The originality of ancient Russian literature. Traditions of Old Russian literature in the works of Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky

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Old Russian literature Completed by: teacher of Russian language and literature Kurilskaya Irina Aleksandrovna

Old Russian literature and folklore Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state and writing and is based on book Christian culture and highly developed forms of oral poetic creativity. The greatest role in its formation is played by folk epics: historical legends, heroic tales, songs about military campaigns. Princely squads in Ancient Rus' They made numerous military campaigns, had their own singers who composed and sang songs of glory in honor of the victors, and honored the prince and the soldiers of his squad. Folklore for ancient literature was the main source that provided images, plots; through folklore, the artistic poetic means of folk poetry, as well as the people's understanding of the surrounding world, penetrated into it.

Genres and images ancient Russian literature Folklore genres were part of literature in all periods of its development. Writing turned to such genres of folk art as legends, proverbs, glories and laments. Both in writing and in folklore, especially in chronicle writing, old traditional figurative expressions, symbols, and allegories were used. The image of Boyan, the singing of glory to the princes, the songfulness and rhythm of the structure, the use of repetitions, hyperbole, the kinship of the images of heroes with epic heroes, the widespread use of folk poetic symbolism (the idea of ​​a battle as sowing, threshing, a wedding feast) is characteristic of Old Russian literature. Comparisons of heroes with a cuckoo, an ermine, and Bui-Tur are close to symbolic images. Nature in ancient literature, as in folk poetry, grieves, rejoices, and helps heroes. A characteristic motif is the transformation of heroes, as in fairy tales, into animals and birds. The same expressive and figurative means are used: parallelisms (“the sun is shining in the heavens - Prince Igor in the Russian land”), tautology 3 (“pipes are blowing”, “bridges are being paved”), constant epithets (“greyhound horse”, “black land”, "green grass")

Secular and spiritual principles The main keepers and copyists of books were monks. Therefore, most of the books that have come down to us are of an ecclesiastical nature. Ancient literature combines secular and spiritual principles. In many genres there is often an appeal to God as a “savior”, “almighty”, trusting in his mercy.... Mention of divine providence and purpose, a sense of the world in its dual essence, “real and divine”, is characteristic of this literature. The works of ancient writers include fragments of monuments of book Christian culture, images from the Gospel, the Old and New Testaments, and the Psalter. After the adoption of Christianity, ancient Russian scribes needed to talk about how the world works from a Christian point of view, and they turned to the books of Holy Scripture.

Portrayal of man in ancient Russian literature The ideal hero in the chronicles was the prince. It was created by the chronicler in “monumental grandeur”, as in the mosaics and frescoes of the 11th–13th centuries. The chronicler was interested in the official image of the prince, his significant actions as a historical figure, but his human qualities remained outside of attention. The ideal image of a hero was created in accordance with certain canons: the dignity and virtues of the prince were listed, which were supposed to evoke worship (mighty, independent, handsome in face, brave, skilled in military affairs, courageous, destroyer of enemies, guardian of the state). The prince is presented in an aura of power and glory. This is a statesman and warrior. Fearlessness in battle, contempt for death is one of the features of the ideal hero. Patriotism was not only a duty, but also the conviction of the Russian princes; the characters were historical figures, and not the fruit of the author’s fiction.

Themes and ideas of ancient Russian literature D.S. Likhachev viewed ancient Russian literature as literature of one theme and one plot. “This plot is world history, and this theme is the meaning of human life.” Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. The theme of the beauty and greatness of the motherland, the “lightly bright and red decorated” Russian land, which is “known” and “led” in all corners of the world, is one of the central themes of ancient Russian literature. It glorifies the creative work of our fathers and grandfathers, who selflessly defended great land Russian from external enemies and strengthened the mighty sovereign state “great and spacious”, which shines “brightly”, “like the sun in the sky”. It contains a sharp voice of condemnation of the policies of the princes, who sowed bloody feudal strife and weakened the political and military power of the state.

Genres of Old Russian Literature In Old Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within the framework of which the development of original Russian literature began. Genres in ancient Russian literature were distinguished according to slightly different characteristics than in the literature of modern times. Chronographs told the history of the world; about the history of the fatherland - chronicles, monuments of historical writing and literature of Ancient Rus', the narration in which was carried out by year. They narrated the events of Russian and world history. There was an extensive literature of moralizing biographies - the lives of saints, or hagiography. Collections were widespread short stories about the life of monks. Such collections were called patericons. The genres of solemn and teaching eloquence are represented by various teachings and words. Christian holidays were glorified in solemn words pronounced in church during services. The teachings exposed vices and glorified virtues. The walks told about travels to the holy land of Palestine. A special place among examples of worldly genres is occupied by the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, “The Lay of Igor’s Host”, “The Lay of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Lay of Daniil the Zatochnik”. They indicate high level literary development achieved by Ancient Russia in the 11th–first half of the 13th centuries. The development of ancient Russian literature of the 11th–17th centuries proceeds through the gradual destruction of a stable system of church genres and their transformation.

Traditions of Old Russian literature in the works of writers Traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the works of Russian writers of the 18th century. Partly they can be identified in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, A.N. Radishcheva, N.M. Karamzin and others. A new level of assimilation of the traditions of ancient Russian literature is revealed by the work of A.S. Pushkin. “The great Russian poet not only used plots, motifs, and images of ancient Russian literature, but also resorted to its styles and individual genres to recreate the “spirit of the times”” 1. Pushkin repeatedly turned to Russian chronicles; he was struck by their “simplicity and accuracy of depiction of objects.” Under their impression, the “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” was created. The Old Russian text prompted the poet to think philosophically about the purpose of the poet.

