What is classicism? Signs of classicism in world and Russian art

Among artistic styles Classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century, is of no small importance. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and manifested himself in almost all types of European and Russian art. He often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of its formation in France.

Each country has its own age of classicism. It first developed in France - back in the 17th century, and a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism had already begun in other countries. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.

What is classicism as a movement?

The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means “exemplary”. The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as the norm to which one should strive. The authors of the works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.

Main features of classicism

All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:

• a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
• the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
• strict canons in everything;
• an established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.

Concretization of artistic features

Analysis individual species art helps to understand how the style of “classicism” was embodied in each of them.

How classicism was realized in literature

In this type of art, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with words was clearly expressed. Authors works of art believed in a happy future where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly required compliance with three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit within a day), place (there was no movement in space). More recognition in this style was received by J. Molière, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia).

Development of classicism in Russia

The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, unlike Western European classicism, relied more on national traditions. This is where his originality manifested itself.

Initially it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, and country estates of the nobility. The creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is, deserves special attention. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoe Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the Spit of Vasilievsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.

The pinnacle of the architects’ activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the design of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.

No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schlüter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of landscape art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything amazes with its proportionality and cleanliness of execution.

Literary direction in Russia

The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.

However, the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is was made by the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov. He developed a system of three styles, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a model of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.

The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy “The Minor.” In addition to the mandatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the features of Russian comedy include the following points:

• a clear division of heroes into negative and positive and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
• the presence of a love triangle;
• the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.

Works of the era of classicism in general became the most important component in the development of world art.

The art of classicism

Introduction

The theme of my work is the art of classicism. This topic interested me very much and attracted my attention. Art in general covers a lot of things, it includes painting and sculpture, architecture, music and literature, and in general everything that is created by man. Looking through the works of many artists and sculptors, they seemed very interesting to me; they attracted me with their ideality, clarity of lines, correctness, symmetry, etc.

The purpose of my work is to consider the influence of classicism on painting, sculpture and architecture, on music and literature. I also consider it necessary to define the concept of “classicism”.

1. Classicism

The term classicism comes from the Latin classicus, which literally means exemplary. In literary and art criticism, the term denotes a specific direction, artistic method and art style.

This art direction is characterized by rationalism, normativity, a tendency toward harmony, clarity and simplicity, schematicism, and idealization. Character traits are expressed in the hierarchy of “high” and “low” styles in literature. For example, in dramaturgy, unity of time, action and place was required.

Supporters of classicism adhered to fidelity to nature, the laws of the rational world with its inherent beauty, all this was reflected in symmetry, proportions, place, harmony, everything should have been presented as ideal in its perfect form.

Under the influence of the great philosopher and thinker of that time, R. Descartes, the features and characteristics of classicism spread to all spheres of human creativity (music, literature, painting, etc.).

2. Classicism and the world of literature

Classicism as a literary movement emerged in 16-17. Its origins lie in the activities of Italian and Spanish academic schools, as well as the association of French writers "Pleiades", who during the Renaissance turned to ancient art, to the norms set forth by ancient theorists. (Aristotle and Horace), trying to find in ancient harmonious images new support for the ideas of humanism that had experienced a deep crisis. The emergence of classicism was historically conditioned by the emergence of an absolute monarchy - a transitional form of state, when the weakened aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, which had not yet gained strength, were equally interested in the unlimited power of the king. Classicism reached its highest flowering in France, where its connection with absolutism was especially clear.

The activities of the classicists were led by the French Academy, founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu. The creativity of writers, artists, musicians, and actors of classicism largely depended on the benevolent king.

As a movement, classicism developed differently in European countries. In France, it developed by the 1590s and became dominant by the middle of the 17th century, the highest flowering occurred in 1660-1670. Then classicism underwent a crisis and in the 1st half of the 18th century it became the successor of classicism educational classicism, which in the 2nd half of the 18th century lost its leading position in literature. During the French Revolution of the 18th century, Enlightenment classicism formed the basis of revolutionary classicism, which dominated all spheres of art. Classicism practically degenerated in the 19th century.

