of the no less famous “Robinson Crusoe”, as well as a number of other novelists expressing the social worldview of the bourgeoisie.

In the era of the emergence and development of industrial capitalism, the adventurous, naturalistic novel is gradually losing its significance.” It is being replaced by the social novel, which arises and develops in the literature of those strata of capitalist society that turn out to be the most advanced, and in the conditions of a given country. In a number of countries (France, Germany, Russia), during the period of replacement of the adventure novel with the social and everyday one, i.e., during the period of replacement of the feudal system with the capitalist one, it temporarily acquires great importance a psychological novel with a romantic or sentimental orientation, reflecting the social imbalance of the transition period (Jean-Paul, Chateaubriand, etc.). The heyday of the social-everyday novel coincides with the period of growth and prosperity of industrial-capitalist society (Balzac, Dickens, Flaubert, Zola, etc.). A novel is created according to an artistic principle - realistic. In the middle of the 19th century. The English realistic novel is making significant progress. The pinnacle of the realistic novel are the novels of Dickens - “David Copperfield”, “Oliver Twist” and “Nicholas Nickleby”, as well as Thackeray with his “Vanity Fair”, which provides a more embittered and powerful criticism of the noble-bourgeois society. “The realistic novel of the 19th century is distinguished by its extremely acute formulation of moral problems, which now occupy a central place in artistic culture. This is due to the experience of a break with traditional ideas and the task of finding new moral guidelines for the individual in a situation of isolation, to develop moral regulators that do not ignore, but morally organize the interests of real life. practical activities isolated individual."

A special line is represented by the novel of “mysteries and horrors” (the so-called “Gothic novel”), the plots of which, as a rule, are chosen in the sphere of the supernatural and the heroes of which are endowed with features of gloomy demonism. The largest representatives of the Gothic novel are A. Radcliffe and C. Maturin.

The gradual transition of capitalist society into the era of imperialism with its growing social conflicts lead to the degradation of bourgeois ideology. The cognitive level of bourgeois novelists is declining. In this regard, in the history of the novel there is a return to naturalism, to psychologism (Joyce, Proust). In the process of its development, the novel, however, not only repeats a certain logical line, but also retains some genre characteristics. The novel is historically repeated in different literary styles, and in different styles it expresses different artistic principles. And with all this, the novel still remains a novel: a huge number of the most diverse works of this genre have something in common, some repeating features of content and form, which turn out to be signs of the genre, which receives its classical expression in the bourgeois novel. “No matter how different the characteristics of historical class consciousness, those social sentiments, those specific artistic ideas that are reflected in the novel, the novel expresses a certain type of self-awareness, certain ideological demands and interests. The bourgeois novel lives and develops as long as the individualistic self-consciousness of the capitalist era is alive, as long as interest in individual destiny continues to exist, personal life, to the struggle of individuality for their personal needs, for the right to life." These features of the novel’s content also lead to the formal characteristics of this genre. Thematically, a bourgeois novel depicts private, personal, everyday life and, against the background of it, the clash and struggle of personal interests. The composition of the novel is characterized by a more or less complex, straight or broken line of a single personal intrigue, a single causal-temporal chain of events, a single course of the narrative, to which all and every descriptive moments are subordinated. In all other respects, the novel is "historically infinitely varied."

Any genre, on the one hand, is always individual, on the other, it is always based on literary tradition. The genre category is a historical category: each era is characterized not only by a genre system as a whole, but also by genre modifications or variations in particular in relation to a particular genre. Today, literary scholars distinguish varieties of the genre on the basis of a set of stable properties (for example, the general nature of the theme, properties of imagery, type of composition, etc.).

Based on the above, a conditional typology modern novel can be represented as follows:

The themes differ from autobiographical, documentary, political, social; philosophical, intellectual; erotic, female, family and everyday life; historical; adventurous, fantastic; satirical; sentimental, etc.

according to structural characteristics: a novel in verse, a travel novel, a pamphlet novel, a parable novel, a feuilleton novel, etc.

Often the definition correlates a novel with an era in which one or another type of novel dominated: ancient, chivalric, enlightenment, Victorian, Gothic, modernist, etc.

In addition, the epic novel stands out - a work in which the center of artistic attention is the fate of the people, and not the individual (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, M.A. Sholokhov “Quiet Don”).

A special type is the polyphonic novel (according to M.M. Bakhtin), which involves such a construction when the main idea of ​​the work is formed by the simultaneous sound of “many voices”, since none of the characters or the author has a monopoly on the truth and is not its carrier.

To summarize all of the above, we note once again that despite the long history of this term and the even older genre form, in modern literary criticism there is no unambiguous view of the problems associated with the concept of “novel”. It is known that it appeared in the Middle Ages, the first examples of novels were more than five centuries ago; in the history of the development of Western European literature, the novel had many forms and modifications.