Features of Old Russian Literature Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state, and homeland. The main theme of ancient Russian literature is world history and the meaning of human life. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in the power, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. The heroes are mainly historical figures. Literature strictly follows fact. Feature artistic creativity The ancient Russian writer also has the so-called “literary etiquette”. This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what and how should be depicted. Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state and writing and is based on book Christian culture and developed forms of oral poetic creativity. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots artistic images, visual arts of folk art. The originality of ancient Russian literature in the depiction of the hero depends on the style and genre of the work. In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created. In ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was the “use” of the genre, the “practical purpose” for which this or that work was intended. The traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the works of Russian writers of the 18th–20th centuries.

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The concept of “Old Russian literature” is so familiar that almost no one notices its inaccuracy. Until about the middle of the 15th century, it would be more correct to call Old Russian literature Old East Slavic. In the first centuries after the baptism of Rus' and the spread of writing in the East Slavic lands, the literature of the Eastern Slavs was uniform: the same works were read and copied by scribes in Kyiv and Vladimir, in Polotsk and Novgorod, in Chernigov and Rostov. Later, three different East Slavic nationalities emerged in this territory: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The previously unified Old Russian language is disintegrating: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​are emerging, a new language is being formed in Ukraine - “prosta mova”, penetrating bookishness, although not displacing the Church Slavonic language, traditional for East Slavic literature.

Until the 15th century, Old Russian or East Slavic literature formed a single whole with the book literature of other Orthodox Slavic countries. Like the book monuments of Ancient Rus', medieval Bulgarian and Serbian works were also written in Church Slavonic, which differed from the East Slavic Russian version only in particulars. The main body of monuments is the absolute majority of translations (and translations accounted for more than 90% of the works in Old Russian literature, according to the calculations of A.I. Sobolevsky - even about 99%) and many original works were common to Rus' and the Orthodox South Slavs. National differences were not recognized by the scribes as the main ones: the community of faith was incomparably more important for them. The Italian Slavist R. Picchio proposed considering the bookishness of these three countries as a single phenomenon and called it “Litteratura Slavia Orthodoxa” - “Literature of the Orthodox Slavs”

Old Russian literature - it is still customary to use this term - arose in the 11th century. One of its first monuments, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, was created in the 30s and 40s. XI century, most likely at the very end of the 1040s. The 17th century is the last century of ancient Russian literature. During its course, traditional ancient Russian literary canons are gradually destroyed, new genres and new ideas about man and the world are born. Therefore, some researchers do not include the 17th century in the history of ancient Russian literature, considering it as a special period.

Literature refers to the works of ancient Russian scribes, and texts by authors of the 18th century, and the works of Russian classics of the 19th century, and the works of modern writers. Of course, there are obvious differences between literature XVIII, XIX and XX centuries But all Russian literature of the last three centuries is not at all similar to the monuments of ancient Russian verbal art. However, it is precisely in comparison with them that it reveals many similarities.

The term “literature” is usually used to designate the so-called “fine literature”, or artistic literature - works written by authors to evoke in readers aesthetic experiences. Such texts can pursue edifying, educational, and ideological goals. But the aesthetic function remains the main, dominant one in it. Accordingly, in fiction, art, the author’s ingenuity, and skillful mastery of various techniques are valued above all. The setting of a literary text is aimed primarily not at the content, but at the method of its transmission, at expression. IN European culture fiction appears in ancient Greece and in Ancient Rome. Literary works of antiquity, the European Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the 17th and 18th centuries (the era usually called classicism) are very different from the works created at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. and later. These were works traditionalist, focused not on fundamental novelty, but on recreating samples, canons, dictated by the rules of a. Imitation in traditionalist literature was not condemned as epigonism or plagiarism, but was a normal phenomenon. The rules by which traditionalist literature “lived” were formulated in special guidelines for the compilation of written and oral texts - rhetoric - and in treatises on literature - poetics.

The era of pre-romanticism and romanticism is considered to be the time of “turning point”, when individual style triumphs over literary rules dictated by tradition. However, some researchers believe that the opinion about the triumph of the author’s individuality over traditionalist literary attitudes (supposedly accomplished at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries) and about the fundamental difference between “new” literature and “old” literature is nothing more than an illusion: we are “inside” modern literature and therefore better see the differences rather than the similarities between the works of different authors; in the literature of other eras, which we see “from the outside,” for us, on the contrary, what is more clear is the general, and not the specifics of this or that individual style. This position was held by the largest Russian literary critic of the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries. A.N. Veselovsky. Its supporter was the famous researcher of ancient and Russian literature M.L. Gasparov.

Old Russian literature is no less traditionalistic than ancient literature or works of so-called classicism. But its traditionalism and canonicity are different. The culture of Ancient Rus' did not know rhetoric and poetics. Scribes resorted to a variety of rhetorical techniques: anaphors, syntactic parallelism, rhetorical questions and exclamations. But at the same time, they imitated texts inherited from Byzantine literature, and not at all the rules clearly formulated in special manuals. Until the 17th century Rhetorics were not common in Rus', and the attitude towards them was, apparently, persistently negative. He spoke very harshly about rhetoric at the beginning of the 16th century. Elder (monk) of one of the Pskov monasteries Philotheus (we remember him as the creator of the historiosophical theory “Moscow is the third Rome”). People spoke disparagingly and condemningly about rhetoric in the 17th century. Old Believers who defended the centuries-old foundations of Russian Orthodoxy and Russian culture; among them was the famous author of his own “Life,” Archpriest Avvakum. For ancient Russian scribes, rhetoric was “alien knowledge”, belonging to the “Latin”, Catholic world. And Catholicism in Rus' was considered a heresy, a deviation from Christianity. The addressee of manuals on rhetoric was author, creator, a writer who treated the text as to his creation. But for the ancient Russian religious and cultural consciousness, a scribe, a writer is not an author in the proper sense of the word, but “ tool" in the hands of God, “ weapon"Gentlemen. He writes by the grace of God. It is no coincidence that the Kiev scribe of the late XI - early XII centuries. Nestor, well-read in Byzantine hagiography (“hagiography” - lives of saints), writes in the Life of Theodosius of Pechersk about himself that he is “rude and unreasonable.” The most educated Moscow hagiographer Epiphanius, nicknamed by his contemporaries the Wise One, also apologizes for his ignorance and “unbookishness”: in the brilliant and most skillful Life of Sergius of Radonezh, he writes self-deprecatingly about his own lack of education and inability to master verbal skills. The True Creator is one God, who created heaven and earth. The word given by Him to man is sacred (sacral), and one cannot “play” with the word: this is blasphemy, a crime against the Creator. Meanwhile, the “rhetorical” attitude to the text presupposes just such a game and daring: the writer creates an autonomous verbal world, like God who created the Universe. The writer “arrogantly” demonstrates his skill. The ancient Russian consciousness could not accept such an attitude towards the text.