As an artistic method, classicism is a system of principles of selection, evaluation and reproduction of reality. The main theoretical work, which sets out the basic principles of classical aesthetics, is “The Poetic Art” of Boileau (1674). The classicists saw the purpose of art in the knowledge of truth, which acts as the ideal of beauty. Classicists put forward a method for achieving it, based on three central categories of their aesthetics: reason, example, taste, which were considered objective criteria of artistry. Great works are the fruit not of talent, not of inspiration, not of artistic imagination, but of stubborn adherence to the dictates of reason, study classical works antiquity and knowledge of the rules of taste. In this way the classicists brought together artistic activity from the scientific, therefore, the philosophical rationalistic method of Descartes turned out to be acceptable for them. Descartes argued that the human mind has innate ideas, the truth of which is beyond doubt. If one moves from these truths to unsaid and more complex positions, dividing them into simple ones, methodically moving from the known to the unknown, without allowing logical gaps, then any truth can be clarified. This is how reason became the central concept of the philosophy of rationalism, and then the art of classicism. The world seemed motionless, consciousness and ideal - unchanging. The aesthetic ideal is eternal and the same at all times, but only in the era of Antiquity was it embodied in art with the greatest completeness. Therefore, to reproduce the ideal, it is necessary to turn to ancient art and study its laws. That is why imitation of models was valued by classicists much higher than original creativity.

Turning to Antiquity, the classicists abandoned the imitation of Christian models, continuing the struggle of the Renaissance humanists for art free from religious dogma. The classicists borrowed external features from Antiquity. Under the names of ancient heroes, people of the 17th and 18th centuries were clearly visible, and ancient subjects made it possible to pose the most pressing problems of our time. The principle of imitation of nature was proclaimed, strictly limiting the artist’s right to imagination. In art, attention was paid not to the particular, individual, random, but to the general, typical. The character of a literary hero has no individual traits, acting as a generalization of a whole type of people. Character is a distinctive property, general quality, specificity of one or another human type. Character can be extremely, implausibly sharpened. Morals mean general, ordinary, customary, character means special, rare precisely in the degree of expression of the property dispersed in the morals of society. The principle of classicism led to the division of heroes into negative and positive, into serious and funny. Laughter becomes satirical and refers mainly to negative heroes.

Classicists are not attracted to all of nature, but only to “pleasant nature.” Everything that contradicts the model and taste is expelled from art; a whole number of objects seem “indecent”, unworthy high art. In the case when an ugly phenomenon of reality must be reproduced, it is reflected through the prism of beauty.

Classicists paid much attention to the theory of genres. Not all established genres met the principles of classicism. Appeared earlier well-known principle hierarchy of genres, asserting their inequality. There are main and non-main genres. By the mid-17th century, tragedy had become the main genre of literature. Prose, especially fiction, was considered a lower genre than poetry, so prose genres that were not designed for aesthetic perception, - sermons, letters, memoirs, fiction fell into oblivion. The principle of hierarchy divides genres into “high” and “low”, and certain artistic spheres are assigned to genres. For example, “high” genres (tragedy, ode) were assigned problems of a national nature. In “low” genres it was possible to touch upon private problems or abstract vices (stinginess, hypocrisy). The classicists paid the main attention to tragedy; the laws of its writing were very strict. The plot was supposed to reproduce ancient times, the life of distant states ( Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece); it had to be guessed from the title, the idea - from the first lines.

Classicism as a style is a system of pictorial - expressive means, typifying reality through the prism of ancient models, perceived as the ideal of harmony, simplicity, unambiguity, and an ordered system. The style reproduces the rationalistically ordered outer shell of ancient culture, without conveying its pagan, complex and undifferentiated essence. The essence of the classicism style was to express the view of the world of a person of the absolutist era. Classicism was distinguished by clarity, monumentality, the desire to remove everything unnecessary, to create a single and integral impression.