Finishing the conversation about the novel as a whole, we cannot help but draw attention to the fact that, like any genre, it must have some features. Here we will remain in solidarity with the adherent of “dialogism” in literature - M.M. Bakhtin, who identifies three main features of the genre model of the novel, which fundamentally distinguish it from other genres:

“1) the stylistic three-dimensionality of the novel, associated with the multilingual consciousness realized in it; 2) a radical change in time coordinates literary image in the novel; 3) a new zone for constructing a literary image in a novel, namely the zone of maximum contact with the present (modernity) in its incompleteness.”

1.3 ANCIENT NOVEL

It is known that in different historical periods of ancient literature certain literary genres come to the fore: in the archaic era, it dominates first heroic epic, later lyric poetry develops. The classical era of ancient Greek literature was marked by the rise of drama, tragedy and comedy; later, in the 4th century. BC. Prose genres are intensively developing in Greek literature. Hellenism is characterized primarily by the development of small genre forms.

The decline of Greek literature is marked by the appearance of the first examples of the ancient novel or “epic of private life,” which, transforming, enriching and developing, will probably become the most favorite genre in the literature of the 19th-20th centuries. What was the first ancient novel? At the dawn of its formation, the novel was represented by a special variety - the love adventure novel. B. Gilenson refers to this genre as the story “The Acts of Alexander,” “erroneously attributed to the historian Callisthenes (IV century BC): in its center is not the real Alexander the Great, but rather fairy tale character, whose share falls incredible adventures in the land of giants, dwarfs, cannibals." (B. Gilenson, p. 379). The features of this genre variety are more expressively presented in “The Tale of the Love of Chaerea and Callirhoe” by Chariton (1st century AD). Characteristic a love adventure novel is that it contains fixed standard situations and characters: two beautiful loving people are separated; they are haunted by the wrath of the gods and hostile parents; they fall into the hands of robbers, pirates, and may fall into slavery or be thrown into prison. Their love and loyalty, as well as happy accidents, help them pass all the tests. In the finale there is a happy reunion of the heroes. “This is in many ways an early, somewhat naive form of the novel.” Naivety is undoubtedly the influence of Hellenistic poetry, elegy and idyll. Adventures and various kinds of accidents play a huge role in the not yet established genre. This is how we see HELIODORUS' "ETHIOPICA", which is based on a popular story in ancient times: the Ethiopian queen, who looked at the image of Andromeda at the moment of conception, gave birth to a white daughter. To get rid of her husband's painful suspicions, the queen threw her daughter up. She came to Delphi to the priest Charicles, who named her Chariclea. The beautiful young man Theagenes is in love with this girl of rare beauty. Their feelings are mutual, but the priest, the adoptive father, destined the girl to someone else - his nephew. The wise old man Kalasirid, having read the signs on Chariklia's bandage, reveals the secret of her birth. He advises the young people to flee to Ethiopia and thereby escape the marriage that awaits Charikleia in Delphi. Theagenes kidnaps the girl, sails on a ship to the shores of the Nile, and from there continues his journey to the homeland of Chariklia. Many adventures happen to the lovers: they either break up, then reunite, then they are captured by robbers, or they run away from them. Finally, the lovers reach Ethiopia. There, King Hydas is going to sacrifice them to the gods, but then it turns out that he is the father of Chariklia. There is a happy “recognition” of an abandoned child - a popular motive. The parents agree to their daughter's marriage to Theagenes. The novel is melodramatic and sentimental. He affirms the beauty of love and chastity, in the name of which young people meekly endure the hardships that befall them. The style of the novel is flowery and rhetorical. Heroes usually speak in a sublime style. This feature is clear, since rhetoric - the art of speaking beautifully - occupied a special place in antiquity. The rhetorical story was supposed to contain “a cheerful tone of the narrative, dissimilar characters, seriousness, frivolity, hope, fear, suspicion, melancholy, pretense, compassion, a variety of events, a change of fate, unexpected disasters, sudden joy, a pleasant outcome of events.”

We noticed that the novel used the traditions and techniques of previously established literary genres. But it was preceded not only by oratory, but also by entertaining stories, erotic elegies, ethnographic descriptions and historiographies. If we consider the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st century as the time when the ancient novel became a separate genre. BC, then it should be noted that back in the 2nd century. BC. The collection of stories by Aristides from Miletus - "Miletus Stories" - enjoyed particular success. The Hellenistic novel combines stories of travel and adventure with love-pathetic stories.

