Huge significance in the social and cultural life of Russia II half of the 19th century V. acquired literature. A special attitude towards literature dates back to the beginning of the century, to the era of the brilliant development of Russian literature, which went down in history under the name of the “Golden Age”. Literature was seen not only as a field of artistic creativity, but also as a source of spiritual improvement, an arena of ideological battles, and a guarantee of a special great future for Russia. The abolition of serfdom, bourgeois reforms, the formation of capitalism, and the difficult wars that Russia had to wage during this period found a lively response in the works of Russian writers. Their opinions were listened to. Their views largely determined the public consciousness of the Russian population of that time.
The leading direction in literary creativity was critical realism. Second half of the 19th century. turned out to be extremely rich in talent. The work of I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov brought worldwide fame to Russian literature.
One of the most remarkable writers of the mid-century wasIvan Sergeevich Turgenev (1818–1883). A representative of an old noble family, who spent his childhood on his parents' estate Spassky-Lutovinovo near the city of Mtsensk, Oryol province, he, like no one else, was able to convey the atmosphere of a Russian village - peasant and landowner. Turgenev lived most of his life abroad. Nevertheless, the images of Russian people are surprisingly alive in his works. The writer was exceptionally truthful in depicting a gallery of portraits of peasants in a series of stories that brought him fame, the first of which "Khor and Kalinich" was published in the Sovremennik magazine in 1847. Sovremennik published the stories one after another. Their release caused a great public outcry. Subsequently, the entire series was published by I. S. Turgenev in one book, called "Notes of a Hunter" . Moral quests, love, and the life of a landowner's estate are revealed to the reader in the novel"Noble Nest" (1858). The conflict of generations, unfolding against the backdrop of a clash between the nobility experiencing a crisis and the new generation of commoners (embodied in the image of Bazarov), who have made denial (“nihilism”) the banner of ideological self-affirmation, is shown in the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862).
The destinies of the Russian nobility are reflected in the worksI. A. Goncharova . The characters of the heroes of his works are contradictory: soft, sincere, conscientious, but passive, unable to “get off the couch” Ilya Ilyich Oblomov ( "Oblomov" , 1859); educated, gifted, romantically inclined, but again, like Oblomov, inactive and weak-willed Boris Raisky ( "Cliff" , 1869). Goncharov managed to create an image of a very typical breed of people, to show a widespread phenomenon of social life of that time, which received at the suggestion of a literary critic N. A. Dobrolyubova the name "Oblomovism".
The middle of the century marks the beginning of the literary activity of the greatest Russian writer, thinker and public figure, Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy (1828–1910). His legacy is enormous. The titanic personality of Tolstoy represents the figure of an author characteristic of Russian culture, for whom literature was closely connected with social activities, and the professed ideas were propagated primarily by the example of his own life. Already in the first works of L.N. Tolstoy, published in the 50s. XIX century and brought him fame (trilogy "Childhood" , "Adolescence" , "Youth" , Caucasian AndSevastopol stories ), a powerful talent emerged. In 1863 the story was published"Cossacks" , which became important stage in his work. Tolstoy came close to creating a historical epic novel"War and Peace" (1863–1869) His own experience of participation in the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol allowed Tolstoy to reliably depict the events of the heroic 1812. The novel combines a huge and varied material, its ideological potential is immeasurable. Pictures of family life, love line, the characters of people are intertwined with large-scale canvases of historical events. According to L.N. Tolstoy himself, the main idea in the novel was “folk thought.” The people are shown in the novel as the creator of history, the people's environment as the only true and healthy soil for any Russian person. The next novel by L.N. Tolstoy is "Anna Karenina" (1874–1876). There's a story in it family drama the main character is combined with an artistic understanding of the pressing social and moral issues of our time. Third great novel great writer - "Resurrection" (1889–1899), called by R. Rolland “one of the most beautiful poems about human compassion.”
Drama of the second half of the 19th century. was represented by playsA. N. Ostrovsky (“Our people - we will be numbered” , "Plum" , "The Marriage of Balzaminov" , "Storm" etc.) andA. V. Sukhovo-Kobylina (trilogy"Krechinsky's Wedding" , "Case" , "The Death of Tarelkin" ).
An important place in the literature of the 70s. takesM. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin , whose satirical talent manifested itself most powerfully in"Stories of a City" . One of the best works by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin"Messrs. Golovlevs" tells about the gradual disintegration of the family and the extinction of the Golovlev landowners. The novel shows the lies and absurdity underlying the relationships within the noble family, which ultimately leads to their death.
An unsurpassed master of the psychological novel wasFedor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821–1881). Dostoevsky's genius was manifested in the writer's extraordinary ability to reveal to the reader the hidden, sometimes terrifying, truly mystical depths of human nature, showing monstrous spiritual catastrophes in the most ordinary settings ( "Crime and Punishment" , "The Brothers Karamazov" , "Poor People" , "Idiot" ).
A new stage in the development of realism in Russian literature was creativityAnton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860–1904). A. P. Chekhov’s talent manifested itself primarily in small-scalestories , in which the writer amazingly accurately, with subtle humor and slight sadness, showed the life of ordinary people - provincial landowners, zemstvo doctors, county young ladies, behind the monotonous course of whose lives a real tragedy arose - unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled aspirations, strength, knowledge that turned out to be useless to anyone, Love. A.P. Chekhov also wrote for the theater. He created wonderful plays ( "Three sisters" 1900 "The Cherry Orchard" 1903), in which, as in stories, deep content was hidden behind the external simplicity of the plot. The drama of human life is terrible in its everyday hopelessness.
The pinnacle of Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century. there was creativityNikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov (1821–1878). The main theme of his works was the depiction of the hardships of the working people. To convey through the power of the artistic word to an educated reader living in prosperity the full depth of the people's poverty and grief, to show the greatness of the simple peasant - such was the meaning of the poetry of N. A. Nekrasov (poem “Who lives well in Rus'” , 1866–1876) The poet understood his poetic activity as a civic duty to serve his country. In addition, N. A. Nekrasov is known for his publishing activities. He published magazines "Contemporary" , "Domestic Notes" , on the pages of which the works of many later famous Russian writers first saw the light of day. In Nekrasov's Sovremennik, L. N. Tolstoy first published his trilogy “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth”, I. S. Turgenev published the first stories, Goncharov, Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky were published.
A special place in the literature of the second half of the 19th century. occupies the lyrics. The poetry of Russian nature and love, which at the same time is not devoid of a civic sound, found expression in creativity F. I. Tyutcheva , A. A. Feta , A. N. Maykova .