The largest representatives of classicism in literature are F. Malherbe, Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, F. La Rochefoucauld, Voltaire, G. Miltono, Goethe, Schiller, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin. The works of many of them combine features of classicism and other movements and styles (Baroque, Romanticism, etc.). Classicism developed in many European countries, the USA, Latin America, etc. Classicism was repeatedly revived in the forms of revolutionary classicism, Empire style, neoclassicism and influences the world of art to this day.

3. Classicism and fine arts

The theory of architecture is based on the treatise of Vitruvius. Classicism is the direct spiritual successor of the ideas and aesthetic principles of the Renaissance, reflected in Renaissance art and theoretical works of Alberti, Palladio, Vignola, Serlio.

IN various countries In Europe, the time stages of the development of classicism do not coincide. Thus, already in the 17th century, classicism occupied significant positions in France, England, and Holland. In the history of German and Russian art, the era of classicism dates from the 2nd half of the 18th century - the 1st third of the 19th century; for the previously listed countries, this period is associated with neoclassicism.

The principles and postulates of classicism developed and existed in constant polemics and at the same time in interaction with other artistic and aesthetic concepts: mannerism and baroque in the 17th century, rococo in the 18th century, romanticism in the 19th century. At the same time, the expression of style in different types and genres of art of a certain period was uneven.

In the second half of the 16th century, there was a collapse of the single harmonious vision of the world and man as its center inherent in the Renaissance culture. Classicism is characterized by normativity, rationality, condemnation of everything subjective and a fantastic demand from art for naturalness and correctness. Classicism is also characterized by a tendency to systematize, to create a complete theory of artistic creativity, and to search for unchanging and perfect models. Classicism sought to develop a system of general, universal rules and principles aimed at comprehending and implementing artistic means the eternal ideal of beauty and universal harmony. This direction is characterized by the concepts of clarity and measure, proportion and balance. The key ideas of classicism were set out in Bellori’s treatise “Lives of contemporary artists, sculptors and architects” (1672), the author expressed the opinion that it was necessary to choose a middle path between mechanical copying of nature and leaving it into the realm of fantasy.

Ideas and perfect images of classicism are born from the contemplation of nature, ennobled by the mind, and nature itself in classical art appears as a purified and transformed reality. Antiquity is the best example of natural art.

In architecture, the trends of classicism made themselves known in the 2nd half of the 16th century in the works of Palladio and Scamozzi, Delorme and Lescaut. Classicism of the 17th century had a number of features. Classicism was distinguished by a rather critical attitude towards the creations of the ancients, which were perceived not as an absolute example, but as a starting point in the value scale of classicism. The masters of classicism set as their goal to learn the lessons of the ancients, but not in order to imitate them, but in order to surpass them.

Another feature - close connection with others artistic directions, primarily with Baroque.

For the architecture of classicism, such qualities as simplicity, proportionality, tectonics, regularity of facade and volumetric-spatial composition, the search for proportions that are pleasing to the eye and the integrity of the architectural image, expressed in the visual harmony of all its parts, are of particular importance. In the 1st half of the 17th century, classicist and rationalist mindsets were reflected in a number of buildings by Desbros and Lemercier. In the second half of the 1630s-1650s, the inclination towards geometric clarity and integrity of architectural volumes and closed silhouette intensified. The period is characterized by a more moderate use and uniform distribution of decorative elements, awareness of the independent significance of the free plane of the wall. These trends emerged in the secular buildings of Mansar.

Nature and landscape art became an organic part of classicist architecture. Nature acts as a material from which the human mind can create correct forms, architectural in appearance, mathematical in essence. The main exponent of these ideas is Le Nôtre.

In the fine arts, the values ​​and rules of classicism were outwardly expressed in the requirement for clarity of plastic form and ideal balance of composition. This determined the priority of linear perspective and drawing as the main means of identifying the structure and the “idea” of the work embedded in it.

Classicism penetrated not only the sculpture and architecture of France, but also Italian art.

Public monuments became widespread in the era of classicism; they gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms.