In contrast to the interpretation of Greek novels as artificial and in their own way rational products of rhetorical skill, characteristic of Rode and his school, in recent decades they have begun to pay attention specifically to the original and traditional elements of myth and aretalogy present in the novel. Thus, according to B. Lavagnini, the novel is born from local legends and traditions. These local legends become an “individual novel” when in Greek literature interest moves from the destinies of the state to the destinies of the individual and when in historiography the love theme acquires independent, “human” interest. For example, touching on the contradictions between slaves and slave owners, Long - the author of the novel "Daphnis and Chloe" - does not narrate the fate of the people, but depicts a shepherd and a shepherdess, the awakening of the love of these two pure and innocent creatures. The adventures in this novel are few and episodic, which distinguishes it, first of all, from “Ethiopica”. “Unlike Heliodor’s love adventure novel, this is a love novel.” Sometimes it is called an idyll novel. It is not the sharp plot twists and turns, not the exciting adventures, but the love experiences of a sensual nature, unfolding in the bosom of a rural poetic landscape, that determine the value of this work. True, there are pirates, wars, and happy “recognitions” here too. In the finale, the heroes, who turn out to be children of wealthy parents, get married. Much later, Long would also become popular in Europe, especially during the late Renaissance. Literary scholars will loudly declare that he showed the prototype of the so-called. pastoral novels.

According to V.V. Kozhinov, the origins of the novel must be sought in the oral creativity of the masses. According to the law of folklore, it consists of old plot, figurative, linguistic elements, in fact forming something fundamentally new. This was the earliest monument of the Greek novel, preserved only in papyrus fragments - the novel about the Assyrian prince Nina and his wife Semiramis.

N.A. Chistyakova and N.V. Vulikh in their “History of Ancient Literature” jokingly call the novel “the illegitimate offspring of the decrepit epic and capricious affectation - Hellenistic historiography.” It is certain that historical figures were sometimes depicted in some Greek novels. For example, in Chariton’s novel “Cheraeus and Callirhoe” one of the heroes is the Syracusan strategist Hermocrates, who during the Peloponnesian War won a brilliant victory over the Athenian navy in 413.

A review of Greek romance and adventure novels, preserved in whole or fragmentary form, helps us understand some basic patterns in the history of the entire genre. The similarities between individual novels are so great that considering them in close connection with each other seems completely justified. Novels can be divided into groups, due to a number of stylistic and genre characteristics. Here I would like to note that although questions about the relationship between the narrative in a novel and reality, the genre and stylistic features of this genre, and its development in Ancient Greece remain open, almost all researchers distinguish two of its varieties. And which ones exactly is another question.

Thus, the author of the “History of Ancient Literature” B. Gilenson, along with Griftsov and Kuznetsov, sees Heliodorus’s “Ethiopica” (as well as the novels of Iamblichus, Achilles Tatius, Long) marked by the widespread use of all the techniques and means of that specific rhetorical skill that was cultivated in the modern era sophistry. The traditional plot scheme does not burden the authors; they treat it very freely, enriching the traditional plot with introductory episodes. Not to mention Heliodorus, who gave the usual chronological manner of presenting events in a completely different way, Iamblichus, Achilla Tatius, and Longus - each in their own way overcome the canon inherited from the past.

Literary scholars see the early novels as completely different - fragments of the novel about Nina, the novels of Chariton, Xenophon of Ephesus, "The History of Apollonius" - simple in composition, strictly adherent to the developed canon - depiction of exoticism and adventure, and also prone to brief retelling already before the events described. Novels in this category, intended mainly for the broadest masses, in many cases approach the style of a fairy tale. Their language is close to that “common” literary language, which is not distinguished by rhetoric.

Despite some possibility of classifying the Hellenistic novel, all the Greek novels considered are united by one common feature: they depict a world of exotic places, dramatic events and ideally sublime feelings, a world deliberately opposed to real life, leading thought away from everyday prose.

Created in conditions of the decline of ancient society, in conditions of intensifying religious quests, the Greek novel reflected the features of its time. “Only an ideology that broke with mythology and placed man at the center of attention” could contribute to the creation of a novel that did not depict exploits mythological heroes, and life ordinary people with their joys and sorrows. The heroes of these works felt like puppets in the hands of fate or the gods, they suffer and accept suffering as the lot of life, they are virtuous and chaste.

As we see, new genre, crowning the glorious path of development of ancient literature, reflected the profound changes that took place in ancient society at the junction of the old and new eras, and “as if announced its beginning of decline.”

Tronsky also looks at two ways of development of the Attic novel. This is either a pathetic story about ideal figures, bearers of sublime and noble feelings, or a satirical narrative that has a pronounced “low” everyday slant. The literary critic classifies the above-mentioned novels as the first type of Greek novel. The second type of ancient novel is satirical novel morals with a comic-everyday slant - is not represented by a single monument and is known only from the presentation of the “novel about a donkey” that has come down to us among the works of Lucian. The researcher believes that its origins began with a historical (or pseudo-historical) image of reality.