The appearance of Russian literature changed quite seriously at the turn of the century. He entered Russian culture with his bright and original talent. Maksim Gorky (Alexey Maksimovich Peshkov, 1868–1936). Coming from the people, shaped as a personality thanks to persistent self-education, he enriched Russian literature with images of extraordinary strength and novelty. Gorky took a direct part in the revolutionary movement, actively promoting the activities of the RSDLP. He put his literary talent at the service of the political struggle. Yes, his novel "Mother" , telling about the life of a working-class family, was undoubtedly intended to play the role of a propaganda pamphlet, to attune the reader to certain political ideas. At the same time, one cannot reduce the entire work of A. M. Gorky only to narrow political enlightenment. As a real talent, he was wider than any ideological boundaries. Of lasting importance are its "Song of the Storm Petrel" , autobiographical trilogy"Childhood" , "In people" , "My Universities" , plays"At the bottom" , "Vassa Zheleznova" , novel"The Life of Klim Samgin" .
1. Which of the 4 control schemes is used to implement the control scheme of a CNC machine?
2. What precedes the development of a program algorithm and the software production of chess pieces?
3. What do the following operators mean: %GENER(k)%, %CUTTER(d), %FROM(p,z), %THICK(t)?
4. Why are figure base processing and figure surface pretreatment procedures necessary?
5. Explain the text of the program for processing the base of a figure, pre-processing the surface and finishing the surface of a figure?
1. The main trends in the development of Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century. 2
2. Love lyrics by N. A. Nekrasov (“Panaevsky cycle”) 5
3. Socio-psychological roots and moral essence of Oblomovism (based on the novel by I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”). 8
4. The theme of Russian women in the poetry of N. A. Nekrasov. eleven
5. The significance of the chapter “Oblomov’s Dream” in the implementation of the ideological plan of I. A. Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”. 12
7. Oblomov’s test of love as a decisive test of his viability. Oblomov and Olga Ilyinskaya. Oblomov and Agafya Pshenitsyna. 14
8. Raskolnikov’s theory in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment.” 15
9. The meaning of contrasting Stolz with Oblomov. Stolz’s ideological and artistic vulnerability (based on the novel “Oblomov” by I. A. Goncharov) 17
10. The theme of punishment in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". 19
11. Goncharov’s realism and Gogol’s realism. Oblomov and Manilov in the novels “Oblomov” and “Dead Souls”. 26
12. St. Petersburg as depicted by F. M. Dostoevsky (based on the novel “Crime and Punishment”) 30
13. The complexity of I. A. Goncharov’s relationship with Oblomov. Disputes about the novel “Oblomov” in criticism in the 1860s. 32
14. The role of Sonya Marmeladova in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment.” 33
15. Creative history plays “The Thunderstorm” by A. N. Ostrovsky. Theme, idea, main conflict. 35
16. Human and inhuman in the rebellion of the main character of the novel F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". 38
17. Stages of life and creativity of A. N. Ostrovsky. 41
18. Depiction of the life of the humiliated and insulted in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment.” 46
19. A. N. Ostrovsky - creator of original Russian drama and Russian national theater. 48
20. The originality of Dostoevsky’s artistic style “crime and punishment”. 49
21. Genre and compositional originality of A. N. Ostrovsky’s play “The Thunderstorm”. 52
22. Problematics and poetics of the novel by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The History of a City”. 54
23. Life and customs of the “dark kingdom” in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "The Thunderstorm". 58
24. The relevance of the work of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in our days. 60
25. I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons” as a novel of ideological disputes. 62
26. Social satire in “Fairy Tales” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. 64
27. Bazarov and Bazarovshchina. Love for Odintsova as a refutation of Bazarov's nihilism. 66
28. Character and tragic fate Russian man in the works of N.S. Leskova (based on the novel “The Enchanted Wanderer.” 67
29. Bazarov, his views and the spiritual world in I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons.” 69
30. “People's thought” and ways of its disclosure in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". 70
31. Critics’ disputes about I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons.” 73
31. Disputes about I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons” in Russian criticism. 74
32. The story of the great life of L.N. Tolstoy. 76
35. The wealth of feelings in the love lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev, its artistic originality. 80
36. Dialectics of characters in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, Andrei Bolkonsky. 84
38.The theme of nature in the poetry of A.A. Feta. 85
41. The originality of the creative position of A. A. Fet (Fet is a poet “ pure art"") 87
46. Favorite heroine L.N. Tolstoy. 89
48. Dialectics of characters in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", Pierre Bezukhov. 91
49. The theme of the homeland and people in the poetry of N.A. Nekrasova. 92
Main trends in the development of Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century
Towards the middle XIX century In Russian literature, the process of development of the basic principles of depicting reality ended, and realism established itself. And literature of the 19th century. becomes a real driving force in the entire Russian artistic culture. Russian culture of this period was later called
"golden age" of art. Pushkin was declared the founder of Russian realism (this is a generally established fact). Realism becomes to a certain extent a method artistic knowledge real reality.
In the 40s, a direction arose designated as the “natural school.” Gogol's work largely determined the content and direction of the “natural school.” Gogol was a great innovator, discovering that even an insignificant event, such as the acquisition of an overcoat by a minor official, can become a significant event for understanding the most important issues human existence. No wonder one of the writers said famous phrase: "We
everyone came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat.” The “Natural School” became the initial stage in the development of realism in Russian literature. The new direction proposed topics that had not previously been recognized as important. Life, customs, characters, events from the life of the lower classes became the object of study by “naturalists”. The leading genre was the “physiological essay,” which was based on accurate “photography” of the life of various classes. To one degree or another, Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Goncharov, Panaev, Druzhinin and others joined the “natural school”. They needed their own collection, including works by “naturalists”, and in 1845 two parts of the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” were published " Since 1847, Pushkin’s former magazine Sovremennik became the “mouthpiece” of the new direction.
The main feature of realism is creative method is increased attention to the social side of reality. The task of truthfully showing and exploring life presupposes in realism many techniques for depicting reality, which is why the works of Russian writers are so diverse in both form and content. The main thing in this method, according to the theorists of realism, is typification. L. N. Tolstoy precisely said about this: “The artist’s task... is to extract the typical from reality... to collect ideas, facts, contradictions into a dynamic image. A person, say, during his working day says one phrase that is characteristic of his essence, he will say another in a week, and a third in a year. You force him to speak in a concentrated environment. It’s a fiction, but one in which life is more real than life itself.”
The images of a realistic work reflect the general laws of existence, and not living people. Any image is woven from typical traits manifested in typical circumstances. This is the paradox of art. An image cannot be correlated with a living person; it is richer than a specific person - hence the objectivity of realism.
