Traditions of European countries. Christmas traditions in Western Europe

16. Peoples of Western Europe

There are many different peoples in Western Europe. The largest of them are: Germans, French, Greeks, British, Spaniards, Italians. What they have in common is their social structure: a small family with 1-2 children, although large families also remain. In urban families, several years sometimes passed between engagement and wedding until the young couple acquired their own home. The clothing is also very similar: women wear sweaters, gathered skirts, aprons, dresses, and a shoulder scarf. Headdresses were particularly diverse - scarves tied in different ways, hats. Footwear: leather shoes, ankle boots, clogs. A man's suit consisted of a shirt, short (knee-length) or long pants, a sleeveless jacket, a neckerchief, shoes or boots.

Germans: Total number 86 million people. They speak German Germanic group of the Indo-European family. The basis of the economy has traditionally been agriculture. They used a three-field cultivation system, the main grain crop being wheat. Potatoes are grown from garden crops. Livestock farming plays an important role; poultry farming, pig farming, horse breeding, and cattle breeding are widespread. Frame construction equipment was used in the construction of houses. The houses are one- or two-story. A fireplace is a must. Food: potatoes and various dishes made from them, rye and wheat bread, flour products; dairy and meat dishes. The most common drink is beer. Among non-alcoholic drinks, they prefer coffee with cream and tea. Festive food: pork head (or pork) with sauerkraut, goose, carp. They bake a lot of baked goods. Religion: Protestantism and Catholicism. Orally folk art short ones predominate comic stories, fairy tales, folk dances and songs are very popular. Singing plays a significant role in the education of the younger generation. Continues to develop applied arts: wood, metal, glass processing, weaving, embroidery and pottery.

Italians: Total number 66.5 million people. Italian is spoken as a Romance language belonging to the Indo-European family and has many dialects. Religion: Catholicism. Traditional branches of agriculture: arable farming, viticulture, gardening, breeding of large and small livestock. The main material for building a rural house is stone. Dwelling: two- or three-story stone building, rectangular in plan. Italian food is varied, with an abundance of vegetables and fruits. They eat bread and cheese, various pasta with sauces, pizza, fish or meat dishes. Dry wine is a popular drink.

French: Total number 59.4 million. French is spoken by the Romance group of the Indo-European family. Religion: Catholicism, there is Calvinism. Occupations: in agriculture - animal husbandry, raising cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry); agriculture. Main crops: wheat, barley, corn, sugar beets, tobacco, etc. Traditional viticulture and winemaking are also developed. Traditional crafts(wood carving, making painted ceramics, lace weaving) are losing their significance. However, some of them, such as perfume production, have developed into industrial sectors and gained worldwide fame. The layout of settlements is mainly linear. Dwelling: one-story stone or adobe buildings on a wooden frame, where living quarters and adjacent stables, stables, barns and wine cellars are combined under one roof. Steep gable roofs are covered with slate, tiles, etc. Traditional food is characterized by vegetable and onion soups, beef and pork steaks, fried potatoes, lamb stew with various sauces, omelettes with ham, mushrooms and other seasonings, fish dishes; widely used. A lot of vegetables, fruits, oysters, lobsters, crabs, sea urchins, and shellfish are consumed.

18. Peoples of the Volga and Kama regions. Peoples of the European North of Russia

This territory is home to many different peoples, such as Russians, Kalyks, Udmurts, Maris, Komi, Karelians, etc. Characteristics of some of them:

Udmurts: Total number 747 thousand people. They speak the Udmurt language of the Finno-Ugric group Ural family, there are different dialects. Traditional forms of farming: arable farming (rye, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, peas, millet, spelt, hemp, flax) and livestock farming (draft animals, cows, pigs, sheep, poultry). Occupations: hunting, fishing, beekeeping, gathering. Crafts and trades were developed. Traditional home: above ground log hut with a gable plank roof. Traditional clothing: women wore a white linen tunic-like shirt and robe. Outerwear: semi-woolen and wool caftans and fur coats. Shoes: patterned stockings, knitted or sewn canvas socks, bast shoes, boots, felt boots. A wide variety of headdresses: kokoshnik, headband, high birch bark hat. Traditional food: mushrooms, berries, various herbs, bread products, meat dishes, soups, cereals, dairy products. The main social unit of traditional Udmurt society was the land-based neighboring community. It usually consisted of several associations of related families.

Kalmyks: Number 180 thousand people. They speak the Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group of the Altai family. Kalmyks used to be a nomadic people. Main occupations: grazing and transhumance, fishing, farming, gardening. They bred sheep, horses, cattle, goats, camels, and pigs. Kalmyks sowed rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, oats and industrial crops: mustard, tobacco and flax. Artistic crafts are developed: embroidery, processing, leather stamping, wood carving. The traditional settlement had a circular layout - the most convenient from the point of view of defense for a nomadic lifestyle. There are three known types of traditional housing: a tent, a dugout and a half-dugout. Men's clothing: fitted caftan, shirt, trousers, soft leather boots. Women's clothing: a long dress to the toes with a sleeveless vest, under them a long shirt and pants, boots. There were a variety of headdresses for men and women, depending on the season, the wealth of the family, etc. Various jewelry (bracelets, earrings..) were common. The traditional hairstyle of men and women is braids: men and girls have one, women have two. The basis of nutrition is meat and dairy products. Religion: Buddhism, shamanism, fetishism, cult of fire and hearth.