The development and formation of the ancient novel was impossible without its embodiment not only in Greek, but also in Roman literature. Roman literature, it is known, is more recent: it emerges and flourishes in that period, which for Greece was already a time of decline. It is in Roman literature that we find the use of surrounding everyday life and the drama of its works. Despite the age difference of 400-500 years, like Greek, Roman literature went through the same periods of social development: pre-classical, classical and post-classical.

All three considered stages of Roman literature, with all the differences between them due to the fast pace social development Rome in the 3rd - 2nd centuries, are united by one common problem, which remained the main one for all writers - the problem of genre. Rome enters this period possessing an almost amorphous material of oral ceremonial literature, and emerges from it possessing the entire genre repertoire of Greek literature. Through the efforts of the first Roman writers, Roman genres at this time acquired that solid appearance that they retained almost until the end of antiquity. The elements from which this appearance was composed were of threefold origin: from Greek classics, from Hellenistic modernity and from Roman folklore tradition. This formation proceeded differently in different genres. As for the genre of the novel, it is brilliantly represented by Apuleius and Petronius. The novel, the last narrative genre of fading antiquity, seems to prelude the medieval development, where the adventurous “philistine” novel also develops, on the one hand, as a chain of short stories, and on the other, as a parody of the forms of knightly storytelling.

CHAPTER 2. ARTISTIC AND AESTHETIC ORIGINALITY OF APULEY’S NOVEL “METAMORPHOSIS”

One of the most famous novels of ancient (namely Roman) literature is the novel “Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass” by Apuleius.

Philosopher, sophist and magician, Apuleius is a characteristic phenomenon of his time. His creativity is extremely diverse. He wrote in Latin and Greek, composed speeches, philosophical and natural science works, and poetic works in various genres. But the legacy of this author today consists of six works: “Metamorphoses” (a novel, which will be discussed further), “Apology, or On Magic”, a collection of excerpts from the speeches of “Florida” and philosophical works “On the Deity of Socrates”, “ About Plato and his teaching" and "About the Universe". According to most literary scholars, the world significance of Apuleius is based on the fact that he wrote the novel “Metamorphoses”.

The plot of the novel is closely related to its title, or rather, it starts from it. Metamorphosis is a transformation, and specifically a human transformation.

The plot of "Metamorphoses" is based on the story of a young Greek named Lucius, who ended up in Thessaly - a country famous for witchcraft, and stayed in the house of an acquaintance, whose wife was reputed to be a powerful sorceress. In a thirst to join the mysterious sphere of magic, Luki enters into a relationship with a maid who is somewhat involved in the mistress’s art, but the maid mistakenly turns him into a donkey instead of a bird. Lukiy preserves the human mind and human tastes. He even knows a way to free himself from the spell: chewing roses is enough. But the reverse transformation is delayed for a long time. “Donkey” is kidnapped by robbers that same night, he experiences various adventures, goes from one owner to another, suffers beatings everywhere and repeatedly finds himself on the verge of death. When a strange animal attracts attention, it is destined for a shameful public display. All this constitutes the content of the first ten books of the novel. IN last moment Lucius manages to escape to the seashore, and in the final 11th book he makes a plea to the goddess Isis. The goddess appears to him in a dream, promises salvation, but so that he future life was dedicated to serving her. Indeed, the next day the donkey meets the sacred procession of Isis, chews roses from the wreath of her priest and becomes a man. The revived Lucius now acquires the features of Apuleius himself: he turns out to be a native of Madaura, accepts initiation into the mysteries of Isis and, by divine inspiration, goes to Rome, where he is awarded the highest degrees of initiation.

In the introduction to the novel, Apuleius characterizes it as a “Greek story,” that is, containing novelistic features. What are the similarities and differences between the Greek novel and the novel of Apuleius? According to I.M. Tronsky, “Metamorphoses” is a reworking of a Greek work, an abbreviated retelling of which we find in “Lucia or the Donkey” attributed to Lucian. This is the same plot, with the same series of adventures: even the verbal form of both works is in many cases the same. Both here and here the story is told in the first person, on behalf of Lukiy. But the Greek “Luke” (in one book) is much shorter than “Metamorphoses”, which makes up 11 books. The story, preserved among the works of Lucian, contains only the main plot in a condensed presentation and with obvious abbreviations that obscure the course of action. In Apuleius, the plot is expanded by numerous episodes in which the hero takes personal part, and a number of inserted short stories, not directly related to the plot and introduced as stories about what was seen and heard before and after the transformation. So, for example, according to the remarks of E. Poe, “the unsuccessful escape of a donkey and a captive girl from a den of robbers is told and motivated in more detail by Apuleius than by Lucian<…>If Lucian simply reports the fact of their capture by robbers, then Apuleius talks about a dispute during the journey, about the delay that occurred because of this, which was the reason that they again ended up with the robbers. In the same way, Apuleius’ story with the soldier appears more understandable and motivated than that of the Greek author [Metamorphoses, IX, 39]. The endings are also different: in “Lukia” there is no intervention of Isis. The hero himself tastes the saving roses, and the author subjects him, already a man, “a compiler of stories and other works,” to final humiliation: the lady who liked him when he was a donkey rejects his love as a person. This unexpected ending, which gives a parodic and satirical light to the dry retelling of the misadventures of the “donkey,” sharply contrasts with the religious and solemn ending of the novel by Apuleius. In the Latin version, the names of the characters are also changed, except for the name of the main character, Lucius (Lucius). I.M. Tronsky compared the plot of the Greek and Roman analogies.