“An artist should not be a judge of his characters and what they say, but only an impartial witness... My only job is to be talented, that is, to be able to distinguish important testimony from unimportant ones, to be able to illuminate figures and speak their language,” - wrote A.P. Chekhov to Suvorin. “An objective view of the world is rare, the artist is always subjective.” Each has its own principle for selecting facts of reality, which necessarily reveals the subjective view of the artist. Each artist has his own measure.
Realism as a method of depicting reality in the second half of the 19th century. got the name critical realism, because his main task was to criticize reality, and the main issue that received wide coverage was the question of the relationship between man and society. To what extent does society influence the fate of the hero? Who is to blame for a person being unhappy? What to do to change a person and the world? - these are the main questions of literature in general, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - in particular. The main question that worried the entire thinking intelligentsia was the question: “Which path will Russia take?” He divided everyone into two camps: Slavophiles and Westerners. The differences between them were in determining the main direction in which Russia should go:
1) in the Western way, focusing on the life experience of the civilized West, or
2) in Slavic, referring primarily to the national characteristics of the Slavs.
There were also religious differences between Slavophiles and Westerners. The Slavophiles proposed to compare everything earthly with the heavenly, and the temporal with the eternal. Only when looking from there (from the point of view of Divine reality) can one appreciate everything that is found here (on Earth). Westerners believed that earthly happiness depended on an enlightened mind. But they were united in one thing: they hated serfdom and fought for the liberation of the peasants from it.
Slavophiles: Khomyakov, Kireevsky, Konst. Aksakov, Samarin. The foundations of the Slavophil teaching were laid by Alexey Stepanovich Khomyakov and Ivan Vasilyevich Kireevsky, later they were called senior Slayanophiles. The first to throw a bomb into the public consciousness was Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev, who wrote “ Philosophical writing», historical role Russia was defined as a training ground for distant descendants: “Alone in the world, we gave nothing to the world, took nothing from the world...” Khomyakov and Kireevsky gave a worthy answer to Chaadaev, proving the uniqueness of the experience Russian people. Kireevsky believed that Orthodoxy is a genuine Christian religion in its undistorted form, unlike Catholicism and Protestantism, it forms relationships between people on a disinterested basis. Younger Slavophiles even more categorically declared the chosenness of the Russian people, “carrying Christ in their soul, for whom the thread connecting the earthly with the heavenly has not been broken...”. They idealized the peasant community, since, admittedly, they did not know the people.
Westerners: Chaadaev, Belinsky, Herzen, Stankevich. They believed that it was the Western European path that should lead Russia to equality before the law, the establishment of freedoms, including freedom of speech - in other words, to the victory of liberalism (liberalis - free). 1840-50 passed under the sign of the struggle between Westerners and Slavophiles. The struggle was waged everywhere: in magazines, in literary salons, at public lectures. The debates were heated, the struggle was fierce: friends became enemies.
In 1860-80 XIX century two camps were more sharply defined: democrats and liberals. Democrats called for revolutionary changes, and liberals called for gradual, economic ones. At the center of the struggle between the two camps is the abolition of serfdom.
Democrats: Herzen, Nekrasov, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky, Pisarev, etc. Liberals: Turgenev, Goncharov, Druzhinin, Fet, Tyutchev, Leskov, Dostoevsky, Pisemsky, etc.
Heated controversy flared up on the pages of magazines of both directions. Magazines of that time were the arena of public political struggle.
2. Love lyrics by N. A. Nekrasov (“Panaevsky cycle”)
Nekrasov's love poems represent one of the remarkable achievements of Russian poetry of the 19th century. The depiction of the life of the heart by Nekrasov the poet was based not so much on personal experience, not so much on the perception and transformation of literary tradition, but was the result of comprehension, a correct understanding of what many could have.
“Prose in Love,” with its constant quarrels and quarrels, with its mutual torment, with its infrequent joys, was destined to occupy a significant place in Nekrasov’s love lyrics, which is natural and logical, for one of the most characteristic features of his creative method was the desire to depict that part the truth of life, which is defined by the concept of “the prose of life,” - one of the oldest non-krasologists, V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, once summed up the results of many years of observations.
All the inconsistency of feelings, the complexity and depth of the relationship between a man and a woman were expressed in Nekrasov’s “lyrical novel” dedicated to Avdotya Yakovlevna Panaeva, whose beauty, “her intelligent coquetry could not but impress Nekrasov strong impression, and the emerging feeling soon turned into a hopeless passion.”
These poems, inspired by the relationship with Panaeva, form, as it were, a single lyrical diary, capturing all the shades of the poet’s feelings, or, better said, the lyrical hero. The strength of these poems lies in the realistic concreteness of the experience, in the desire to truthfully and accurately convey the complex process of mental life, starting from traditional sanctimonious morality. Hence the intense drama of this stormy lyrical confession, the freshness and expressiveness of the poetic speech, free use rich possibilities of prosaic verse. What was essentially new was precisely prosaization - a complete shift in the main setting of verse speech - the fundamental possibility of any foreign voices entering into it.
Features of the “Panaevsky” cycle are spontaneity, even sharpness of expression of feelings, emphasized openness of confessions, a plea for forgiveness; and behind it all there is a feeling of authenticity love drama, which is based on faith in the power of feeling, respect for the human dignity of a woman:
You are always incomparably good,
But when I'm sad and gloomy,
Comes to life so inspirationally
Your cheerful, mocking mind;
You want to laugh so brightly and sweetly,
This is how you scold my stupid enemies
Then, hanging his head sadly,
You make me laugh so slyly;
You are so kind, stingy with affection,
Your kiss is so full of fire,
And your beloved eyes
So they dove and stroke me, -
What's wrong with you?
I bear it wisely and meekly,
And forward - into this dark sea -
I look without the usual fear...
N.A. Nekrasov in his “lyrical novel” gave a unique formula, which was readily accepted when talking about his lyrics - “prose of love.” But it would be wrong to consider the “prose of love” of Nekrasov’s poems only as a sphere of quarrels and squabbles. Nekrasov entered here into an unusually rich and complex area of contradictory human feelings and relationships, into an infinitely more psychologically complex and high area of comprehension of the human spirit.
The lyrical heroine of Nekrasov is written as more than the owner of a certain character: she is a person who knows worries, anxieties, feels the need to affirm what seems fair to her, and knows how to find a way out of sad circumstances herself.
But not only the collision of two completely different personal worlds makes the denouement of a rapidly developing “love affair” “inevitable”; the ending is destined and determined by the very complexity, contradictory nature of human nature, combining good and evil, dark and light, love and hate.