Komi: Total population 345 thousand people. Most of the believers are Orthodox, there are Old Believers. They speak the Komi language of the Finno-Ugric group of the Ural family. Main occupations: agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting. The most common grain crop was barley, followed by rye. They bred mainly cattle, sheep, horses, and deer. The Komi hunted birds, wild ungulates, and fur-bearing animals. Gathering was of great importance; all kinds of berries were collected: lingonberries, raspberries, blueberries, bird cherry, rowan. Crafts were developed: sewing clothes, shoes, pottery, weaving, etc. Means of transportation: sleighs, skis, boats. Traditional dwelling: above-ground, rectangular building. The residential part consisted of two huts (winter and summer), connected by a vestibule, forming a single whole with a utility yard. Characteristic dwellings: pitched roof covered with planks. Carvings and geometric designs are common among home decorations. Traditional clothing: the basis of a woman’s costume was a shirt and sundress, short open-sleeve sweaters, and a sheepskin coat. As a headdress, girls usually wore multi-colored ribbons and a kokoshnik. Men's clothing: untucked canvas shirt, belted, canvas pants, woolen socks. Outerwear: caftan, fur coat. Men's hats: felt cap or sheepskin hat. Men's and women's shoes There was little difference: shoe covers or boots. Traditional food: plant, meat and fish products. Sour soups, cold soups, and porridges are common. Baked goods occupy a significant place in the diet: bread, juices, pancakes, pies, etc. Traditional drinks, in addition to tea, include decoctions of berries and herbs, bread kvass, Birch juice. Folk beliefs and rituals: cosmogonic myths, reflecting the early ideas of the people about the world around them and man’s place in it; epic tales and legends; fairy tales and songs; Proverbs and sayings; ritual poetry. Pre-Christian beliefs in goblin, witchcraft, fortune-telling, conspiracies, damage were preserved; there were cults of trees, game animals, fire, etc.

Theoretical and methodological research. 2. SUBJECT OF ETHNOLOGY ethnology ethnic science behavior The originality of each science is determined, as is known, by its own subject of study and methods of researching this subject. Since the formation of ethnology as a science to the present day, the cross-cutting theme of its research has been the genesis of ethnic cultures and interethnic relations. ...

And methodological research. Subject of ethnology The originality of each science, as is known, is determined by its own subject of study and methods of studying this subject. From the beginning of the formation of ethnology as a science to the present day, the cross-cutting theme of its research is the genesis of ethnic cultures and interethnic relations. Initially based on extremely limited and fragmented...

There are 58 nations in Western Europe. 96% of the population speaks a language of the Indo-European family. The most significant of this family (in terms of the number of peoples) are the Germanic group, the Romanesque group, the Slavic group, etc.

Anthropological composition: Caucasian racial type.

Greeks: the beginning of this ethnic group on the lands of modern Greece. In the 8th-5th centuries. BC. a common ethnic name was established - Hellenes, homeland - Hellas. The main occupations are growing grapes, olives, almonds, transhumance sheep and goat breeding, pottery and carpet weaving. Houses made of untreated stone (1st and 2nd floors), where livestock live. Men's folk costume: black or blue trousers, white shirt, vest, sash, fez, cloak; female - long white shirt of tunic-like cut with a wide long sleeve, wide long skirt.

Albanians. They come from the ancient population of the Balkans - the Illyrians (Thracians). In the 4th century BC. first state entities. Main occupations: transhumance, farming (cereals - barley, rye; in the mountains - oats, wheat; in the valleys - millet; potatoes, corn, cotton, sugar beets are also grown). There are three types of rural settlements: scattered, crowded and regular. Usually 2-story houses with a veranda. More than 2/3 are Muslims, about a quarter are Orthodox.

Roman group. 15 nations (Italians, Italian-Swiss, Corsicans, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Romanians, etc.). The Romans subjugated and assimilated many peoples, Romanization continued until the 5th century. AD The traditional occupations of Italians are gardening, grain farming, and animal husbandry. Food – pasta, a lot of spices and seasonings. More than half of the population lives in cities, rural settlements of 3 types: villages, hamlets, fortresses. Costume: men's - trousers, kamicha (tunic-like shirt), jakka (jacket), hat or beret; female - gona (long skirt), camicha, corsetto, jacketta (outerwear), fazzoletto (head scarf), wooden shoes with iron spikes. The majority of believers are Catholics. Traditional occupations of the French: animal husbandry, field farming, viticulture. The main crops are rice, corn, rye. Food: cheese, rabbit meat, poultry (pigeons in the south), vegetables, root vegetables. Rural settlements are of 2 types: street plan (row) and cumulus. This is a 1-story house with a roof, residential and utility premises. Men's suit: pants, shirt, vest, scarf, straw hat. The believers are mostly Catholics. Walloons(40% of the Belgian population) are a craft people. Large villages of street and cumulus type. Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula: Spain ranks 1st in olive oil production. Grain farming has been developed. Already in the Roman era, cattle were bred; fishing has very ancient origins. Women's costume: wide pleated skirt with an apron, light blouse, bodice, scarf on the head. Catholics.

German group– 17 nations. They speak languages ​​of the Germanic group (Germans, Austrians, German-Swiss, Luxembourgians, Lorraineers, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, Norwegians, English, Scots, etc.). The traditional occupation is livestock raising (cattle) - transhumance, farming. Traditional settlements: large cumulus villages with haphazardly located houses and crooked streets. Clothing: men's - shirt (consists of two panels), long trousers, shoes were leather soles with leather straps; women's - a shirt also made of two panels, a cloak with a hood. Crafts – knitting, carpet weaving, weaving, embroidery.