We know that the Roman novel as a whole largely followed the development of the Greek, and, despite the similarities of both, Apuleius' Metamorphoses differs in many ways from all Greek novels. The Roman novel, for all its dependence on the Greek, differs from it both in technique and structure, but - even more significantly - in its everyday-writing character; Thus, in Apuleius both the background details and the characters are historically accurate. Despite this, “Metamorphoses” is written in the stylistic traditions of rhetorical prose, in a flowery and sophisticated manner. The insert novel style is simpler. In contrast to the accepted canons of the genre, this work excludes both moral didactics and a condemnatory attitude towards the depicted. Naturally, we would look in vain for a psychological revelation of the character of its hero in the novel, although Apuleius contains individual - and sometimes subtle - psychological observations. The author's task excluded the need for this, and the phases of Lucius' life should have revealed themselves in the change of his appearance. Apuleius’s desire not to abandon folklore technique, since the plot was of folklore origin, probably also played a certain role in such a construction of the image.

V.V. Kozhinov sees the difference between the Roman novel and the Greek in different approaches to depicting private life: Apuleius considers private life only as a specific phenomenon, “justified” only where there is no “genuinely public life - among slaves, hetaeras, or in conditionally - in a fantasy world - in a person who has taken the form of an animal. Society itself should be depicted as if from a bird’s eye view, illuminating in close-up the activities of outstanding citizens of the state and not dwelling on the trifles of private life.”

Speaking about genre features of this work, it is important to note that most literary scholars note it as an adventurous and everyday model of the ancient novel. M.M. Bakhtin also highlights the special character of time in it - a combination of adventurous time with everyday life, which is sharply different from Greek. “These features: 1) Lucius’ life path is given in the shell of “metamorphosis”; 2) the path of life itself merges with the real path of wandering - Lucius’ wanderings around the world in the form of a donkey. The life path in the shell of metamorphosis in the novel is given as in the main plot life path Lucius, and in the inserted story about Cupid and Psyche, which is a parallel semantic version of the main plot."

Apuleius's language is rich and flowery. He uses many vulgarisms, dialectisms, and at the same time - this is the sonorous, cultural Latin language of the author... Greek in essence of his education and personal orientation. Apuleius wrote a polysemantic, multifaceted - polyphonic novel, in which “the contrast between literal and symbolic content, between everyday comedy and religious-mystical pathos is quite similar to the contrast between the “low” language and the “high” style of the novel.”

Apuleius's novel, like the European picaresque novels of the New Age, like the famous "Don Quixote" by Cervantes, is full of inserted stories that diversify its content, captivate the reader and give a wide panorama of the author's contemporary life and culture. There are sixteen such short stories in Metamorphoses. Many of them were subsequently reworked by other writers and, changing the socio-temporal flavor, adorned such masterpieces as Boccaccio’s “Decameron” (short stories about a lover in a barrel and a lover who betrayed himself by sneezing); others changed so much that they were included in new books in an almost unrecognizable form. But the greatest glory fell to the short story about Cupid and Psyche. Here's a summary of it.

The youngest of the three earthly princesses, Psyche, angered Venus with her amazing beauty. The goddess decided to destroy her, forcing her to fall in love with the most worthless of mortals, for which she sent her son, Cupid, known for his cruel love arrows. True, in Apuleius Cupid is not a curly-haired, capricious child, but a wonderful young man, who also has a good character. Enchanted by the beauty of Psyche, Cupid himself falls in love with her and secretly marries the princess. Psyche settles in a magical castle, where any of her desires is prevented, where she experiences all the joys of life and love with only one condition: she does not have the right to see her beloved husband. The instigation of the sisters and her own curiosity, connecting Psyche with the main character of the novel, push her to violate the ban. In the dead of night, Psyche turns on the light and, shocked by the beauty of Cupid, accidentally drips boiling oil from the lamp onto his shoulder. The husband disappears, and Psyche, shocked by her “crime” and expecting a child, embarks on a long search for her beloved. At the same time, Venus, having learned about everything, is looking for the heroine. Mercury helps her in her search, and delivers her unloved daughter-in-law to her mother-in-law. Next, Psyche, with the help of other gods and nature itself, fulfills completely insoluble tasks set before her by Venus, until finally, touched by Jupiter, grants Psyche immortality, thereby calming Venus and uniting the spouses.