Thus, the originality of Nekrasov’s lyrics lies in the fact that it seems to destroy lyrical isolation and overcome lyrical egocentrism. And Nekrasov’s love poems are open to the heroine, to her. She enters the poem with all the richness and complexity of her inner world.
Nekrasov’s intimate lyrics reveal the inner, psychological complexity and contradictory nature of the poet’s feelings. This is, first of all, a deep experience of both the joy and suffering of love.
“The exceptional originality of Nekrasov’s love poems is that no one else spoke as willingly about prose in love as Nekrasov. He looked at the relationship between a man and a woman without waxing poetic about it, and in love he saw little that was ideal,” wrote I. N. Rozanov.
The “plot” of the “love story” has reached its finale, its tragic denouement. But the separation of two loving people did not resolve the complex ambivalent psychological situation in which the heroes were placed. “Fatal duel”, love-struggle, intense dialogue-argument are not completed; the contradictions are insurmountable, just as the thirst for faith in love as the basis of the foundations of the universe is irresistible:
We parted ways halfway
We were separated to the point of separation
And they thought: there will be no flour
In the last fatal "sorry".
But I don’t even have the strength to cry.
Write - I ask for one thing...
These letters will be nice to me
And holy, like flowers from the grave -
From the grave of my heart!
“The Lyrical Novel” by N. A. Nekrasov unusually deeply reflected the growing sense of crisis in the modern life order, profound changes in the sphere of individual self-awareness, and the reaction of a thinking person to the accelerated process of democratization of Russian society. And love in Nekrasov’s “Panaev” cycle appears in a different capacity; it can no longer serve as a moral “norm.” The lyrical hero of the “Panaev” cycle could never finally free himself from this egocentric feeling, the desire for self-affirmation in the sphere of love. He was not given the opportunity to achieve that freedom of spirit, that selflessness in love.
IN " love story" ON THE. Nekrasov's intentions of harsh and merciless self-exposure, a deep consciousness of his guilt before his beloved woman, who organically carried, preserved, defended, defended the metaphysical, creative, true essence of love. The lyrical hero is imbued with the consciousness of the absolute value of love and beauty, the female feat of self-denial.
The study of literature is closely connected with the study of history, with the study of the liberation movement.
The entire liberation movement in Russia can be divided into three stages:
Decembrist (noble) (from 1825 to 1861). (Ryleev, Griboyedov, Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Herzen, Belinsky, etc.)
Bourgeois-democratic (raznochinsky) (from 1861 to 1895) (Nekrasov, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, etc.)
Proletarsky (since 1895) (A.M. Gorky is rightfully considered the founder of proletarian literature)
The 60s of the 19th century are one of the brightest pages in the history of the ideological and artistic development of our country. During these years, the work of such wonderful writers as Ostrovsky, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov and others, such talented critics as Dobrolyubov, Pisarev, Chernyshevsky and others, such brilliant artists as Repin, was revealed in all its beauty and power. , Kramskoy, Perov, Surikov, Vasnetsov, Savrasov and others, such outstanding composers, like Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Glinka, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov and others.
In the 60s of the 19th century, Russia entered the second stage of the liberation movement. The narrow circle of noble revolutionaries was replaced by new fighters who called themselves commoners. These were representatives of the petty nobility, clergy, officials, peasantry, and intelligentsia. They greedily sought knowledge and, having mastered it, carried their knowledge to the people. The most selfless part of the commoners took the path of revolutionary struggle against the autocracy. This new fighter needed his own poet to express his ideas. N.A. became such a poet. Nekrasov.
By the mid-50s of the 19th century, it became clear that the “knot of all evils” in Russia was serfdom. Everyone understood this. But there was no consensus on How get rid of it. The democrats, led by Chernyshevsky, called on the people for revolution. They were opposed by conservatives and liberals, who believed that serfdom should be abolished through reforms from above. In 1861, the tsarist government was forced to abolish serfdom, but this “liberation” turned out to be a deception, since the land remained the property of the landowners.
The political struggle between the Democrats, on the one hand, and conservatives and liberals, on the other, was reflected in the literary struggle. The arena of this struggle was, in particular, the magazine Sovremennik (1847 - 1866), and after its closure the magazine Otechestvennye zapiski (1868 - 1884).
Sovremennik magazine
The magazine was founded by Pushkin in 1836. After his death in 1837, Pushkin’s friend, professor at St. Petersburg University Pletnev, became the editor of the magazine.
In 1847, N.A. rented the magazine. Nekrasov and I.I. Panaev. They managed to group all the best literary forces of that time around the magazine. The critical department was led by Belinsky, Herzen, Turgenev, Grigorovich, Tolstoy, Fet and others published their works.
During the period of revolutionary upsurge, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov joined the editorial board of Sovremennik. They turned the magazine into a weapon in the struggle to overthrow the autocracy. At the same time, irreconcilable contradictions emerged among the magazine’s staff between democratic writers and liberal writers. In 1860, there was a split in the editorial board. The occasion was Dobrolyubov’s article “When Will the Real Day Come,” dedicated to Turgenev’s novel “The Eve.” Turgenev, who defended liberal positions, did not agree with the revolutionary interpretation of his novel and, after the article was published, resigned from the editorial office of the magazine in protest. Together with him, other liberal writers left the magazine: Tolstoy, Goncharov, Fet and others.
However, after their departure, Nekrasov, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov managed to rally talented youth around Sovremennik and turned the magazine into a revolutionary tribune of the era. As a result, in 1862 the publication of Sovremennik was suspended for 8 months, and in 1866 it was closed completely. The traditions of Sovremennik were continued by the journal Otechestvennye zapiski (1868 - 1884), which was published under the editorship of Nekrasov and Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Dobrolyubov Nikolai Alexandrovich (1836 -- 1861)
Dobrolyubov's life is devoid of bright external events, but is rich in complex internal content. He was born in Nizhny Novgorod in the family of a priest, smart and educated person. Studied at religious school, then at the theological seminary, at the age of 17 he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg. In 1856, he brought his first article to the editors of Sovremennik, followed by 4 years of feverish, tireless work and a year abroad, where the critic went to be treated for tuberculosis, a year spent waiting for death. That's the whole biography of Dobrolyubov. At his grave, Chernyshevsky said: “Dobrolyubov’s death was a great loss. The Russian people lost their best defender in him.”
The feeling of great loss and admiration for a friend is also expressed in the poem by N.A. Nekrasov "In Memory of Dobrolyubov".
"In Memory of Dobrolyubov"
You were harsh, you were in your younger years
He knew how to subordinate passion to reason.
You taught me to live for glory, for freedom,
But you taught me more to die.