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Come into fashion religious images, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality

4. Music and classicism

Classicism in music was formed in the 18th century on the basis of the same set of philosophical and aesthetic ideas as classicism in literature, architecture, sculpture and the visual arts. No ancient images were preserved in music; the formation of classicism in music occurred without any support.

The brightest representatives of classicism are the composers of the Vienna Classical School Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. Their art admires the perfection of compositional technique, the humanistic orientation of creativity and desire, especially noticeable in the music of V.A. Mozart, to display perfect beauty through music. The very concept of the Vienna Classical School arose shortly after the death of L. Van Beethoven. Classical art is distinguished by a delicate balance between feelings and reason, form and content. The music of the Renaissance reflected the spirit and breath of its era; in the Baroque era, the subject of display in music was the human condition; the music of the Classical era glorifies the actions and deeds of man, the emotions and feelings he experiences, the attentive and holistic human mind.

A new bourgeoisie is developing musical culture with its characteristic private salons, concerts and opera performances, open to any public, a faceless audience, publishing activities and music criticism. In this new culture the musician has to defend his position as an independent artist.

The heyday of Classicism began in the 80s of the eighteenth century. In 1781, J. Haydn created several innovative works, including his String Quartet op. 33; The premiere of V.A.’s opera is taking place. Mozart's "The Abduction from the Seraglio"; F. Schiller's drama "The Robbers" and I. Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" are published.

In the era of Classicism, music is understood as a supra-national art, a kind of universal language understandable to everyone. Arises new idea about the self-sufficiency of music, which not only describes nature, entertains and educates, but is also capable of expressing true humanity using a simple and understandable metaphorical language.

Tone musical language changes from sublimely serious, somewhat gloomy, to more optimistic and joyful. For the first time the basis musical composition the melody and dramatic contrasting development become imaginative, free from empty bombast, and are embodied in sonata form, based on the opposition of the main musical themes. The sonata form predominates in many works of this period, including sonatas, trios, quartets, quintets, symphonies, which at first did not have strict boundaries with chamber music, and three-part concertos, mostly piano and violin. New genres are developing - divertissement, serenade and cassation.

Conclusion

classicism art literature music

In this work, I examined the art of the Classical era. When writing the work, I read many articles touching on the topic of classicism, and I also looked at many photographs depicting paintings, sculptures, and architectural buildings of the classicism era.

I believe that the material I have provided is sufficient for a general understanding of this issue. It seems to me that in order to develop a broader knowledge in the field of classicism, it is necessary to visit fine art museums, listen to musical works of that time and become familiar with at least 2-3 literary works. Visiting museums will allow you to feel the spirit of the era much more deeply, to experience those feelings and emotions that the authors and the ends of the works tried to convey to us.

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Classicism gave the world the architecture of such cities as London, Paris, Venice and St. Petersburg. Classicism in architecture dominated for more than three hundred years, from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and it was loved for its harmony, simplicity, rigor and, at the same time, grace. Referring to the forms of ancient architecture, classicism in architecture is characterized by clear volumetric forms, symmetrical axial compositions, straight monumentality and a spacious city planning system.

The origins of classicism in architecture, Italy

Classicism in architecture arose at the end of the Renaissance, in the 16th century, and the great Italian and Venetian architect Andrea Palladio is considered to be the father of this architectural style. As the writer Peter Weil said about Palladio in his book “Genius Loci”:

“Without going into architectural details, the easiest way is to conjure up Grand Theatre or the district House of Culture - they are such thanks to Palladio. And if we were to make a list of people through whose efforts the world - at least the world of the Hellenic-Christian tradition from California to Sakhalin - looks the way it does and not otherwise, Palladio would take first place.”

The city where Andrea Palladio lived and worked is Italian Vicenza, located in northeastern Italy near Venice. Now Vicenza is widely known in the world as the city of Palladio, who created many beautiful villas. In the second half of his life, the architect moved to Venice, where he designed and built remarkable churches, palazzos and other public buildings. Andrea Palladio was awarded the title of “the most prominent citizen of Venice.”