Celtic group. 4 peoples - Irish, Welsh, Gaels, Bretons. Traditional occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding. They grow barley, oats, and wheat. Livestock (cattle) plays a major role. Food – cereals, fish, dairy dishes, soups. One of the oldest cities is Dublin. Rural settlements of the farm type. The houses are stone and wicker. Traditional costume: black clothing for older women; young people have a long wide skirt and corset, a long white apron and a white lace cap; male - tight short pants, jacket with a closed collar, hat. Mostly Catholics.

Every year, interest in European countries from foreigners is growing at tremendous speed. In most cases, this attraction is of a tourist nature. Conquer inaccessible mountain peaks, soak in sun rays on resort beaches, plunge into the blue abyss of seas and oceans, see the beauty of majestic architectural structures, or simply relax in luxurious apartments - these are the main goals pursued by tourists from all over the world. The question involuntarily arises: “What about acquaintance with cultural traditions European countries? After all, they are the layer of culture of the peoples of Europe. Let's look at the most popular of them.

The emergence of traditions and customs of the peoples of Europe. European etiquette

Rules and norms of behavior have existed since ancient times, but the word “etiquette” itself appeared in France and spread throughout Europe, and then throughout the world, only in the 17th century. It all started with receptions in the royal courts, which were accompanied by the distribution of so-called “labels” - cards with certain rules of behavior for guests.

The modern etiquette of Western European countries has been greatly influenced by established folk traditions and customs passed down from generation to generation. These include various kinds traditions, legends, religious rituals and beliefs. Communication among themselves for political, trade or other purposes led to the mixing of cultural traditions in European countries, which, in turn, made it possible to identify the basic rules of good manners of the peoples of Europe. Among them are a sensitive attitude and respect for the customs and traditions of each country without comparisons or criticism on your part, knowledge and skillful use of the titles of your interlocutors, addressing by name the persons participating in the conversation with you, and others. The most popular European cultural traditions today are wedding customs and culinary arts.

European wedding traditions

Most of the customs associated with preparing and holding a wedding celebration are well known to us, but there are some that may become a real discovery for you.

For example, in Portugal and Hungary there is a certain rule for inviting the bride to dance. Anyone who wants to dance with the bride needs to hit one of her shoes, which were previously placed in the center of the wedding hall, with a coin.

The custom of sprinkling the newlyweds with rose petals, which is a symbol of light and happy life, appeared in Great Britain and joined the wedding culture of almost all countries of the world. Trying to make this tradition more unique, each country added its own “zest” to it. Thus, in Romanian wedding ceremonies, along with rose petals, millet and nuts are also present.

In the Slovak Republic, there is a tradition of exchanging gifts between future spouses. The bride gives her lover a ring and a silk shirt embroidered with gold threads. The groom's response should be silver ring, fur hat, rosary and chastity belt with three keys.

At Norwegian and Swiss weddings, it is a mandatory custom to plant trees: two spruces and one pine, respectively.

The beginning of the ceremony in Germany is accompanied by the breaking of dishes by friends and relatives of the bride in her home, in the Netherlands by a festive banquet, and in France by the newlyweds drinking wine from cups, symbolizing happiness and love.

In addition to traditions directly related to the wedding procedure, great attention is paid to complementing the wedding images of future spouses. Thus, for English brides it is very important to have a horseshoe or a pin on the wedding dress, which is a sign of a happy marriage, and a crown should be on the heads of Finnish brides.

Peculiarity wedding traditions European society lies in the uniqueness of each of them, as well as popularity among modern Europeans.

European culinary traditions

Traditional European cuisine is collected from amazing culinary recipes of national dishes of the peoples of Europe. At the same time, each European state can boast of individual culinary masterpieces.

In Central Europe, the most popular dishes are Polish and Hungarian cuisine, the signature recipes of which are goulash, strudel, and vegetable soup with dill.

Eastern European cuisine was influenced by cooking customs nomadic peoples, inhabiting this territory in the old days. The most famous among culinary dishes of Eastern Europe- borscht, dumplings, pies.

French cuisine occupies a special place in the culinary arena of Western Europe, serving as an example for many countries around the world to follow. A feature of French culinary masterpieces is the use of wines and spices in almost any dish. Unlike the French, their neighbors - the Germans - prefer to eat potatoes, meat and beer.

The culinary traditions of Northern Europe are extremely diverse. The most common dishes from the cuisine of European northerners are creme brulee, chocolate fondant, duck in orange sauce and chicken jäger.

Southern European cuisine is in many ways similar to Western European, especially French. It is also popular here to add wine to most dishes, but at the same time, it must also be served separately on the table before starting the meal.

Introduction to modern European culture

In addition to wedding and culinary customs, modern European culture contains a huge number of diverse traditions associated with all spheres of human activity. Any foreigner who has received a European Union passport can get to know them better, join them, or even become an integral part of them. Romania is in greatest demand for European citizenship. Obtaining Romanian citizenship is the fastest and cheapest way to integrate into European society today.

3.1. Basic rituals, customs and traditions of the peoples of Europe

Back in the second half of the 19th century. Many peoples of foreign Europe had families of the patriarchal type, but by the middle of the 20th century. A simple monogamous family began to exist almost everywhere. Although the husband is usually still considered the head of the family, patriarchal principles have weakened greatly.