Consciously worldly pleasures
You rejected, you kept purity,
You did not quench the thirst of your heart;
As a woman, you loved your homeland.
Your works, hopes, thoughts
You gave it to her; you are honest hearts
He conquered her. Calling for new life
And a bright paradise, and pearls for a crown
You cooked for your stern mistress.
But your hour struck too early,
And the prophetic pen fell from his hands.
What a lamp of reason has gone out!
What heart has stopped beating!
Years have passed, passions have subsided,
And you rose high above us.
Cry, Russian land! But also be proud -
Since you've been standing under the skies
You never gave birth to such a son
And she didn’t take hers back into the depths:
Treasures of spiritual beauty
They were combined in it gracefully.
Mother Nature! If only such people
Sometimes you didn't send to the world,
The field of life would die out...
Druzhinkina N. G.
Literature in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Introduction.
“Second half of the 19th century. - a time of great growth of Russian culture. It is closely related to changes in the economic and political life of the country. The collapse of serfdom and the implementation of the peasant reform of 1861. testified that Russia had taken a step towards transformation from a feudal-serf monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy... The general economic appearance of the country is changing... The complex processes that took place in the socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century determined the features of the socio-political life of the post-reform period... (1; 325-326). In the second half of the 19th century. commoners are replacing the advanced nobles in the revolutionary movement. The post-reform years saw the raznochinsky period of the Russian revolutionary movement, which was replaced in the mid-90s by a mass workers' movement led by social democracy.
In the second half of the 19th century. The proportion of writers, scientists, artists, musicians - people from the common intelligentsia - is decisively increasing...” (1;328). An example is the activities of N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) and N.A. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861), whose contribution “to the development of literature and art is enormous. N.G. Chernyshevsky (in his dissertation “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality”, in “Essays on the Gogol Period of Russian Literature”, in other works) closely connected the problems of aesthetics with the tasks of transforming reality…. Chernyshevsky put forward the thesis in his dissertation: “The beautiful is life”; “Beautiful is the being in which we see life as it should be according to our concepts.” Chernyshevsky saw the meaning of art in the reproduction of “phenomena of real life that are interesting to humans.” In addition to reproducing life, he attached another meaning to art - its explanation. Another meaning of art is “a judgment on the phenomena depicted.” (1;374). Aesthetic program N.G. Chernyshevsky was also shared by N.A. Dobrolyubov, who understood literature as an “expression of society.”
The life of the 60s called for the search for new forms of artistic representation, dialectically combining sophisticated analysis with dynamic, constantly “reconfiguring” synthesis. A new hero is entering literature - changeable and fluid, but despite all changes maintaining loyalty to himself, to the deep foundations of his “I”, to his unique individuality. This is a hero striving to remove the fatal contradiction between word and deed. Active and purposeful, he recreates himself and the world in the process of creative interaction with the environment. New hero appears before readers in a variety of guises, in a living diversity of human characters associated with the peculiarities of the writer’s artistic individuality and his social beliefs. " New person Tolstoy, for example, is somewhat polemical in relation to Chernyshevsky’s “new people”, and Chernyshevsky’s heroes are polemical in relation to Turgenev’s Bazarov. In their confrontation with each other, the social Struggle declares itself, its main divide is determined between the ideals of revolutionary democracy, on the one hand, and in different forms liberal-democratic and liberal-aristocratic ideology, on the other. But at the same time, all the heroes of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Goncharov, Nekrasov and Chernyshevsky, Pisemsky and Pomyalovsky remain children of their time, and this time leaves its indelible stamp on them, making them related to each other” (2:12-13).
The heyday of the realistic novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy).
“The middle and second half of the 19th century. were the era of the heyday of critical realism in literature, associated with its origins directly with the Gogol school, which also continued the realistic traditions of Pushkin. A heartfelt and truthful reflection of reality in its most important typical features, bold criticism of negative phenomena, passionate thought about the fate of the homeland, deep attention to man, to his inner life in connection with the conditions of his personal and social existence characterized the literature of critical realism, in which the exposure of existing evil went hand in hand with the search and establishment of positive moral and social ideals. Development and deepening artistic method critical realism contributed to those shifts in literary public life that took place during the fall of serfdom. Then it became wider and wider new circle readers who belonged to a democratic environment" (1;373-374).
“the connection characteristic of Russian literature with public interests, with the development of the liberation movement in the work of I.S. Turgenev found a rich and strong refraction. The maturity of Turgenev as a writer coincides with the heyday of the Russian classical realistic novel - a particularly capacious literary genre, within which it turned out to be possible to create a broad picture of modern life, to reflect the movement of social ideas, the change of successive phases of social development. Turgenev declared himself a great master of the socio-psychological, “social-ideological” (S.M. Petrov) novel and a great story close to the novel, where, with uniquely beautiful artistic means, he embodied the destinies of the Russian noble and common intelligentsia of the 40-70s. Turgenev had disagreements with the advanced radical environment over one or another one-sidedness in depiction modern hero(in the novels “Fathers and Sons”, “Smoke”, “Nov”). But in its general sense, his work, including, undoubtedly, the aforementioned novels, was a major engine of social and mental development of society. Turgenev’s images of Russian women had enormous social and educational significance. Turgenev’s work brilliantly expressed another remarkable feature of Russian literature and all Russian advanced art - unity, unity of perfect artistic form with depth of ideological and ethical content. The extraordinary mastery of construction, subtlety of writing, poetic speech, vitality and prominence of characteristics, combined with lyrical animation, warmth of feeling made Turgenev one of the most beloved authors both in Russia and abroad... (1;378). For example, in the novel “Fathers and Sons,” “the opposition between “fathers” and “children” stated in the title of the novel appears with particular poignancy in the antagonism of Evgeny Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov. Pavel Petrovich is the most “full-fledged” opponent of Bazarov, both in the ideological and behavioral spheres. (4;55)…. Portraying Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov and correlating his image with the image of Bazarov, Turgenev, having first designated the “equivalence” of the opponents, then reveals the similarity of their destinies and inner world. It becomes obvious when the author uses romantic traditions in the narrative, carefully following them or significantly transforming them. Traditional components of the romantic image (the superiority of the hero over others, his conscious and consistent alienation from them, the obvious originality and passion of nature, extraordinary love influencing the fate of the character, extraordinary actions and deeds, in particular, a duel, the tragic ending of life's path) are found in both central characters novel. An indication of the closeness of the heroes allows the reader to realize the relative, temporary nature of their ideological contradiction, the subordination of their destinies to a higher, timeless truth. The author’s desire to embody the idea of “eternal reconciliation and endless life” (Chapter 28. p. 199) forms the philosophical basis of Turgenev’s novel” (4:63-64).