When rhetoric and poetics exist in a culture, this means that literature recognizes itself precisely as literature—an independent phenomenon. She reflects, “thinks” about herself. In this case, the role of the author’s principle increases: the artist’s skill is valued, writers enter into competition with each other to see who can write their work better and surpass some example. Traditionalist literature, which has “proclaimed” itself as literature, is not like traditionalist literature, which has not yet realized its originality.

Among such literatures that have not become an independent sphere of culture and do not reflect on their own specificity is ancient Russian book literature. Old Russian bookishness is not yet artistic literature. The aesthetic function in it is not independent, but is subordinated to the utilitarian, edifying, and cultic ones. The lack of self-reflection in ancient Russian literature determined the author's relatively smaller role than in medieval Western Europe or Byzantium.

What is this connected with? One could explain this feature by the subordination of the individual to the “conciliar” principle inherent in Orthodoxy: the Catholic teaching on the salvation and justification of a person by works gives greater importance to the individual. But in Orthodox Byzantium the situation was completely different: Byzantine literature, in comparison with Old Russian literature, reveals more differences than in comparison with the literatures of the medieval West. One can say that the whole point is in the properties of the “Russian soul”, alien to individualism and secular culture. But the literature of other medieval Orthodox Slavic countries - Bulgaria, Serbia - is similar in type to Old Russian. If we declare that the root cause is in the nature of the “Slavic soul,” then the example of the Catholic Slavic countries - Poland and the Czech Republic - will refute this statement.

The reason is not in certain features of ethnic psychology or in the differences between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (although confessional differences in medieval culture are in other cases extremely significant). The specificity of Old Russian literature and other Orthodox Slavic literatures is truly connected with faith. But not with religious differences, but with a special religious attitude to the word: books, writing and the alphabet itself were sacred for the Orthodox Slavs. The Western world, former barbarian tribes and states, inherited the culture and its language - Latin - from the fallen Roman Empire. By the time of its fall in 475, the Western Roman Empire had already professed Christianity for about one hundred and fifty years. The Latin language (as well as Greek and Hebrew) was considered sacred by the Western Church: the argument was the Gospel testimony that it was in these three languages ​​that the inscription was made on the cross of the crucified Jesus Christ. But Latin was never accepted in Western Europe only like a sacred language. Latin was also the language of Roman pagan literature, inherited by the Christian West. The attitude towards Roman writers of the pre-Christian era (primarily Virgil and Horace) in the Western medieval world varied - from enthusiastic acceptance to complete rejection. Sometimes in monastery book-writing workshops - scriptoria, the texts of pagan authors were washed off from parchment manuscripts and written down in their place by pious Christian writings. But still, the works of ancient authors continued to be copied and read. Latin was also the language of pagan philosophy, not all of whose works were rejected by the Christian West, and the language of jurisprudence. In the Middle Ages, both church monuments and secular works were created in Latin.

The fate of the book language among the Orthodox Slavs was completely different. In the middle of the 9th century. Byzantine missionaries brothers Constantine (in monasticism - Cyril) and Methodius created the Slavic alphabet. Constantine and Methodius preached Christianity in the Moravian Principality; later Methodius was forced to leave Moravia and settled in Bulgaria. According to the vast majority of researchers, it was not the Cyrillic alphabet (the name “Cyrillic” comes from the name of Constantine - Cyril), which underlies the modern alphabets of the Eastern Slavs, Bulgarians and Serbs, but another alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet (however, there is also an opinion that Constantine compiled first the Glagolitic alphabet and then the Cyrillic alphabet). The Slavic alphabet was created specifically for the Slavic translation of sacred Christian texts. Constantine and Methodius were also the creators of the book Slavic language, and the first translators of sacred texts from Greek into this language. The book Slavic language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) was created, apparently, on the basis of the South Slavic dialects of Macedonia. It included words composed by analogy with the words of the Greek language, and some original words acquired new meanings that convey the meaning of Christian doctrine. The Old Church Slavonic language became the single liturgical language of the Orthodox Slavs. In the same language, priests in churches offered prayers to God both on the banks of the Danube, and on the spurs of the Rhodope Mountains, and in the dense forests of the Novgorod North, and on the Solovetsky Islands lost in the cold sea...

Over time, various Orthodox Slavic countries developed their own versions of the liturgical language, which lost some of the features characteristic of the language that existed under Constantine and Methodius. The liturgical language of the Eastern Slavs, Bulgarians and Serbs is usually called Church Slavonic.

The acquisition of writing was perceived by the Orthodox Slavs as a sacred event: Constantine and Methodius created Slavic writing by the grace of God. In the Bulgarian work of the late 9th - early 10th centuries, “The Tale of Writings” by Chernorizets Khrabra (this work was well known in Ancient Rus') it was said: “After all, before the Slavs, when they were pagans, did not have writings<...>.