Cathedral of San Giorgio Mangiore, Andrea Palladio

Villa Rotonda, Andrea Palladio

Loggia del Capitagno, Andrea Palladio

Teatro Olimpico, Andrea Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi

Andrea Palladio's follower was his talented student Vincenzo Scamozzi, who, after the death of his teacher, completed work on the Teatro Olimpico.

Palladio's works and ideas in the field of architecture were loved by his contemporaries and were continued in the works of other architects of the 16th and 17th centuries. The architecture of classicism received the most powerful impetus in its development from England, Italy, France and Russia.

Further development of classicism

Classicism in England

Classicism literally swept into England, becoming the royal architectural style. A whole galaxy of the most talented architects in England of those times studied and continued the ideas of Palladio: Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, Earl of Burlington, William Kent.

The English architect Inigo Jones, an admirer of the works of Andrea Palladio, moved architectural heritage Palladio to England. It is believed that Jones was one of the architects who laid the foundation for the English school of architecture.

Queens House, Greenwich, Inigo Jones

Banquet House, Inigo Jones

England was rich in architects who continued classicism - along with Jones huge contribution Such masters as Christopher Wren, Lord Burlington and William Kent brought it to the architecture of England.

Sir Christopher Wren, an architect and professor of mathematics at Oxford, who rebuilt central London after the great fire of 1666, created the national English classicism "Wren classicism".

Royal Chelsea Hospital, Christopher Wren

Richard Boyle, Earl Architect of Burlington, philanthropist and patron of architects, poets and composers. The count-architect studied and collected the manuscripts of Andrea Palladio.

Burlington House, Earl Architect of Burlington

The English architect and gardener William Kent collaborated with the Earl of Burlington, for whom he designed gardens and furniture. In gardening he created the principle of harmony of form, landscape and nature.

palace complex in Golkhem

Classicism in French architecture

In France, classicism has been the dominant style since the Great french revolution, when the desire for brevity arises in architecture.

It is believed that the beginning of classicism in France was marked by the construction of the Church of Saint Genevieve in Paris , designed by the self-taught French architect Jacques Germain Soufflot in 1756, later called the Pantheon.

Temple of Saint Genevieve in Paris (Pantheon), Jacques Germain Soufflot

Classicism brought major changes to the city's planning system; winding medieval streets were replaced by majestic, spacious avenues and squares, at the intersection of which architectural monuments were located. At the end of the 18th century, a unified urban planning concept appeared in Paris. An example of the new urban planning concept of classicism was the Rue de Rivoli in Paris.

Rue de Rivoli in Paris

Architects of the Imperial Palace, prominent representatives architectural classicism in France - Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine. Together they created a number of majestic architectural monuments - the Arc de Triomphe on Place Carrousel in honor of Napoleon's victory in the Battle of Austerlitz. They are responsible for the construction of one of the wings of the Louvre, the Marchand Pavilion. Charles Percier participated in the restoration of the Compiegne Palace, created the interiors of Malmaison, Saint-Cloud Castle and Fontainebleau Palace.

Arc de Triomphe in honor of Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Outerlitz, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Wing of the Louvre, Pavilion Marchand, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Classicism in Russia

In 1780, at the invitation of Catherine II, Giacomo Quaregi arrived in St. Petersburg as “Her Majesty’s Architect.” Giacomo himself was from Bergamo, Italy, studied architecture and painting, his teacher was the largest German painter of the classic era, Anton Raphael Mengs.

Quarenghi is the author of several dozen most beautiful buildings in St. Petersburg and its environs, including the English Palace in Peterhof, the pavilion in Tsarskoe Selo, the building Hermitage Theater, Academy of Sciences, Assignation Bank, the summer palace of Count Bezborodko, the Horse Guards Manege, the Catherine Institute of Noble Maidens and many others.

Alexander Palace, Giacomo Quarenghi

The most famous projects of Giacomo Quarenghi are the buildings of the Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg and the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo.