“Unlike natural life, living human life, social, according to Turgenev, certainly fits into culture, is expressed in cultural and historical forms, rightly wrote N.N. Halfina (3;4), - And if Tolstoy, contrasting the civilized man with the natural , in historical attire I saw a masquerade, in cultural forms ah - violence against the ever-changing human nature, then Turgenev found in these forms traces of cultural gains, ways of possible improvement of socio-historical life... The historical typicality of the heroes is mandatory for Turgenev's poetics. In the past, in various cultural eras Turgenev's thought sought artistic perfection, spirituality, and the characteristic uniqueness of cultural forms. “Aesthetically sociable,” as defined by A.V. Chicherin, Turgenev lives in an atmosphere of general cultural interests, freely dwells in different eras spiritual culture of humanity, takes its goodness wherever it finds it. Turgenev’s heroes are immersed by the author in the context of world literature.”
“It was complicated creative path the great novelist, who also appeared in the 40s, F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). One of the main representatives of the Gogol school, who owed a lot to Belinsky, a participant in the utopian-socialist and democratic circles of the Petrashevites, who was subjected to cruel punishment for this (a death sentence commuted to hard labor), Dostoevsky then experienced a spiritual turning point... After a short transition period (late 50s and early 60s, when such works as “Notes from House of the Dead", "Humiliated and Insulted") Dostoevsky more or less firmly adopted religious-monarchical views. Not only in purely journalistic works, but also in artistic works, also imbued with a journalistic spirit, Dostoevsky acted as an opponent of revolutionary democracy. Humanistic motives, which formed the most valuable basis of his activities before hard labor, nevertheless resound loudly in his subsequent work... Gifted genius power analysis and depiction, Dostoevsky in a series of large novels (“Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “The Teenager”, “The Brothers Karamazov”) and in a number of works of smaller forms with rare force showed the suffering of the oppressed, the disintegration of personality in an exploitative society under an inexorable the power of money. He aroused sympathy for the fate of little people, for the fate of the depressed, the poor, the offended” (1;380).
“Dostoevsky is a master of the psychological, social and philosophical novel. He is rightly seen as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature. Moreover, he was often attracted to the depiction of a sick, “wounded” soul, psychopathological conditions; he loved to plunge into the sphere of the “unconscious, unclear and confused” (Gorky). A hater of capitalism and the bourgeoisie, who at the same time revealed the decay of moral principles among the feudal nobility, Dostoevsky dreamed of the brotherhood of people, of an ethical pure life. ...called for “humility” (1;380).
“Dostoevsky poignantly felt and expressed the unique position of Russia and the Russian in the world. Dostoevsky considered the main characteristic of a Russian person to be the ability to be universally responsive. As he proclaimed in his “Speech on Pushkin,” to become “completely Russian” means to become “all-man.” Moreover, this is not a loss national identity, but its complete and comprehensive identification” (5;52).
“A huge period of Russian life - from the beginning of the 19th to the beginning of the 19th century. - is reflected in the works of the great writer of the Russian land L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). His work represents the pinnacle of critical realism, a step forward in the artistic development of humanity. Among the masterpieces of world literature are his novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, and the trilogy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth", " Sevastopol stories”, “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”, dramatic works (“the power of darkness”, etc.). Even at the first stage of his work, Leo Tolstoy proclaimed the truth as his “hero”, whom he loves with all the strength of his soul and tries to reproduce in all its beauty (“Sevastopol in May”)…. Tolstoy was a great expert on the heart, an incomparable connoisseur and depicter of movements human soul, “dialectics of the soul”, according to Chernyshevsky’s definition…. The desire to penetrate into the spiritual world of the common man, a critical attitude towards the life of secular society, characteristic of Tolstoy from his first steps, took on a particularly vivid and consistent expression after the spiritual crisis he experienced at the turn of the 70-80s, which entailed Tolstoy’s complete transition to positions of the patriarchal peasantry...he is in the works last period with irresistible force he denounced the landowner state, the official church, the comedy of the royal court, militarism and war, the economic enslavement of the masses” (1;383).
2. Democratic poetry, N.A. Nekrasov.
“The leading figure of democratic poetry is N.A. Nekrasov (1821-1877)…. Poems by Nekrasov, his poems “Peddlers”, “Orina, the Soldier’s Mother”, “Frost, Red Nose”, “ Railway"in a tone of deep understanding and sympathy they unfolded the picture folk life, labor and suffering. It is especially striking in the unfinished poem “Who Lives Well in Rus',” written in the 60s and mainly in the 70s. Here, with all its severity, the poet posed the problem of “people's happiness”, the question of the causes of the disasters of the village. Nekrasov was not deluded by the “good” consequences of the peasant reform. He saw that in the conditions of the post-reform era, the oppressive power of the master and the official, the fatal influence of landlessness, lawlessness, and spiritual darkness were preserved. Nekrasov’s immense love for the people was combined with hatred of his enemies, with contempt for his false “friends,” which, in particular, found expression in Nekrasov’s peculiar satire. Nekrasov sang a lot about the “inexorable grief” of the people - the peasant, first of all, and at the same time about the sorrows of the urban poor, but Nekrasov was never touched by his patience with oppression and violence; on the contrary, he was outraged by “submission without end.” Nekrasov believed in the people, in the fact that they “will endure everything - they will pave a wide, clear path for themselves.” More than once Nekrasov glorified the feat of struggle for the people, for freedom. He sang the praises of the Decembrists and their selfless wives (“Girl”, “Russian Women”), created poetic images of the glorious figures of Russian liberation - Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov; his works vividly reflected the struggle of the revolutionary populist generation of the 70s... (1;390-391). The form of Nekrasov’s poetry is in complete harmony with its democratic and realistic content...” (1;392).
“Nekrasov was the recognized head of a large poetic school.... Related to the work of the brilliant poet of peasant democracy was the poetry of N.P. Ogarev (1813 -1877). She reached full maturity during the emigrant period of the life of the revolutionary poet and publicist, forming an integral part of all the activities of the foreign free Russian press. N.A. Dobrolyubov is very close to Nekrasov in his poetic works. Since the late 50s, one of the Petrashev poets A.N. Pleshcheev (1825-1893) was able to return to active literary activity. The poetry of I.S. Nikitin (1824-1861) had a number of common motifs with Nekrasov, especially in the last, most fruitful period of the poet’s work, which occurred in the second half of the 50s and the turn of the 50s-60s. The situation and life of the peasants and urban lower classes is depicted truthfully and with heartfelt sympathy by Nikitin.