Apuleius considered himself and indeed belonged to the ranks of Platonist philosophers, and the tale of Cupid and Psyche confirms this, once again retelling Plato’s idea of ​​the wanderings of the soul. But not only this makes her completely indispensable in the novel, because, as has already been noted, both Lucius and Psyche suffer from the same thing - their own curiosity - the driving core of the entire book. Only “for Psyche this is apotheosis (Here - glorification, exaltation); for Lucius - divine dedication. The theme of suffering and moral purification through suffering, common to the fairy tale and the novel, imparts unity to these parts of Apuleius’s work,” believes I.P. Strelnikova. The author, as we see, is concerned about the problem of fate. “A sensual person, according to the author, is at the mercy of blind fate, which undeservedly deals him its blows”[ 15; p.16].

An important role in the narrative and in revealing the ideological concept of the novel is played by the appearance in “Metamorphoses” of another mythological figure - the goddess Isis. Information about it is contained in Egyptian mythology: in the legends about the god Ra and Isis, about Isis and Osiris. The cult of Isis is a story according to which Osiris was a pharaoh and ruled great country. Isis was his wife. Their brother, Set, was jealous of the Pharaoh's glory and plotted to kill him. Seth gave a rich feast in honor of brother Osiris, during which he proudly showed everyone a magnificent coffin, decorated with silver, gold and precious stones. It was a coffin worthy of the gods, and Seth proposed a simple competition, the winner of which would receive the coffin: everyone present at the festival had to lie in it, and the one for whom it would fit would receive it as a reward. Pharaoh Osiris had to be the first. The coffin served as a trap, and as soon as the powerful pharaoh lay down in it, the coffin was closed with a lid, hammered with nails and thrown into the Nile, which carried it into the sea. After the loss of her husband, Isis was overcome with grief. It was said that she traveled widely in search of an ornate coffin. After spending many years wandering, Isis landed on the shores of Phenicia, where Astarte reigned. Astarte did not recognize the goddess, but, feeling pity for her, she took her to look after her little son. Isis took good care of the boy and decided to make him immortal. To do this, it was necessary to place the child in the flame. Unfortunately, Queen Astarte saw her son on fire, grabbed him and took him away, breaking the spell and depriving him of this gift forever. When Isis was called to the council to answer for her actions, the goddess revealed her name. Astarte helped her find Osiris, telling her that a large tamarisk had grown near the ocean shore. The tree was so huge that it was cut down and used as a pillar in the palace temple. The Phoenicians did not know that the body of the great Pharaoh Osiris was hidden in a beautiful tree. Isis brought the body hidden in a tamarisk tree to Egypt. The evil Set found out about their return and cut the pharaoh's body into pieces and only then threw it into the Nile. Isis had to search for all the parts of Osiris' body. She managed to find everything except the penis. Then she made it of gold and laid the body of her husband. Through embalming (Isis is considered the creator of the art of embalming) and spells, Isis revived her husband, who returns to her every year during the harvest.

Isis was the supreme goddess of magic and through her love for Osiris she became the great goddess of love and healing. Her temples in Egypt practiced healing, and Isis was known for the miraculous healings she performed.

The fame of Isis and her cult spread to other countries. She entered the Greek and Roman pantheons of gods. Isis became known as the Lady of Ten Thousand Names, since in every country where her cult appeared, she absorbed many of the traits and hypostases of the local goddesses.

“Listen, reader: you will have fun,” - these are the words that end the introductory chapter of “Metamorphoses.” The author promises to entertain the reader, but also has a moralizing purpose. The ideological concept of the novel is revealed only in last book, when the lines between the hero and the author begin to blur. The plot receives an allegorical interpretation, in which the moral side is complicated by the teachings of the religion of the sacraments. The stay of the reasonable Lucius in the skin of the voluptuous animal “already disgusting” to pure Isis becomes an allegory of sensual life. “Neither your origin, nor your position, nor even the very science that distinguishes you, was of any use to you,” the priest of Isis tells Lucius, because you, having become a slave of voluptuousness due to the passion of your young age, received fatal retribution for inappropriate curiosity.” Thus, sensuality is joined by a second vice, the destructiveness of which can be illustrated by the novel - “curiosity,” the desire to arbitrarily penetrate into the hidden secrets of the supernatural. But the other side of the issue is even more important for Apuleius. A sensual person is a slave to “blind fate”; the one who has overcome sensuality in the religion of initiation “celebrates victory over fate.” “Another fate has taken you under its protection, but this one with sight.” This contrast is reflected in the entire structure of the novel. Until his initiation, Lucius never ceases to be the plaything of an insidious fate, pursuing him just as it pursues the heroes of an ancient love story, and leading him through an incoherent series of adventures; Luki's life after initiation moves systematically, according to the instructions of the deity, from the lowest level to the highest. We already encountered the idea of ​​overcoming fate in Sallust, but there it was achieved by “personal valor”; two centuries after Sallust, the representative of late antique society Apuleius no longer relied on his own strength and entrusted himself to the patronage of the deity.