Smolny Institute, Giacomo Quarenghi

An admirer of the traditions of the Palladian and new Italian schools of architecture, Quarenghi designed surprisingly elegant, noble and harmonious buildings. The city of St. Petersburg owes its beauty largely to the talent of Giacomo Quarega.

Russia of the 18th and 19th centuries was rich in talented architects who worked in the style of classicism along with Giacomo Quarenghi. In Moscow the most famous masters architecture were Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov in St. Petersburg.

Artist and architect, teacher, Vasily Bazhenov, a graduate of the Academy of Arts and a student of the French professor of architecture Charles Devailly, created projects for the Tsaritsyn Palace and Park Ensemble and the Grand Kremlin Palace, which remained unrealized because the architect fell out of favor with Catherine II. The facilities were completed by M. Kazakov.

Plan of the architectural ensemble of Tsaritsino, Vasily Bazhenov

Russian architect Matvey Kazakov, during the reign of Catherine the Great, worked in the center of Moscow in the Palladian style. His work includes such architectural ensembles as the Senate Palace in the Kremlin, Petrovsky travel palace, Great Tsaritsin Palace.

Petrovsky Travel Palace, Matvey Kazakov

Tsaritsin Palace, Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov

Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Starov is the author of such architectural structures as the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, St. Sophia Cathedral near Tsarskoe Selo, Pellinsky Palace, Tauride Palace and other beautiful buildings.

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic and architectural style, direction to European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism went through three stages in its development:

* Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s)
* Strict classicism (mid 1780s - 1790s)
* Empire style (from the French empire - “empire”)
Empire is the style of late (high) classicism in architecture and applied arts. Originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I; developed during the first three decades of the 19th century; replaced by eclectic movements.

Although this phenomenon is European culture As classicism affected all manifestations of art (painting, literature, poetry, sculpture, theater), in this article we will look at classicism in architecture and interior design.

The history of classicism

Classicism in architecture replaced the pompous Rococo, a style that mid-18th century century has already been widely criticized for excessive complexity, pompousness, mannerism, for complicating the composition with decorative elements. During this period, ideas of enlightenment began to attract more and more attention in European society, which was reflected in architecture. Thus, the attention of the architects of that time was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor of ancient and, above all, Greek architecture. The growing interest in antiquity was facilitated by the discovery in 1755 of Pompeii with its rich artistic monuments, excavations in Herculaneum, and the study of ancient architecture in southern Italy, on the basis of which new views on Roman and Greek architecture were formed. The new style - classicism was a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

Famous architectural structures of classicism:

• David Mayernik
  Exterior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Robert Adam
  An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park " target="_blank"> Osterley Park Osterley Park
• Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
  Customs checkpoint on Stalingrad Square in Paris " target="_blank"> Customs outpost Customs outpost
• Andrea Palladio
  Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza" target="_blank"> Villa Rotunda Villa Rotunda

Main features of classicism

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular planning system.

Architects of Classicism

Andrea Palladio (Italian: Andrea Palladio; 1508-1580, real name Andrea di Pietro) - great Italian architect late Renaissance. The founder of Palladianism and classicism. Probably one of the most influential architects in history.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) was an English architect, designer and artist who pioneered the British architectural tradition.

Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) was a master of French classicism architecture who anticipated many of the principles of modernism. Blondel's student.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details that had no constructive function.

In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi, Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot, and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs.

In Britain, the Empire style corresponds to the so-called “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

Types of classicism style buildings

The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in kind are associated with classicism late XVIII and first half of the 19th century V. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.

Classicism in the interior

Furniture from the Classical era was solid and respectable, made from valuable wood. Great importance acquires the texture of wood, acting as a decorative element in the interior. Furniture items were often decorated with carved inserts made of valuable wood. Decorative elements are more restrained, but expensive. The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines are straightened. The legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, as well as purple and green tones, the latter being used with black and gray flowers, as well as with bronze and silver jewelry. White color is popular. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.