Then God, the lover of mankind, who rules over everything and does not leave the human race without knowledge, but leads everyone to knowledge and salvation, had mercy on the Slavic race and sent them Saint Constantine the Philosopher, named (in tonsure) Cyril, a righteous and true man.<...>... For the Slavs there is only Saint Constantine<...>and translated books in a few years<...>. And therefore (also) Slavic writings are more holy and [more worthy of veneration], because they were created by a holy man, and the Greek ones were created by pagan Hellenes.<...>After all, if you ask the Greek scribes, saying: who created the writings or translated the books for you and at what time, then few among them know (this). If you ask the Slavic scribes who created the letters for you or translated the books, then everyone knows and, answering, they say: Saint Constantine the Philosopher<...>he created writings, and translated books, and Methodius, his brother” (Tales of the beginning of Slavic writing. M., 1981. pp. 102-105, trans. B. N. Flori).

Medieval Slavic scribes revered Church Slavonic as a sacred language and could not imagine that it should serve other purposes than the expression of the revealed truth of Christianity. Therefore, Church Slavonic could not become the language of artistic, secular literature, and therefore the writing of the Orthodox Slavs for centuries was almost exclusively religious in nature.

Famous philologist S.S. Averintsev, distinguishing between ancient Hebrew writing, represented by sacred texts (in the Christian tradition, the body of these texts was called the Old Testament), and ancient Greek works, proposed calling religious books “literature,” reserving the term “literature” only for works similar to ancient Greek. We cannot call the Jewish king David, who is credited with the authorship of one of the biblical sacred books - the Psalter - an author in the same sense of the word in which we call them, for example, Greek lyricists. And it is no coincidence for the biblical religious tradition It is not so important whether all the psalms really belong to David: what is important is not the authorship (the psalmist does not seek to express his individual feelings or demonstrate his own skill), but the authority of the name. Old Russian literature can also rightfully be called “literature”.

The main feature of literature is fiction. The artistic world of literary works has a special status, “fictionality”: a statement in a literary text is neither a lie nor the truth. The role of fiction is especially clear in narrative and plot works. Works with fictional plots and characters existed both in medieval Europe (for example, chivalric romances) and in Byzantium (for example, romance novels). But ancient Russian literature, until the 17th century, did not know fictional characters and plots. From our outside point of view, much in ancient Russian works seems to be fiction. For example, when, under 1096, in the chronicle known as “The Tale of Bygone Years,” the story of a certain Novgorodian Gyuryata Rogovich is given. People from the northern Ugra tribe told the envoy of Gyuryata Rogovich about a certain people imprisoned in the mountains: “<...>The essence of the mountain is beyond the bow of the sea, its height is as high as heaven, and in those mountains there is a great cry and talk, and a slashing of the mountain, wanting to be carved; and in that mountain there is a little cut-out window, and there is nothing to say there, and there is no understanding of their language, but to speak on iron and anoint (waving. - A.R.) with a hand, asking for iron; and if anyone gives them a knife or an axe, they will give it against the speed (fur. - A.R.)“. To modern man Having a rationalistic consciousness, the miracles described in the lives of saints also seem to be fiction. But both ancient Russian scribes and their readers believed in the events described.

Fiction was also alien to South Slavic Orthodox literature. The fate of “Alexandria”, a translation of the ancient Greek novel about the great king and commander of antiquity, Alexander the Great, is interesting in Rus' and among the southern Slavs. “Alexandria” was translated into Church Slavonic in Rus' in the 12th century. and in Serbia in the XIII - XIV centuries. (Serbian translation, the so-called “Serbian Alexandria” spread in Muscovite Rus' in the 15th century). “Alexandria” reported that Alexander’s father was not the Macedonian king Philip II, but the Egyptian wizard Nectanabus: he entered the chambers of Queen Olympias, Philip’s wife, taking the form of a huge serpent. The fantastic creatures that Alexander the Great met on his campaigns are described in detail in “Alexandria”: six-armed and six-legged people and people with dog heads, one-legged people and half-humans, half-horses - centaurs. It tells about a wonderful lake in the water of which dead fish came to life.

For educated Byzantines, “Alexandria” was entertaining reading, a fairy tale novel. They distinguished the novel about the Macedonian king from the historical works dedicated to him, and when they wanted to find out the truth about Alexander’s campaigns, they read, for example, his biography, belonging to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch. But ancient Russian scribes (as well as Bulgarian and Serbian) treated “Alexandria” differently: as a reliable historical source. The Greek novel in Rus' was included in historical works - chronographs.

Old Russian literature until the 17th century. does not describe love experiences and does not seem to know the very concept of “love”. She talks either about sinful “prodigal passion” leading to the death of the soul, or about a virtuous Christian marriage (for example, in “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”).

In the 17th century In Russia, fictional works are gradually spreading - love adventures, adventurous stories. The first stories with fictional plots and characters were translations and adaptations. The most famous among them are “The Tale of Beauvais the Prince,” which dates back to the French novel about the knight Beauvais d’Antono, and “The Tale of Eruslan Lazarevich,” the source of which was the Eastern legend about the valiant hero Rustem (this story served as one of the sources of Pushkin’s poem “ Ruslan and Ludmila"). These works caused dissatisfaction among conservative-minded people who were accustomed to the works. Thus, the courtier, steward Ivan Begichev sternly reprimanded in a message to readers of adventurous stories: “All of you, except for the fabulous stories spoken about Prince Bova and the spiritually beneficial things you imagine, which are stated from an infant<...>and about other similar fabulous stories and ridiculous letters - they haven’t read any divine books or theological doctrines” (Yatsimirsky A.I. Message of Ivan Begichev about the visible image of God... // Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities. 1898 Book 2. Dept. 2. P. 4). Begichev was accustomed to seeing “spiritually beneficial reading” in literature, and he could not understand that lovers of “unhelpful stories” were not at all deceived, did not mistake them for “spiritually beneficial reading”: they reveled in their “unhelpfulness”, the intricacies of events, bold deeds and love adventures of the characters.