It should be noted that in last years women more and more actively demanded the establishment of complete equality in all spheres of life and practically achieved serious results in this long-term struggle: little remained of the oppressed position in which they were previously.

The Christian religion in its original dogmas was characterized by great asceticism; she not only allowed, but also welcomed celibacy as the most worthy way of serving God. That is why almost immediately after the advent of Christianity, monastic orders appeared, celibacy among Catholic clergy, etc.

The Church was quite harsh on divorces, not allowing them even in the case of the physical impossibility of one of the spouses to have children. It is obvious that in many ways it was the church that determined the development of the European family for many years. At the same time, the emergence of Protestantism eased the situation for the family: peoples (or parts of peoples) who converted to Protestantism began to allow civil marriage, allow divorces, be more tolerant of extramarital relationships, etc.

In Catholic countries, the influence of the church is still felt; Marriages, as a rule, are concluded in the church; divorces are very difficult and are often replaced by obtaining church permission only for the spouses to live separately (with the possibility of them entering into an informal marriage relationship).

The most significant family ritual Having a high social significance is a wedding. This is the process of connecting two different surnames, different families, through which the foundations of a new cell of natural and socio-cultural reproduction are laid.

Most peoples maintain the tradition of getting married after the end of spring and autumn field work, before and after major religious fasts; among Germans, the maximum number of marriages occurs in November, the second maximum in May; Among the English and some other peoples, May is considered an unlucky month for marriages, and the happiest month is June.

Before entering into a marriage, an engagement is announced, which plays a very important role, since it, as it were, binds the bride and groom and can be dissolved without losing the respect of friends and neighbors only in exceptional cases. The engagement period is not only a time to test feelings and marital intentions, but also a kind of social control over marriage; For this purpose, it is customary to post an announcement about the upcoming wedding or announce it several times at Sunday services in church.

In Europe, the age for marriage is usually determined by the civil age of majority (usually 21 years), but there may be exceptions: in Italy it is 14 years for women and 16 years for men.

In some countries, only church marriage is considered valid (Spain, Portugal and Greece), in other countries both church and civil marriage (Great Britain, Sweden, Norway and Denmark), in third countries (Italy, France, Germany, etc.) ) civil marriage is required, although even here, after marriage in the municipality or town hall, the newlyweds often go to church.

IN rural settlements Usually, not only relatives and neighbors were invited to the wedding, but also all fellow villagers, who gave gifts of goods or money to the newlyweds.

It was customary for most peoples to decorate the wedding house with fresh flowers and greenery, if the time of year permitted; The bride and groom rode to church or town hall in a decorated carriage.

Among the Italians and some other peoples, until recently, a custom was preserved according to which the guys, holding hands, blocked the newlyweds from leaving the church and let them in only for a small ransom. However, some customs associated with the baptism of a newborn have been preserved. Thus, the Celtic peoples of Britain adopted a system of taking their father’s name as a surname with the prefix “son” (in Scotland - “poppy”, in Ireland - “o”).

There is a widespread attitude when the first child in a family is named after one of the father’s parents, the second - the mother’s parents, so that there may be children in the family with the same names.

Baptism, especially among Catholics and Orthodox Christians, is preceded by a careful choice godfathers and mothers, who then play a significant role in the life of their godson or goddaughter, in their family celebrations, etc.; Catholics often chose from 3 to 6 godfathers and mothers.

Despite the fact that the religiosity of the inhabitants of Western and South-Eastern Europe has decreased almost everywhere, the solemn events and holidays of the Christian calendar have become so strongly integrated into life that they are still preserved even among people who have almost moved away from churches and, say, those who prefer to celebrate a birthday rather than a name day.

One of these main holidays is the Nativity of Christ, celebrated by Catholics and Protestants on December 25, i.e. before the New Year, and for the Orthodox - 13 days later.

An important attribute of Christmas is the Christmas tree, decorated with bright toys, and in recent decades, with garlands of light bulbs; It is customary to light candles on the Christmas tree only on Christmas evening.

In Italy and some other countries, they begin to prepare for Christmas from the beginning of December; along city streets they put up Christmas trees in tubs with sand, hang garlands of light bulbs, and in churches they prepare models and figures for Christmas performances (moving figures of Mary, Joseph, the Magi, mock-ups of nurseries, etc.).

It is customary to clean houses and apartments with greenery; in Britain, mistletoe, which was considered sacred by the Celts, is often used for this purpose. At midnight, church bells ring and candles are lit on the Christmas trees.

Christmas is widely considered a family holiday, celebrated in a relatively small circle. Children are especially happy about it, expecting gifts that are placed in their shoes under their beds or given by Santa Claus. New Year It is customary to spend it in a less intimate setting, for example in a cafe, restaurant or just on the street, organizing noisy processions. In Austria, processions of mummers with brooms are organized, “sweeping away” the remnants of the Old Year. Such New Year's processions are often accompanied by firecrackers, fireworks, rocket launches and special orchestras. In Italy, on New Year's Day, it is customary to throw unnecessary dishes, old furniture and other rubbish into the street as a sign of liberation from everything old.

Important spring holidays Maslenitsa and Easter are celebrated everywhere. In the Mediterranean and neighboring countries, where winter passes quickly, it is Maslenitsa, held after mid-February, before Lent, that is considered the holiday of the onset of spring.