• David Mayernik
  Interior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Elizabeth M. Dowling
  Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Modern classic Modern classic
• Classicism
  Modern interior design in a classic style " target="_blank"> Hall Hall
• Classicism
  Modern interior design of a dining room in a classic style " target="_blank"> Dining room Dining room

The art of classicism followed ancient, that is, classical, patterns, which were considered the ideal aesthetic standard. Unlike the masters of Baroque, the creators of classicism tried to follow the firmly established canons of beauty. The new era developed strict rules that determined how to write poetry and plays, how to create paintings, how to dance, etc. The basic principles of classicism are strict adherence to established norms and majesty.

Through the efforts of the French Academy, founded in 1634, in France, instead of numerous local dialects, a single literary language was gradually established, which became the most important means of not only developing culture, but also strengthening national unity. The Academy dictated linguistic norms and artistic tastes, contributing to the formation of general canons of French culture. The formation of classicism was also facilitated by the activities of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, the Academy of Architecture, and the Academy of Music, which determined the norms of artistic creativity in the relevant fields of art. The artistic canons of that era were formed under the influence of philosophical rationalism, the founder of which was the outstanding French thinker of the first half XVII V. R. Descartes.

Cartesianism, as Descartes' philosophy is called, asserted faith in the omnipotence of the human mind and its ability to organize all human life on rational principles.

The leading poet of classicism and its theorist in the field of poetry was N. Boileau, author of the poetic treatise “Poetic Art” (1674).

Dramaturgy

In dramaturgy, where classicism reached its greatest completeness, the principle of “three unities” was established, which meant that the entire plot unfolded in one place, at one time and in one action. The highest genre theatrical arts the tragedy was recognized. In classical drama, characters were clearly distinguished and contrasted with each other: goodies embodied only virtues, negative ones became the personification of vice. At the same time, good always had to defeat evil.

The founder of classical French tragedy was P. Cornel, who not only wrote plays that are still recognized as masterpieces of world drama, but also became a leading theorist of theatrical art.

Ballet

High perfection In the era of classicism, ballet reached its peak, for which the “Sun King” had a weakness, often appearing on stage himself. Ballet, which came from Renaissance Italy, under the patronage of the King of France, turned into a special type of stage art. By the end of the 17th century. Its canons were developed, turning ballet into the most classical of all types of classical arts.

Opera

Opera also came from Italy to France. The national opera tradition, which originated at the court of Louis XIV, was also formed in line with classicism.

Formed the classical canons in painting N. Poussin. French painting XVII century laid the foundations of a great national tradition, further development which brought France undeniable primacy in the field fine arts.

Portrait

Louis XIV placed the royal palace of the Louvre at the disposal of the servants of the muses, which acquired its majestic eastern façade under him. During the reign of the “Sun King”, Paris and its suburbs were decorated with wonderful architectural monuments. “His Majesty’s Construction Works” turned into a whole industry, and everything built then is, in the words of the biographer of Louis XIV, “a permanent world exhibition of masterpieces of French classical taste.”

Since the time of Louis XIV, the primacy of France in many spheres of culture has become generally recognized. French influence for a long time determined the main directions of development of world art. Paris turned into the center of artistic life in Europe, into a trendsetter and tastemaker, which became role models in other countries. Material from the site

Palace and park en-ensemble of Versailles

The outstanding achievement of that era is the grandiose palace and park ensemble of Versailles. The best architects, sculptors and artists of that time took part in its construction. The parks of Versailles are a classic example of French park art. Unlike the English park, which is more natural, landscape in nature, embodying the desire for harmony with nature, the French park is characterized by a regular layout and a desire for symmetry. Alleys, flower beds, ponds - everything is arranged in accordance with the strict laws of geometry. Even the trees and bushes are trimmed in the shape of regular geometric shapes. The attractions of Versailles also included various fountains, rich sculpture, and luxurious interiors of palaces. According to the French historian, no treaty “gave so much for the glory of our country as the ensemble of Versailles.” “One of a kind in proportions, combining the play of all arts, reflecting the culture of a unique era,” Versailles still amazes the imagination of visitors.