Usually in textbooks and lecture courses it is customary to distinguish between religious and secular ancient Russian literature; This distinction is maintained in many scientific studies. In fact, it reflects the peculiarities of the researcher’s consciousness rather than the structure of ancient Russian literature. Of course, a liturgical hymn (canon) to a saint, a word (a genre of solemn eloquence) for a church holiday, or the life of a saint are works of religious content. But both the military story and the chronicle, most often classified as monuments of secular literature, depict and interpret events from a religious point of view. Everything that happens is explained by the participation of Providence, the implementation of the divine plan: events take place either by the will and grace of God (these are good events), or by God’s permission, as punishment for the sins of the Russian princes and their subjects (these are unkind, “evil” events - invasions of foreigners, crop failures , natural disasters). The chronicler is not interested in the cause-and-effect relationship in history - he is not a historian, but a “recorder.”

In the chronicles, Russian history was inscribed in a series of events world history and was considered within the framework of ideas about the movement of time inherited from the Bible. The landmarks of sacred history are the creation of the world, the flood and the settlement of peoples after the flood, the incarnation of God, the death on the cross and the Resurrection of Christ, the spread of Christianity and, from an eschatological perspective, the Second Coming of Christ and the Last Judgment - these are the milestones of history for the chroniclers. They constantly draw analogies between contemporary events and acts described in the Bible. It is no coincidence that most of them were monks. Some researchers (I.N. Danilevsky, A.N. Uzhankov) are inclined to believe that the chronicles were created as a list of good and evil deeds, intended for God himself, as books by which the Lord would judge people on the day of the last judgment, but no direct there is no evidence of this. The books by which the Lord judges the human race in the Revelation of John the Theologian are not chronicles written by people.

Old Russian literature did not know proper secular genres until the 17th century. There was nothing in it love lyrics, similar to the poetry of the Minnesingers and troubadours in Western Europe, nor stories of exploits and love adventures, like the chivalric romances in the West. There were no historical works whose authors offered their own interpretations or detailed analysis of events. Such authored historical works were widespread in Byzantium (works by Michael Psellus, Nikita Choniates, etc.). In Rus', “author’s” stories appeared only in the 16th century. (“The Story of the Grand Duke of Moscow” by Andrei Kurbsky) and were widely distributed in the next century. Over the course of previous centuries, ancient Russian scribes, from the rich Byzantine historiographical heritage, became acquainted only with chronicles - works in which the events of world history were simply and artlessly presented in chronological order; the compilers of the chronicles, like the Russian chroniclers, explained what was happening by Divine Providence.

In the West and in Byzantium, the same material, the same plots and motives could be described in both sacred and secular texts: not only the Gospels and lives, but also poems told about the earthly life of Christ, the Mother of God and the saints and dramatic writings. The lives of rulers, if they were canonized, were told in both lives and secular biographies.

It was different in Rus'. Only sacred texts spoke about Christ and the saints. If a chronicle told about a saint, then the description of his life was either directly borrowed from hagiography or was written in a hagiographic style. When ancient Russian scribes described the life of rulers, under their pen it invariably turned into hagiography: ancient Russian literature did not know secular biography until its decline.

Of course, secular motifs existed in Russian folklore (however, we have very rough ideas about the composition of ancient Russian oral folk art, since the oldest records of Russian folklore are no older than the 17th century). But folk literature was a special sphere of culture, not similar to ancient Russian literature.

In relation to ancient Russian literature, it would be more correct to speak not about the distinction between the religious and secular spheres, but about the boundaries between sacred, divinely inspired texts and works of lower religious status. The Bible (Holy Scripture), Holy Tradition (works of saints - the Fathers of the Church - who formulated the foundations of Christian doctrine, dogma), liturgical (liturgical) texts formed the core or - if we use another spatial image - the pinnacle of ancient Russian literature. Unauthorized editing and interference with the texts of Holy Scripture and liturgy were not allowed. In 1525, a Greek who came from a Greek monastery on the famous Mount Athos (here was a kind of “monastic republic”, an “inflorescence” of Orthodox monasteries - Greek, Bulgarian, Serbian, Russian) Maxim was convicted by Russian church authorities and sent to prison for repentance; The reason for the harsh decision was Maxim the Greek’s translations from the Old Testament, which contained deviations (in grammar!) from the tradition established in Rus'.

Monuments of church eloquence, lives, walks (descriptions of pilgrimages), patericon (collections of stories about monks of a monastery or locality) had less authority. Scribes often edited, added to, or shortened their text. Works dedicated to real, everyday events were still “a step lower.”

Thus, Old Russian literature does not represent a rigid system with clearly demarcated spheres: there are not boundaries between different areas of literature, but gradual, “smooth” transitions.

Old Russian literature did not know comic, funny, or parody works, although they existed both in the West and in Byzantium. There are only isolated ironic phrases or satirical “sketches.” Talking about the defeat of Voivode Pleshcheev, the chronicler noted that he ran, turning his “shoulders” (shoulders). In the narration of the terrible and humiliating defeat of the Russian army by the Tatars on the Piana River in 1377, the chronicler accuses the Russians of spending their time in feasts and carelessly not preparing for an attack by the enemy. “Truly, you are drunk,” wrote an ancient Russian scribe. But these individual ironic or satirical fragments are part of completely “serious” works. “Laughter leads to sin,” says a Russian proverb. Laughter and unbridled fun in ancient Russian Orthodox culture were considered not only sinful, but also blasphemous. Laughter and fun accompanied folk holidays of pagan origin. The Church invariably condemned these holidays.