An indispensable component of the carnival are processions in various masks and costumes accompanied by orchestras and usually led by the king and queen (prince and princess) of the carnival chosen for this occasion, riding in a car decorated with flowers (and previously on a carriage).

In Southern France and especially in the Netherlands, where floriculture is highly developed, figures made of flowers are carried in carnival processions, “flower battles” are organized, etc. Preparations for such magnificent, costumed carnivals usually begin 2-3 months in advance.

In the Protestant countries located to the north, Maslenitsa is celebrated more modestly. In England, for example, according to tradition, only one day is allotted for it, when at 11 o’clock, at the sound of the bell, the housewives begin baking pancakes; In some villages, it was customary for women to race with frying pans, on which they hold hot pancakes, sometimes throwing them up.

The Easter holiday, compared to Maslenitsa, is usually celebrated outwardly less brightly, mainly in the family and church. In Spain, Portugal and Italy, it is customary to organize church processions in which scenes of the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ are played out.

In more northern countries, the most fun on this holiday is for children who collect colored eggs hidden for them in different places by their parents or given to them by neighbors, relatives and acquaintances.

The bright summer holiday of St. John, coinciding with the Slavic Ivan Kupala (June 24), unlike Maslenitsa, is most popular in the northern countries - Scandinavia and Finland.

In honor of this holiday, large bonfires are lit, houses are decorated with greenery, high poles with a crossbar are erected, where garlands of greenery and flowers, yellow and blue ribbons are hung, round dances are performed around, songs are sung, people jump over the fire, etc.; young people swim in lakes and rivers and wonder about their fate. In southern countries, bonfires are often replaced with fireworks, especially in cities.

In addition to the mentioned holidays, there are others associated with established Christian church calendar saints' days. It is customary everywhere to celebrate All Saints' Day (November 1), which is considered the day of remembrance of the departed and those killed in wars; On this day, the graves of relatives are visited, and in large cities processions are organized to the tomb of the Unknown Soldier.

In some carnival (spring) processions of masks and costumes, adult participants increasingly began to give way to children, preferring dance floors and costume balls. Their main feature is that truly folk holidays and celebrations have acquired the character of stylized performances, organized not so much for oneself, but to attract tourists.

And since tourism is a prominent source of income in all countries of Western Europe, carnival performances have spread almost everywhere, and their organizers try to ensure that they do not coincide in time and are unique.

In the nature of leisure and entertainment of European peoples there are some specific features that distinguish them to one degree or another from each other and from the peoples of other countries of the world. In terms of daily time structure, Spain, Portugal and Southern France stand out here, where the hottest hours of the day are reserved for lunch and afternoon rest (siesta).

The Romanesque and especially Mediterranean peoples are also characterized by a greater openness of life and leisure time, the residents (especially men) spend time outside the home - on the streets and squares, where the tables of cafes, snack bars and restaurants are taken out; women go out mainly in the evening to walk along the main street of a city or village.

In this ethnogeographical zone, ancient folk spectacles and performances have been preserved, the most striking of which is bullfighting in Spain (bullfighting); There is a similar spectacle in Portugal, but in a less cruel form - the bull is not killed here.

Many actually sport games originated in England, which is still one of the most sporting countries in the world. Among these games, the most popular are football, tennis, cricket, golf, horse racing, cycling and yachting competitions.

Except specified types sports that have spread in many European countries include speed skating, skiing, and ice hockey (mainly in Northern European countries). Along with various types sports in many European countries, folk national games are still loved, for example, pushing logs, competitions for the speed of sawing wood (Finland, Norway), playing with metal balls (France) and wooden balls (Italy), playing cards. In conclusion, it should be noted that the culture of European peoples, their main rituals, customs and traditions are fundamentally regulated by Christian ideology. This religion, quite ascetic in its initial attitudes, turned out to be popular not only among the lower classes, who were promised a heavenly paradise in the afterlife for their suffering, but also for the ruling groups, to which the completely earthly attitude of “Caesar's and Caesar's” is applicable. Christianity, as a world religion, includes Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Monophysitism, Protestantism and Nestorianism, which are discussed in detail in the course on the fundamentals of religious studies.

Questions for seminar session 1

The main customs and traditions of Western European peoples: the British, French, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, etc.

Christianity as the basis of the way of life, customs and traditions of Western European peoples.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a German.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Spaniard.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Frenchman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Englishman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Italian.

Questions for Seminar Lesson 2

Diversity and unity of cultural customs and traditions of the peoples of Western Europe.

Features of etiquette in England.

French etiquette: history and modernity.

Peculiarities business communication with the Germans.

Features of business communication with the French.

Features of business communication with Italians.

Analyze the relationship between the traditions of the peoples of the United States and European countries.

FEATURES OF CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS OF PEOPLES

JAPAN AND CHINA

There is no people in the world who are more scrupulous about their own honor than the Japanese. They do not tolerate not only the slightest insult, but even a rude word spoken. They never bother others with complaints or listing their own troubles. From childhood they learn not to reveal their feelings, considering it stupid. For the Japanese, the law is not a norm, but a framework for discussion. A good Japanese judge is someone who can settle most cases before trial based on compromises.