One of the largest and most consistent representatives of revolutionary democratic poetry was M.L. Mikhailov (1829-1865). Mikhailov, who took a direct part in the revolutionary struggle at the time of the peasant reform, was exiled to hard labor in connection with the proclamation “To the Young Generation” (1861), where he died. Mikhailov's poems...are imbued with the conviction of the necessity and inevitability of revolution and an open call for it. Mikhailov was a very talented translator. He translated poets Ancient Greece, English, French, German…. (1;392-393). As a translator of Beranger’s works, V.S. Kurochkin (1831-1875) gained his first fame…. Soon Kurochkin led a group of democratic poets and satirists who united around the weekly Iskra, which he edited. The poets of Iskra (V.S. and N.S. Kurochkin, D.D. Minaev, P.I. Weinberg, L.I. Palmin, V.I. Bogdanov, etc.) wrote an original and colorful page in history poetry" (1;393).
“The revolutionary populist poets of the 70s are associated with the Nekrasov school, who called on the intelligentsia to selflessly fight for the liberation of the people, and addressed their words to the masses themselves. A special place in this poetry was occupied by deeply impressive “prison” lyrics. Among the creators of populist poetry were the heroic figures of the revolutionary underground N.A. Morozov, S.S. Sinegub, F.V. Volkhovsky, D.A. Clements, V.N. Figner and others. One of the main populist ideologists spoke with revolutionary poems P.L. Lavrov. The Narodnaya Volya stage in the revolutionary movement brought forward the poet P.F. Yakubovich (1860-1911), a gifted and original representative of political poetry. (1;393). The most popular poet of the 80s, S. Ya. Nadson (1862-1887), joined the Nekrasov tradition with his strengths. In his work, motifs of melancholy and cheerful, bold impulses, doubts and faith in a happy future collided... Many poems by democratic poets became revolutionary fighting songs (for example, “Bravely, friends, don’t lose” by M.L. Mikhailov, “Don’t cry over the corpses of fallen fighters” by L.I. Palmin, “Let’s renounce the old world” by P.L. Lavrova, “Tortured by heavy captivity” by G.A. Machtet)” (1;394). It is worth noting that next to the Nekrasov school there was other poetry: A.A. Fet, A.N. Maykov, Ya.N. Polonsky, F.I. Tyutchev, which proceeded from the concept of “art for art’s sake.”
Of course, by “Nekrasov’s school ...” they mean the poets of the 50-70s, ideologically and artistically closest to him, who experienced the direct influence of the great poet, even organizationally united in essence due to the fact that most of them were grouped around a few democratic publications: Nekrasov’s Sovremennik, Russian Word, Iskra (2:36).
The era of confusion and the search for new ideals (1880-90s).
"At the beginning of two last decades century there is a significant event - the Pushkin celebrations in June 1880, dedicated to the opening of a monument to the poet in Moscow. In the speeches of the writers who spoke at the festival, the name of Pushkin sounded not only as a symbol of the former greatness of Russian culture. He was still seen as “our everything,” as Ap. Grigoriev said about Pushkin, a symbol of integrity and inexhaustible powers of the national spirit. The climax of the holiday was Dostoevsky’s profound moral and historical speech, who spoke about the need to turn to the people’s truth, about the great destiny awaiting Russia, about the “worldwide responsiveness” of the Russian people. The enthusiasm that gripped everyone these days seemed to indicate that there is a common thought in all Russian literature, there is a common direction.
However, the feeling of unity and common cause was neither widespread nor strong. Soon, following Dostoevsky’s voice, sharply dissonant voices were heard not only of the liberal professor A.D. Gradovsky, but also of S.S. Turgenev, and even G. Uspensky. Even at the time of the holiday, Goncharov and Saltykov-Shchedrin found themselves on the sidelines, and L.N. Tolstoy resolutely refused to participate in it, because from his point of view, “the people absolutely don’t care whether Pushkin existed or not.” All this was in highest degree characteristic of the era.
Until recently, populism, which had such a strong hold on the minds, now, in the face of a catastrophic “disorder of the people’s order” (G. Uspensky), was experiencing a crisis and was heading towards collapse. Some of its leaders, like I.I. Kalits, saw a way out in abandoning big tasks and fulfilling their duty, serving the immediate needs of the masses. Others, like A.I. Ertel, as a result of the spiritual drama, broke with the “populist dreams”, looking for other paths.
The former faith in the “soil”, in a reliable basis for beliefs, creativity, practical activities was undermined in the consciousness of a significant part of the intelligentsia and gave way to disappointment and social indifference.
In grassroots literature, which has especially proliferated since the 80s, unchecked decay has reigned: a diversity of positions, unprincipledness and eclecticism, a decline in artistic taste. Pessimistic sentiments penetrate into the highly educated part of society, into mainstream literature, as evidenced by the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, Garshin, as well as Sluchevsky, Fofanov and other poets of the “sick generation.”
The individual’s worldview was narrowed to individualism, both within this framework and in general atmosphere era, even a sincere and disinterested desire for public good took on a limited and essentially regressive character. This found expression in the most typical feature of that time - the theory and practice of “small affairs”.
Social and moral problems were posed in terms of “personal conscience,” which was out of touch with the “general conscience.” The latter, not without the influence of positivist morality, seemed to be a groundless abstraction... Literature and journalism spoke with growing alarm about a catastrophic decline in the spiritual level in all strata of society, including among the intelligentsia, while the educational level was apparently increasing.
It is remarkable that in the face of this danger, greater than the most ferocious repressions of the government, Russian writers appeal to the self-awareness of man, to the reason and moral sense of the individual, continuing to believe in them and therefore on the individual himself, and not just on the environment, placing responsibility for personal and public morality, for the nature of social relations..... the desire to establish spiritual values that stand above the idealless modernity, above the needs of bourgeois society and the demands of the intelligent man in the street, was coupled in many cases with a keen interest in religious and philosophical issues. It was developed by the idealist philosopher V. Solovyov, who stood close to Dostoevsky in last years his life, participants in the journal “Questions of Philosophy and Psychology” published since 1889, some writers, such as A. Volynsky (who headed the journal “Northern Messenger”), N. Minsky, one of the heralds of symbolism in Russian literature” (2;383 -384).
Indeed, “A new turn in public life dates back to the beginning of the 80s…. The mood of decline and disbelief in the effectiveness of the political struggle became widespread; some press organs promoted the “theory of small deeds”, reconciliation with reality…. There was a revival of tendencies ... of pure art, and the beginnings of modernist movements that subsequently developed appeared (1;396).