Only in the 17th century. Comic literature is emerging in Rus'. At the same time, in the 1670s, the Russian theater was created, the first plays were staged on the court stage and composed. Acting and acting were considered sinful activities. Firstly, this is empty entertainment. Secondly, and this is the main thing, playwrights and actors created their own, illusory world, as if encroaching on the rights of God, the only Creator. The artists renounced their personality, their own destiny given to them by God, and played other people's lives and roles. Archpriest Avvakum, who fiercely defended the blessed antiquity, wrote about the court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and about the actors like this: a child plays an angel, but he does not know that it is not he who portrays the angel, but the demon himself.

“If you don’t have enough, you have nothing,” this caustic remark of one of the characters in Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita”, at first glance, is ideally applicable not only to the Soviet shortage, but also to ancient Russian literature. But the differences between ancient Russian literature and contemporary literatures of the Latin West or Byzantium do not at all indicate its inferiority, “second-rateness.” Just ancient Russian culture - in many ways different. Culturologist and semiotician B.A. Uspensky explained the uniqueness of Old Russian literature as follows. A word, according to semiotics (the science of signs) is a conditional (conventional) sign in which the signified (this or that concept, meaning) and the signifier (the sound “shell”, the sound composition of the word) are arbitrarily connected. There is no internal relationship between sounds and concepts. No wonder in different languages different signifiers correspond to the same signified, and in the same language a concept can be designated by different synonymous words. But to the ancient Russian religious and cultural consciousness, the connection between the signified and the signified seemed involuntary, indissoluble. Sacred texts were thought of as a “message” emanating from God himself. Words - conventional signs - were perceived in Ancient Rus' as iconic signs (in semiotics, this term refers to signs based on the similarity or resemblance between the signified and the signifier - photographs, road signs with images, painting, sculpture, cinema). With such an attitude towards literature, the aesthetic “game” inherent in fiction turned out to be impossible.

Old Russian literature is not “fine literature.” Old Russian literature is connected with everyday life, with ritual, with the practical needs of society in a completely different way than the literature of modern times. Church hymns were sung at certain times during services, and samples of church eloquence and short lives of saints were heard in the church. (They were called complex, according to the Slavic name of the collection of short lives - Prologue; These texts were read during the sixth song of the liturgical hymn - the canon). The monks listened to the reading of lengthy lives during meals; information from the lives of the posthumous miracles of saints served to justify the canonization (establishment of church veneration) of these saints. Chronicles were a peculiar thing for the people of Ancient Rus' legal document. After the death of Moscow Prince Yuri Dmitrievich in 1425, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the Moscow throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to arbitrate their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.

But nevertheless, ancient Russian literary monuments have undoubted aesthetic properties. In a culture that does not distinguish between artistic and non-artistic, aesthetic properties are found in works that have utilitarian functions: everything became involved in divine beauty.

In ancient Russian literature, events and things surrounding a person are symbols and manifestations of a higher, spiritual, divine reality. Two forces rule in the world - the will of God, who desires the good of man, and the will of the devil, who with his machinations desires to turn man away from God and destroy him. Man is free to choose between good and evil, light and darkness. But by succumbing to the power of the devil, he loses his freedom, and by resorting to the help of God, he gains Divine grace that strengthens him.

Compilers of lives and sermons, chroniclers, and authors of historical stories invariably turn to the Bible. Old Russian writings are a kind of fabric. The constant basis and “red thread” of these texts, their leitmotifs, are symbols, metaphors, sayings borrowed from biblical books. Thus, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” (XI - early XII century) - a hagiographic narrative about the holy brothers, the sons of the baptist of Rus', Prince Vladimir, who voluntarily and innocently accepted martyrdom at the hands of their half-brother Svyatopolk - opens with the lines: “The family of the righteous will be blessed, - the prophet said, “and their seed will be blessed.” This reminiscence from the biblical book of Psalms is one of the semantic keys to the text. But sometimes allusions to Holy Scripture, pointing to the symbolic meanings introduced into the text by the ancient Russian scribe, are not so obvious to us. And ancient Russian readers recognized them without difficulty. The youth Gleb in the same “Legend...” touchingly prays to the murderers: “You will not cut the vines without fully growing, but having the fruit!” The young vine is not just an emotional metaphor, but a Christological symbol: in the Gospel of John (chapter 15), Jesus Christ calls himself the vine. Gleb is mercilessly killed on the orders of Svyatopolk’s envoys by his own cook: “The cook Glebov, named Tarchin, took the knife and, blessed be he, slaughtered it like a lamb, immaculately and without forehead<...>" Comparison with a lamb (lamb) not only testifies to the gentleness and meekness of the saint; Lamb, Lamb of God is a metaphorical name for Christ in the Holy Scriptures. Comparing Gleb with a lamb, the compiler of the “Tale...” likens him to Christ, who accepted an innocent death.

Time and space in ancient Russian literature are not physical categories. They have special semantics. Eternity shines through the temporary. The church holidays that repeat every year: Christmas, death and Resurrection of Christ were not just a memory of the events of the Savior’s earthly life, but a mysterious and real repetition of these very events. Believers experienced each holiday of the Nativity as the birth of the baby Jesus, and each Easter holiday was for them a new resurrection of Christ from the dead. It is no coincidence that the ancient Russian preacher of the 12th century. Kirill Turovsky, remembering the resurrection of Christ, constantly uses the word “today” (“now”).

Biblical events were interpreted as types of what was happening in the present. For ancient Russian people, the events of the past did not disappear without a trace: they gave birth to a long “echo”, repeating themselves and being renewed in the present. An echo, an echo of the biblical story about the murder of Abel by brother Cain for the ancient Russian scribes was the treacherous murder of the holy princes brothers Boris and Gleb by the “new, second Cain” - half-brother Svyatopolk. In turn, later Russian princes were likened to Svyatopolk, just like him, who took the lives of their relatives.