The Japanese always tries to be officially recommended to the person or company with which he wants to do business; strives to give business relationships a personal character. He should never violate external harmony (this is more important than proving he is right or getting benefits), or put his fellow citizens in a position that would force them to “lose face” (that is, admit a mistake or incompetence in their field). He does not appeal to logic - after all, emotional considerations are more important for him. The Japanese do not show increased interest in the monetary side of things, because the concept of “time is money” is not in circulation in their country. They tend to express themselves vaguely - while avoiding independent steps, since their ideal is an anonymous general opinion.

The Japanese have a favorable attitude towards everything that Christian morality calls human weaknesses. Temperance, strict taste, and the ability to be content with little do not at all mean that the Japanese are characterized by asceticism. They are weighed down by a heavy burden of moral responsibilities. Japanese morality only emphasizes that physical pleasures, carnal pleasures should be given a proper, secondary place. They do not deserve condemnation and do not constitute sin. But in certain cases, a person is forced to abandon them for the sake of something more important. Life is divided into a circle of responsibilities and a circle of pleasures, into a main area and a secondary area.

Japanese children never cry. The education system strives to avoid this. Children in Japan are incredibly pampered. You could say they are simply trying not to give them a reason to cry. They, especially boys, are almost never prohibited from doing anything. Until school years, a child does whatever he pleases. IN school years children's nature learns the first limitations, prudence is cultivated.

The Japanese are a mystery of our century, they are the most incomprehensible, the most paradoxical of peoples.

The face of Tokyo is not streets or buildings, it is, first of all, people. Tokyo excites, amazes and depresses, like a gigantic accumulation of human beings. It is home to eleven million inhabitants. Moreover, nine million of them live on an area of ​​570 square meters. kilometers. It's like moving all of Hungary to Budapest. The population density on this piece of land is growing from a statistical concept into a tangible one.

Music. Japanese folk music is rich and varied. It developed under the significant influence musical culture China. In the Kabuki theater, instrumental music is used to accompany singing, dance and pantomime scenes.

Theater and cinema. The origins of Japanese theater go back to the most ancient folk games - taasobi, which reproduced the agricultural process. Theater arts Japan is full of religious ideas of Shinto, mythological plots predominate in it, and the spectacular side of theatrical performances comes to the fore.

Very popular in Japan puppet show, who developed original puppetry techniques and various types of dolls, who created dramaturgy based on the folk epic tale - dzeruri. The text of the jeruri was performed by the storyteller gidayu, to the accompaniment of the musical instrument oyamisen. The Kabuki repertoire included jeruri plays, the actors imitated the movements of the puppets, repeating the manner of performance of the gidayu in a declamatory speech-tative; Sometimes I myself was introduced into the performance. Ballet panto mimes (se-sagoto) were also widespread in Kabuki.

Movie. Since 1896, predominantly French films have been shown in Japan. In 1906, domestic film production emerged.

Major Japanese film companies produce many feature films, imitating Hollywood standards. At the same time, progressive directors, overcoming reactionary influences, reflect in their films the ideas of the world and the true interests of the working people. The work of director Akira Kurosawa especially stands out.

The words of Confucius are more relevant to us than ever: “Respect virtue, protect the people” and “He who rules with the help of virtue is like the North Star, which takes its place, and all the other stars surround it.” A truly cultured people will never allow a rapist to take his place North Star, any authoritarian power will certainly burn in the fire of its culture, no matter what democratic clothes it dresses up in.

4.1. Features of the mentality, customs and traditions of the Chinese

The Chinese ethnic group has created a special type of culture. A sane Chinese never thought about the mysteries of existence and the problems of life and death, but he always saw a standard in front of him highest virtue and considered it his sacred duty to imitate him. The greatest prophets here were considered those who teach to live with dignity, in accordance with the accepted norm, to live for the sake of life, and not for the sake of bliss in the next world or salvation from suffering.

In the Chinese tradition, religion turned into ethics; the individual in it, as it were, overshadowed the gods. The people were declared the herald of the will of Heaven. The universal feeling of the people was perceived by the ancient Chinese as the most accurate manifestation of the supreme justice of heaven. And at the same time, cosmically sanctioned collectivism, according to the Chinese, completely excludes from the culture individualism and the personal principle, which in Western European culture constitute the cornerstone of the spiritual life of a European.

The world is initially perfect, harmony is inherent in it, therefore it does not need to be remade. On the contrary, you need to withdraw yourself, become like nature, so as not to interfere with the implementation of harmony. Initially, nature has five perfections: humanity (zhen), a sense of duty (i); decency (li), sincerity (xin) and wisdom (zhi).

From the point of view of Confucius, personality receives its content directly from nature. Thus, the harmony of society and nature was based on the idea of ​​a socio-ethical-political order sanctioned by the great Heaven. Taoism called for an organic fusion with nature. The creator of Taoism is considered to be Lao Tzu, who stated that Confucius makes too much noise about himself and is completely wasting his energy on social projects and reforms. Lao Tzu believed that it is necessary to follow the Tao (literally, “the way”). Tao is something all-encompassing that fills all space, it stands above everything and reigns in everything. Listening Tao. does not have the habit of seeing only one side of a thing; he does not have a linear perception, but a three-dimensional one, recording changes.

As we see, Tao is the basis of everything in the Universe, the source of all things and phenomena, the individual manifestation of Tao - “de”, i.e. the form of manifestation of Tao in an individual. It reveals the moral perfection of an individual who has achieved absolute harmony with the environment worlds. Lao Tse expressed these thoughts in the book “On the Path to Virtue.”