Apuleius's "Metamorphoses" - a story about a man turned into a donkey - was called "The Golden Ass" in ancient times, where the epithet meant the highest form of evaluation, coinciding in meaning with the words "wonderful", "most beautiful". This attitude towards the novel, which was both entertaining and serious, is understandable - it met a wide variety of needs and interests: if desired, one could find satisfaction in its entertainment, and more thoughtful readers received answers to moral and religious questions. Apuleius's fame was very great. Legends were created around the name of the “magician”; Apuleius was opposed to Christ. "Metamorphoses" were well known in the Middle Ages; short stories about a lover in a barrel and a lover who betrayed himself by sneezing moved into Boccaccio’s Decameron. But greatest success fell to the lot of "Cupid and Psyche". This plot has been worked on many times in literature (for example, La Fontaine, Wieland, in our case “Darling” by Bogdanovich) and provided material for the creativity of the greatest masters of fine art (Raphael, Canova, Thorvaldsen, etc.).

CONCLUSION

Despite the long history of this term and the even older genre form, in modern literary criticism there is no unambiguous view of the problems associated with the concept of “novel”. It is known that it appeared in the Middle Ages, the first examples of novels were more than five centuries ago; in the history of the development of Western European literature, the novel had many forms and modifications.

A number of works by modern scientists question the legitimacy of using the term “novel” in relation to works of ancient artistic and narrative prose; we have determined that Apuleius’s novel “Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass” is an example of an ancient novel.

Apuleius's "Metamorphoses" - a story about a man turned into a donkey - was called "The Golden Ass" in ancient times, where the epithet meant the highest form of evaluation, coinciding in meaning with the words "wonderful", "most beautiful". This attitude towards the novel, which was both entertaining and serious, is understandable - it met a wide variety of needs and interests: if desired, one could find satisfaction in its entertainment, and more thoughtful readers received answers to moral and religious questions.

Nowadays, this side of Metamorphoses, of course, retains only cultural and historical interest. But the artistic impact of the novel has not lost its power, and the remoteness of the time of creation gave it an additional attractiveness - the opportunity to penetrate the illustrious and unfamiliar world of a foreign culture. So we also call “Metamorphoses” “The Golden Donkey” not only out of tradition.

LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1) Ancient novel / Collection of articles. - M., 1969.

) Apuleius “Metamorphoses” and other works/ ed. S. Averintseva. - M.: Fiction, 1988.

)Bakhtin, M.M. Essays on historical poetics / M.M. Bakhtin. -

)Belokurova, S.P. Dictionary of literary terms / S.P. Belokurova. - M., 2005.

) TSB: in 30 T. / 3rd ed. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia, 1969 - 1978

)Wikipedia

)Gasparov, M.L. Greek and Roman literature II - III centuries. n. e.// History of world literature. - T. 1.

)Gilenson, B.A. History of ancient literature / B.A. Gilenson. - M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2001.

)Grigorieva, N. The magic mirror of “Metamorphoses” // Apuleius “Metamorphoses” and other works/ ed. S. Averintseva. - M.: Fiction, 1988.

)Grossman, L. // Literary encyclopedia: in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.

)Kozhinov, V.V. Origin of the novel / V.V. Kozhinov. - M., 1963.

)Kun, N.A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece / N.A. Kun. - M., 2006.

)Literary encyclopedia in 11 Vol. - Vol.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.

)Losev, A.F. History of ancient literature / A.F. Losev. - M.: Nauka, 1977.

)Polyakova, S.V. About the ancient novel // Achilles Tatius. Leucippe and Clitophon. Long. Daphnis and Chloe. Petronius. Satyricon. Apuleius. Metamorphoses. - M., 1969. - P. 5-20

) Pospelov, G. // Literary Encyclopedia: in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.

)Poe, E. Ancient Novel // Ancient Novel. - M., 1969.

)Raspopin, V.N. The Misadventures of Apuleius from Madaura // Literature Ancient Rome. - M., 1996.

)Rymar, T.N. // Literary encyclopedia: in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.

)Strelnikova, I.P. “Metamorphoses” of Apuleius // Ancient novel. - M., 1969.

)Suslova, N.V. The latest literary dictionary-reference book / N.V. Suslova. - Mn., 2002.

In literature, a novel is a genre of work. It is mainly written in prose, has a narrative character and is relatively large in volume.