Space for ancient Russian people was not just a geographical concept. It could be “friend” and “alien”, “native” and “hostile”. Such, for example, are, on the one hand, Christian lands and especially “holy places” (Palestine with Jerusalem, Constantinople with its shrines, Mount Athos monasteries in the Balkans). The semantics of space in ancient Russian literature was studied by Yu.M. Lotman. The “holy”, “righteous” lands were located in the east, “at sunrise” (it is no coincidence that the main part of the Christian temple, its “holy of holies” was always facing the east). The “sinful lands” were located in the west and north. But the concepts of “east” and “west” in ancient Russian religious consciousness had, first of all, not a geographical, but a value-religious meaning.

The city with its temples and walls was contrasted with the Wild Steppe, from where foreigners - the Polovtsians and Tatars - launched raids. The secular territory of the city, villages, and fields were contrasted with the sacred space of temples and monasteries.

Style in ancient Russian literature depended not on the genre of the work, but on the subject of the story. In describing the life of the saint, a stable set of expressions was used - “stencils” and biblical quotes. The saint was usually called “an earthly angel and a heavenly man,” “wonderful and wonderful,” and they talked about the “light” of his soul and exploits, about the unwavering, thirsty love for God. He was likened to the illustrious saints of the past. These same “stencils”, “common places” are used when depicting the saint both in the chronicle fragment and in the laudatory speech.

The image of the ideal prince remained unchanged in various works: he is pious, merciful and fair, and brave. His death is mourned by all people - rich and poor.

Another set of “stencils” was characteristic of the military style. This style was used to describe battles in chronicles, historical stories, and lives. The enemy came out “in heavy strength” and surrounded the Russian army like a forest; Russian princes offered prayers to God before the battle; arrows flew like rain; the warriors fought, clutching their hands; the battle was so fierce that blood flooded the valleys, etc.

In the culture of the New Age, everything non-trivial and not yet known is highly valued. The main advantage of a writer is his individuality and inimitable style.

In ancient Russian literature, the canon reigned - the rules and patterns according to which scribes compiled their works. No less significant is the role of the canon in other areas of ancient Russian culture, in particular in icon painting: images of various scenes of sacred history had a stable composition and color scheme. The icon represented this or that saint in an unchanged appearance, and not only facial features were repeated, but also clothing, and even the shape of the beard. In the 16th–17th centuries, special manuals for painting icons—iconographic originals—became widespread.

Researcher of ancient Russian literature, academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term to denote the role of tradition, the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”. Here is how the scientist himself explains this concept: “The literary etiquette of a medieval writer was composed of ideas about: 1) how this or that course of events should have taken place, 2) how the character should have behaved in accordance with his position, 3) what words should have been used the author describes what is happening.<...>

It would be wrong to see in the literary etiquette of the Russian Middle Ages only a set of mechanically repeating patterns and stencils, a lack of creative invention, the “ossification” of creativity, and to confuse this literary etiquette with the patterns of individual mediocre works of the 19th century. The whole point is that all these verbal formulas, stylistic features, certain repeating situations, etc. are used by the medieval writer not at all mechanically, but precisely where they are required. The writer chooses, reflects, and is concerned about the overall “prettyness” of the presentation. The very literary canons are varied by him, changing depending on his ideas about “literary decency.” It is these ideas that are central to his work.

What we have before us is not a mechanical selection of stencils, but creativity, in which the writer strives to express his ideas about what is proper and proper, not so much inventing something new as combining the old” (Likhachev D.S. Poetics of Literature // Artistic and Aesthetic Culture of Ancient Rus'. XI - XVII century. M., 1996. P. 66).

The term “literary etiquette” has become generally accepted in studies on the history of ancient Russian literature.

Yu.M. Lotman called canonical art (which includes ancient Russian literature) an “information paradox.” The new text should convey new information, however, in the case of canonical art this does not happen: it is the message, the content that turns out to be “clichéd” and repetitive. Thus, the lives of various saints are, in a certain sense of the word, one text with the same “character” and sequence of events (the image of the saint and his actions in numerous lives are similar). In works of canonical art, as the researcher claims, the form, the “plane of expression”, is noticeable, and not the repetitive content. Yu.M. Lotman saw the function of texts of canonical art in communicating to the perceiver (reader, contemplator, listener) the principles by which these texts are constructed. Such principles are a code (“language”, a system of techniques that conveys information), with the help of which the reader could interpret other texts in a new way. These include, according to Yu.M. Lotman, and the world around him, and the ideas about it of a person of canonical culture. (Yu.M. Lotman uses the concept of “text” in an expanded, semiotic sense: reality is also a text that has a certain meaning that needs to be comprehended.) But mastering this code does not require a large number of texts (as it actually is), and therefore Yu.M. Lotman believes that canonical art contains and transmits not only codes, but also new messages. According to the researcher, these new messages are created due to the fact that when creating texts there is a violation of the rules declared by traditionalist cultures (see: Lotman Yu.M. 1) About two models of communication in the cultural system; 2) Canonical art as an information paradox // Lotman Yu.M. Selected articles: In 3 volumes. Tallinn, 1992. T. 1. P. 84-85; 243-247). However, such an interpretation threatens to level out the difference between traditionalist and anti-traditionalist cultures. Other cases are probably more typical for canon-oriented cultures, and in particular for Old Russian literature.

New things in a traditionalist text can be created not due to the originality of the message, but due to the peculiarities of the code expressing this message. The Life of Sergius of Radonezh (1417-1418) by Epiphanius the Wise is an example when a given, familiar content is conveyed using codes, the interaction of which in the text is unpredictable and original. The reader of the Life knows that he will be informed about the mystical connection between the life of Sergius and the Holy Trinity. But he cannot predict how this will be done: at the phrasal level (using triple repetitions of some words or expressions), at the event level (and it is not known through what events), with the help of hagiographer’s explanations and retrospective analogies with biblical righteous people , in the narrative of which there are also thrice repeated events. Elements of triple repetitions in the Life often do not form single blocks, but are separated by significant fragments of text. The reader must discover these series. Reading the Life turns out to be a reconstruction of the life of a saint as a whole with meaning. The text of the Life leads the reader to the deep meaning of the dogma of the Holy Trinity - a multi-valued and hidden meaning...