Confucius gives a detailed image of a noble husband, contrasting him with a commoner, or “low man” - “xiao zhen”.

He formulated the basic principles of the social order that he would like to see in the Celestial Empire: “Let the father be a father, the son a son, the sovereign a sovereign, an official an official,” everyone will know their rights and do what they are supposed to do. The criterion for dividing society into upper and lower classes was not supposed to be nobility of origin and, especially, not wealth, but knowledge and virtue, or more precisely, the degree of closeness to the ideal of Jun Tzu.

Since ancient times, in China there have been several methods for selecting officials, both common to the entire East and specifically Chinese. The first included appointments to positions by personal decree of the emperor. It was necessary to earn a recommendation as a wise and fair official and pass a competitive examination. Those who passed the exams three times received the highest academic degree and could hope for a prestigious position, the lowest of which was the position of district chief. Chinese dignitaries believed that a solid knowledge of the letter of Confucianism and the ability to stand up for its canons in an open dispute with an opponent is the best proof of an official’s suitability to manage the affairs of the country in accordance with traditions. That is why education was a huge incentive for the Chinese to realize their ambition and loyalty.

Confucius declared the interests of the people to be the ultimate and highest goal of government. Of the three most important elements of the state, the people are in first place, the deities in second, and the sovereign in third. However, the same Confucians believed that their own interests were incomprehensible and inaccessible to the people themselves, and that they could not manage without the constant paternal tutelage of educated rulers. An important basis of social order is strict obedience to elders.

In China, there is an ancient cult of ancestors - both dead and living. Confucius developed the doctrine of "xiao" - filial piety. "Xiao", as Confucius believed, is the basis of humanity. Following Confucian traditions, the Chinese consider it their duty to honor their parents and are ready to sacrifice personal interests in the name of the interests of the family and clan. They have an unusually developed sense of responsibility: the father is responsible for all family members, the guilt of the parents extends to the children, the boss is responsible for the activities of all his subordinates.

Since the Chinese must always remember that his actions must support the dignity of his family and clan, he always tries to “have nice face", that is, to look like a worthy, respected person in the eyes of others. He will be deeply offended if any violation of traditional ceremonial occurs (say, when welcoming guests, in a festive ritual, or in official relations) and he does not receive the honor due to him. There is no greater misfortune for a Chinese than to “lose face.” According to ancient custom in China, the highest sign of honor and respect for a boss is to present him with an umbrella. For this purpose, a special umbrella is made - large, made of red silk, with inscriptions and the names of the donors. It is called the “umbrella of a thousand faces.” The Chinese take great care to strictly observe the ceremonies that, “according to the behests of their ancestors,” should accompany various life events.

The Institute of Sociology of Beijing People's University conducted a study in which residents of 13 provinces and cities in China were surveyed. They were asked to express their attitude towards various personality traits on a 9-point scale from “+5” (“very much approve”) to “-5” (“very disapprove”). The average ratings were as follows.

This study shows that Confucian virtues - “humanity”, “filial piety”, “hard work and frugality”, etc. - still occupy a dominant position in the minds of the Chinese. 70-80% of respondents consider them to be the main values ​​in life, and only 6-15% do not consider it necessary to adhere to them. It is worthy of attention that the Chinese people themselves are very disapproving of the deceit that McGowan talks about.

Thus, despite the profound social changes that occurred in China in the 20th century, the traditions of Confucianism have not lost their defining place in the culture of Chinese society.

China is one of the most original countries in the world, but traveling there is associated with great psychological stress. You are always the center of attention of hundreds, and sometimes thousands of people. The Chinese are very cheerful, sincere and smart people, but their ideas about the rules of good manners in many ways do not coincide with ours.

In China they give important establishing informal relationships with foreign partners. You may be asked about your age, marital status, children - do not be offended: this is a sincere interest in you.

During business meetings, Chinese negotiators are very attentive to two things: gathering information about the subject being discussed and the negotiating partners; formation of the "spirit of friendship". Moreover, the “spirit of friendship” in negotiations is generally very important for them, which is largely due to Chinese cultural traditions and values.

Traditions and customspeoplespeace 2,229.80 459.60 ... 43,162.43 138 Fantasy - 2007 : Fantastic stories and short stories \\ ... : Book for reading to children \ Tambiev A. Kh. \ Bustard 1 52, ...

Christmas and New Year are ideal times to visit Europe. German Christmas markets, a speech from the Pope, grand New Year's parties, a visit to Santa's residence in Lapland - each of the European countries can make your Christmas special.

In European countries, Christmas Eve is given greater importance, which must be spent with family. Therefore, even on Christmas, many restaurants, bars, cafes and shops are open here. Often New Year's festivities begin with just the midnight bells, and then everyone has fun until dawn.

This itinerary is based solely on what you can see in different countries. You'll have to travel by plane to these wonderful destinations, but budget airlines usually offer fantastic discounts during the winter months. So, such a trip will not cost exorbitant amounts of money.

In late November and early December, head to Salzburg to attend the Advent singing festival. Christmas markets in Germany usually close on Christmas Eve. So hurry up to get your portion of spicy mulled wine. Paris and London are also great options for the Christmas holidays. Many illuminated signs are installed in these European capitals every year - come and see for yourself!

Visit Santa in Lapland, then head to Finland to admire the Northern Lights. On New Year's Eve, head to Scotland to take part in the traditional Hogmanay celebrations. At the beginning of January, visit Spain for the Day of the Three Kings or, as it is otherwise known, the Day of the Three Wise Men. It is on January 5 that a ship with three travelers arrives in the cities of Spain, and the streets are filled with artists, buffoons and circus performers.