Literary term

The medieval chivalric romance gave the world its modern name for the genre. It comes from Old French romanz. Further development in different cultures and countries led to some differences in terms. So, the English name of the genre is novel- from the word novella. The Old French term in English culture gave the name to a movement in art (romanticism) and one of the forms of the genre - the love story (romance).

Character traits

A novel in literature is a long fictional narrative about the life or moment in the life of a hero. Today it is most often characterized by the following features:

• Speech. Most novels today are written in prose, despite the fact that this was originally the name of poetic works. After works began to be written more for reading than for performance in the 13th century, prose almost completely took over the literary speech of the European novel.
• Fiction. In contrast to biography, journalism and historiography, this genre is distinguished by a fictional plot that has no connection with real events and people.
• Volume. Today, the novel is the longest genre of fiction, although there is controversy regarding the minimum required length. In this regard, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a novel from a story.
• Content is the most complex and controversial characteristic of the genre. Previously it was believed that this was a description of the fictional life and emotions of the hero. Today it is common for a novel to describe the personal experiences of one or more characters. The content of the novel varies so much that there is a division into forms and subgenres.

Historical typology of the novel

Historically, it is difficult to determine the origins of the novel as a separate literary genre. Strictly speaking, the first European novel is Don Quixote, but the history of the genre begins to be counted from the Middle Ages. Throughout its evolution, the following forms were distinguished:

• The chivalric romance is an epic genre of poetry using elements of fantasy. The main focus of the story is actions. Contemporaries called this form a courtly novel.
• An allegorical novel is a form of genre that uses concrete images and actions to explain abstract, complex concepts. The ideal example of allegory in literature is fables, and the pinnacle of the allegorical novel was Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy.

• A novel of manners, or a satirical novel, differs more in content than in strict compliance with any historical period. Petronius's Satyricon can be called a novel of morals, just like Cervantes' Don Quixote.
• The philosophical novel is a movement in 18th-century literature that focuses on finding answers to eternal questions. The pinnacle of the philosophical novel was Voltaire's Candide. Philosophy has always played an important role in literature, so the philosophical novel cannot be limited to one century. The works of Hesse, Mann and Nietzsche were written much later, but are prominent representatives of this trend.
• A psychological novel is a type of genre aimed at studying the inner world of heroes. No historical form of the novel has had such a dramatic and profound influence on the development of the genre as the psychological novel. In fact, it revolutionized the very definition of literary genre and is the dominant type of novel today.

Literary (from the French genre genus, type), historically developing type of literary work (novel, poem, ballad, etc.); the theoretical concept of painting generalizes the features characteristic of a more or less extensive group of works... ... Literary encyclopedic dictionary

Gallant novel (also precios novel) is a genre of French and German literature mid-17th century. A precise, gallantly heroic novel is, on the one hand, the fruit of the transformation of a chivalric romance, and on the other, the result of the influence... ... Wikipedia

Novel. History of the term. The problem of the novel. The emergence of the genre. From the history of the genre. Conclusions. The novel as a bourgeois epic. The fate of the theory of the novel. Specificity of the novel form. The birth of a novel. The novel's conquest of everyday reality... Literary encyclopedia

NOVEL (French roman, German Roman; English novel/romance; Spanish novela, Italian romanzo), the central genre (see GENRE) of European literature of the New Time (see NEW TIME (in history)), fictional, in difference from the neighboring genre of the story (see... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

A; m. [French] genre] 1. A historically established type of art or literature, characterized by certain plot, compositional, stylistic and other features; individual species of this genus. Musical and literary genres... encyclopedic Dictionary

A novel in verse is a literary genre that combines the properties of composition, chronotope and character system inherent in the novel with a poetic form. Although certain analogies are possible between a novel in verse and a poetic epic, especially in its... ... Wikipedia

Novel- THE NOVEL is one of the freest literary forms, suggesting a huge number of modifications and embracing several main branches of the narrative genre. In new European literature, this term is usually used to refer to some... ... Dictionary literary terms

- (French genre) (in art) a historically established internal division in all types of art; the type of a work of art in the unity of the specific properties of its form and content. The concept of genre generalizes the features characteristic of a broad... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- “Roman” Single by the group “Vintage” from the album Anechka Released... Wikipedia

Tyutchev, pioneer of the Russian Internet Date of birth: July 2, 1963 Place of birth: Kyiv ... Wikipedia

Books

• Game of the Cat, Roman Yurievich Prokofiev. Attention! The audio recording contains obscene language. A science fiction novel by Roman Prokofiev, the first book in the “Cat’s Game” series, genre: combat fantasy, heroic fantasy, LitRPG. At the Merchant's...audiobook
• Cat game. Book two, Roman Yuryevich Prokofiev. Attention! The audio recording contains obscene language. A science fiction novel by Roman Prokofiev, the second book in the “Cat’s Game” series, genre: combat fantasy, heroic fantasy, LitRPG. Virtual market...