But democratic literature did not at all give up its positions, the creativity of realist writers and champions of ideological, realistic literature in criticism did not stop. Shchedrin lived and worked until the end of the 80s; in the atmosphere of that era, his voice sounded with exceptional strength. Gleb Uspensky wrote a lot at this time. Tolstoy's activities continued; then Tolstoyism with its non-resistance was born... Very important, along with all this, was the appearance of a galaxy of new, young writers of a democratic trend (6).
One of them was V.M. Garshin (1855-1888), a remarkable master of the socio-psychological novel…. “The living trembling of a sensitive conscience and thought,” which, according to Korolenko, made Garshin’s stories “so close to his generation,” combined with true artistry, ensured Garshin’s legacy long life"((1;397).
V.G. Korolenko (1853-1921) himself in his work “combined soulful realism with the features of progressive romanticism, unshakably believed in the people, in man, in a happy future…. Throughout the 80s and early 90s, dozens of talented stories and essays and great stories by S. Karonin (N.E. Petropavlovsky, 1853-1892) appeared, who dedicated his work to the peasant theme and the destinies of the modern intelligentsia... They belong to the 80-90s works of art one of the largest representatives of the revolutionary populist movement S.M. Kravchinsky (pseudonym: Stepnyak, 1851-1895). The most famous of his purely fictional works - the novel “Andrei Kozhukhov” - was written and published abroad in the late 80s in English (under the title “The Path of the Nihilist”; a full Russian translation appeared shortly after the author’s death)…. Kravchinsky’s work “Underground Russia” was a unique interweaving of historical, journalistic and memoir genres. Great place the book is devoted to “Revolutionary profiles” - lovingly written images of a number of seventies (Perovskaya, Zasulich, Kropotkin, Klemenets, Valerian Osinsky, etc.) ... (1; 397-398). D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak (1852-1912) brought his own note to the literature of the 80-90s, whose realistic talent was devoted to depicting the life and people of the Urals, an important topic in the development of Russian capitalism. In a series of novels (“Privalov’s Millions”, “Mountain Nest”, “Three Ends”, “Gold”, etc.), in essays and stories, Mamin-Sibiryak depicted in vivid, typical images the capitalist masters of life, on the one hand, and the masses working people - on the other... The work of the brilliant novelist and playwright A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), which began in the 80s, continued for a quarter of a century…. (1;398)…. The 90s became the time of the formation of Russian decadence, but they were also marked by new fruitful phenomena in the development of the literature of critical realism. The end of the century brought literature new prominent names of realist writers, whose work continued, and in most cases reached its greatest flourishing in the 20th century (Serafimovich, Garin-Mikhailovsky, Bunin, Kuprin, Veresaev, Gorky).” (1;399).
Conclusion.
“Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - from Turgenev, Nekrasov, Leo Tolstoy to Chekhov and early Gorky - she has traveled a remarkable path and accumulated gigantic values. Delighting readers with artistic perfection, it was distinguished by the harmony of its bright form and rich content, deep ideological ideas and high moral sense. Citing the words of Leo Tolstoy - “there is no greatness where there is no simplicity, goodness and truth,” one of the... critics aptly pointed out that they expressed the “moral and artistic program” of Russian literature. Advanced literature was associated with the liberation movement and largely contributed to the growth of this movement. Along with nationalism, patriotic thought about the fate of the motherland, all-pervasive realism was a fundamental and defining feature of literature. She is characterized by an extremely truthful, honest and courageous reproduction of the essential aspects of reality, a deep comprehension of the spiritual movements of the individual, sincere pain for the “humiliated and insulted”; she passionately denounced social evil and struggled with the question of ways to overcome it.” (1;400-401).
“The eighties sum up the development of Russian classical realism. It was formed and reached its peak in the works of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Leskov, Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Leo Tolstoy... Russian classical realism is historical realism. By the 80s, such realism turned out to be a great, but passed stage for literature” (2;385).
In the second half of the nineteenth century, Russian literature and culture flourished. Important events took place in the public life of the country during this period: Crimean War, numerous peasant unrest, the abolition of serfdom, the emergence of capitalism. In general, social relations overcome a certain bar, a certain level, after which a return to the recent past seems impossible. First of all, this concerns attitudes towards a person, his problems, without distinction between categories and classes. The process of formation of the “new man”, his social and moral self-awareness begins. It is not surprising that such aspirations made realism the main direction in Russian literature by the mid-19th century, through which the principles of depicting reality were developed. His new stage was closely connected with an attempt to penetrate in detail into the depths of human feelings and relationships. The authors demonstrate a desire not only to convey their emotions through characters, but also to reveal the main causes of social evil. As a result, authors are increasingly turning to folk themes in their works; the image of a peasant, a peasant, is becoming one of the main ones in fiction. The traditions of realism laid down by Lermontov, Pushkin, Gogol are being consolidated, and their works in many ways become a standard for new authors. Critical reviews of works acquire considerable significance and weight. This was largely due to the activities of Chernyshevsky, including his dissertation “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality.” It is impossible not to remember that it was at this time that a significant event took place: in Russian Empire Serfdom was abolished, which of course was reflected in fiction. The desire for further reforms on this basis led to controversy and the emergence of two camps: liberals and democrats. The first proposed political and economic reforms gradual changes in social relations, the latter insisted on immediate, radical changes, usually through revolutionary processes. Dobrolyubov, Herzen, Nekrasov, Chernyshevsky, among others, belonged to the democratic camp, and Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Druzhinin, Leskov adhered to liberal views. As a rule, the exchange of views and ideas was carried out through polemics on the pages of literary magazines. Also in the literature there are disputes between supporters of “pure art” and adherents of the “Gogolian” movement, and later - between “soilists” and “Westerners”. Under the influence of the ideology of the raznochintsy, the ideas of “real criticism” are developed, and the problem of a positive hero is raised. The creative searches of realist writers lead to new artistic discoveries, enriching the novel genre, strengthening psychologism. In the second half of the 19th century, a whole galaxy of talented Russian writers appeared: F.M. Dostoevsky (Poor people, Crime and Punishment), I.S. Turgenev (Fathers and Sons, Notes of a Hunter), I.A. Goncharov (Ordinary history, Oblomov, Precipice), A.N. Ostrovsky (Thunderstorm, Not everything is Maslenitsa for the cat, Lack of dowry, Our own people - we will be numbered), N.A. Nekrasov (Princess Volkonskaya, Who Lives Well in Rus'), M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin (The History of a City, Lord Golovlyov, Poshekhon Antiquity), L.N. Tolstoy (War and Peace), A.P. Chekhov (Novel of a Doctor, Novel of a Reporter, Ward No. 6, Death of an Official, Melancholy, Vanka, The Cherry Orchard).