And although December is very traditionally considered the low season, the Christmas holidays are an exception. Therefore, we recommend booking hotel rooms in advance.

Italy

What is it like to be in Italy for Christmas? To imagine, you should learn more about the Christmas traditions of this country.

You may be surprised that Italian children do not write letters to Santa Claus to ask for gifts. These touching messages contain declarations of love for parents. Christmas dinner here is called the "Feast of the Seven Fishes" because there are seven different seafood dishes on each table. It is not customary to serve meat at Christmas. It is also necessary to wear red underwear New Year's Eve. This should bring good luck in the new year.

Germany

Many German Christmas traditions are now common throughout the world. It was here that they began to decorate Christmas trees and hang wreaths of pine branches on the doors. All over Germany there are festive markets until Christmas Eve. Here you can buy souvenirs, aromatic mulled wine, traditional baked goods: vanilla crescents with hazelnuts, cinnamon stars, macaroons and gingerbread. For dinner, it is customary to bake a goose, and serve dumplings and cabbage as a side dish.

In Austria, in the south of Bavaria, as well as in Munich, an unusual Krampus procession takes place on two Sundays in December. Krampus is the evil counterpart of Saint Nicholas. Instead of a bag of gifts, Krampus holds chains, a bundle of birch twigs and a bag in which he will carry naughty children to hell. In recent years, this interesting tradition has become increasingly popular. Germans and tourists dress up as Krampus, who looks like a goat, and go for a walk through the streets of the city.

If you are traveling with children, we recommend that you visit Christmas markets and watch performances by artists, jugglers and gymnasts. Be sure to try the German stollen. This is a traditional candied fruit cake that will captivate you with its magical taste!

Switzerland

What better place for Christmas than the Swiss Alps? Swiss Christmas markets are not as steeped in the spirit of the past as in Germany, but are nevertheless very popular.

Basel has the largest open-air Christmas market in all of Switzerland. Here you will find charming handicrafts and lots of sweets. There are four Christmas markets in Zurich each year. The largest indoor market in all of Switzerland begins its work on December 8th. And December 17th is here will host the annual festival of floating lights.

In Bern, the largest Christmas market is located among houses built in the 15th-17th centuries. You can make pleasant shopping and admire the medieval architecture. The Bernese Christmas market on Waisenhausplatz is open until December 29, which means it's open longer than most and can keep you warm with mulled wine almost until the New Year.

Portugal

In this country, the so-called Janeiras are a mandatory attribute of Christmas. These are small groups of people who go from house to house, singing traditional songs and sometimes accompanying themselves. musical instruments. It is more common for us to call this phenomenon “carols.” Usually in Portugal, groups of friends or neighbors carol.

The Portuguese attach great importance to nativity scenes. In the village of Penela, up to five different nativity scenes are installed annually, some even using 3D technology. There is also a Christmas train and an amazingly detailed model railway with 10 trains. Pass daily thematic master classes for making New Year's toys. The Christmas market will delight you with souvenirs and treats, and magicians, jugglers and clowns will not let you get bored.

Austria

One of the world's favorite Christmas songs originated in Austria. "Silent Night" or Stille Nacht is performed all over the world, although slightly differently than Franz Gruber's original version.

If you are lucky enough to be in Salzburg in early December, be sure to visit the Advent singing festival. In 2017, the Salzberg Advent Singing Festival will be held for the 70th anniversary. For the first time, performers from all over the world came here in 1946. Next year the festival will return to its roots, with the theme once again being the revival of the post-war world. Attend this touching event and you will never forget this encounter with art.

France

Did you know that since 1962, every child in France who sent a letter to Santa, or Noel as he is known here, received a response? As throughout Europe, December 25 is a non-working day, which all French people strive to spend with their families. And children find gifts under a festively decorated tree. House doors are traditionally decorated with pine wreaths. And in Alsace it is customary to richly decorate the house with garlands and luminous figures.

Young French people often spend New Year's Eve in clubs in Paris or other major cities. But France offers unique alternative options for celebrating the New Year. You can enjoy a romantic cruise on the River Seine, admire a torchlight procession or go on a tour of the city of Avignon, which will enchant you with its festive illuminations.

UK and Scotland

The main attribute of New Year's Eve in London is the fantastically beautiful fireworks display. Most clubs in London organize special parties on New Year's Eve. And restaurants organize a gala dinner with a show program on New Year's Eve. You can also take a cruise on the River Thames or attend a New Year's themed ball at the famous Torture Garden.

Nowhere does New Year's Eve have as much fun as the traditional Hogmanay celebration in Scotland. The Scots adopted this custom from the Varangians, who had fun on the shortest day of the year. Immediately after midnight, it is customary to go to friends and family to congratulate everyone, moving from house to house.

It is considered a good omen if an attractive brunette is the first to cross the threshold of the house in the new year, in his hands he should have coal, whiskey, shortbread cookies and a chocolate cupcake. In return, such a visitor receives a full glass of excellent whiskey, because the guest portends good luck, prosperity and prosperity. It is believed that this belief originated when blond Vikings raided the homes of the Scots. So it turns out that a brunette on the doorstep of a house is a harbinger of happiness.

Climate in Italy

Transport in Italy

What to bring from Italy