The originality of the ancient Russian scribe (and Epiphanius was undoubtedly skillful and original writer) is manifested not in neglecting tradition, not in violating it, but in “building on” its own additional principles of ordering and organizing the text over its rules.

The style of some ancient Russian scribes is easily recognizable and has striking distinctive features. Thus, it is impossible to attribute to someone else not only the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated “weaving of words.” The style of Ivan the Terrible’s messages is inimitable, boldly mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation. But these are rather exceptions. Old Russian authors did not consciously try to be original, did not boast, did not “show off” beauty and grace or the novelty of style.

The author's origin in ancient Russian literature is muted and implicit. Old Russian scribes were not careful with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were processed: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or inserted into them, and stylistic “decorations” were added. The author's ideas and assessments were replaced by the opposite. Lists of one work that differ significantly from each other are called “editions” by researchers. Old Russian scribes rarely indicated their names in manuscripts. As a rule, authors mention their names only when necessary to give the story authenticity and documentary quality. Thus, the compilers of lives often said that they were eyewitnesses to events in the life of the saint. The authors of pilgrimage narratives, describing their own journeys to great Christian shrines, reported their names. What was valued above all was not authorship, but the authority of the writer. Russian scribes even attributed to some of the Greek theologians - church fathers - St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom - teachings against paganism that were actually created in Rus'. The authority of the name gave these texts greater influence and weight. Among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave these works additional authority.

The concept of authorship in the modern sense appears only in the 17th century. The court poets Simeon of Polotsk, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin already consider themselves the creators of original creations, emphasizing their literary skills. They receive monetary rewards from the kings for their writings. Their contemporary Archpriest Avvakum, a zealous adherent of the traditions of antiquity, nevertheless constantly breaks the established rules and writes an autobiographical narrative - his own biography in the form of the life of a saint (not a single scribe of previous centuries could even imagine such a thing). Habakkuk likens himself to the apostles and Christ himself. He moves freely from book language to colloquial vernacular.

Modern literature is characterized by an awareness of its own dynamics and development: both writers and readers distinguish between the recognized, authoritative “fund” of literature - the classics - and today’s works that create new artistic languages, transform reality in new ways, and cause controversy. Such self-awareness is alien to Old Russian literature. For a Moscow scribe of the 15th or 16th centuries, the works of Kyiv chroniclers or hagiographers of three and four centuries ago and modern texts are not fundamentally different. Old texts may be more authoritative than new ones, sometimes less understandable than modern ones, and therefore, for example, their language requires updating when rewritten. Ancient works were sometimes subjected to both ideological and stylistic editing. However, the same thing happened with texts created recently. Ancient and modern texts were read equally and were often included in the same manuscript collections. Works of different periods are thought of as synchronous, belonging to the same time. All literature is, as it were, “achronic”, has a timeless character.

The literature of modern times represents a certain system, all elements (genres, texts) of which are interconnected. When a literary movement or direction is formed, its inherent features appear in a variety of genres. Thus, researchers write about a romantic poem, a romantic elegy, and a romantic tragedy or story. The evolution of a single genre or group of genres, discoveries made in these genres, are also perceived by works belonging to completely different literary spheres. Thus, the techniques of the psychological novel of the mid-second half of the 19th century are inherited by the lyrics; under the influence of dominant prose, poetry is “prosaicized” (lyrics and poems by N.A. Nekrasov); the dominant role of poetry in the literature of symbolism leads to the “lyricization” of symbolist prose.

In ancient Russian literature such a connection between different types bookishness, which scientists traditionally also call genres, does not exist.

Even in the 17th century, when historical narratives underwent dramatic changes and previously unknown genres emerged, scribes continued to create the lives of saints according to the old schemes. Some genres develop faster, others slower, and others “stagnate” in immobility. Naturally, genres whose structure is determined by the rules of worship do not evolve. The lives have changed little, for they tell about the eternal - about the revelation and presence of holiness in the earthly world. Different genres have their own And human life. At the same time, for example, a hagiographic “character”, a saint, and in other genres will be portrayed differently from ordinary, sinful people, a prince - invariably differently from a commoner. In a similar way, saints, the Mother of God and Christ, servants, sinners, demons are always depicted on icons differently, regardless of their position in space: Christ and the Mother of God are much taller than the apostles standing next to them; even smaller than the servant. Demons are invariably shown in profile.

In the literature of modern times, works of various genres “speak” about different things, create different artistic worlds: the world of elegy is other world than the world of novel or comedy. The world of ancient Russian literature is one - it is a reality created by God. But it is seen in different genres from different points of view; genre in And The writing of the chronicle is unlike hagiography: the chronicler records and selects events differently than the hagiographer. But these different approaches to reality are compatible: for example, a hagiographical story is often inserted into a chronicle text. A brief mention in the chronicle of a saint or a story about the deeds of a prince in the name of the land and faith in the chronicle can be transformed into a hagiographical narrative. Ideas about man and the world are not created by an ancient Russian scribe, but are given, “pre-found” in church teaching. In the literature of modern times, these ideas have a different origin: they are dictated to varying degrees by the genre, era, and worldview of the author.

Now some Russian (for example, V.M. Zhivov) and many foreign (G. Lenhoff, R. Marti, R. Picchio, etc.) researchers, not without reason, believe that such a category as genre is not applicable to Old Russian literature at all: the identification of genres is associated with the awareness of poetics and style as valuable artistic phenomena in their own right, but this was not the case in Ancient Rus'. Works various types were not separated from each other by clear boundaries, “crossed”, “flowed” into each other. The number of exceptions - works that are not traditional in terms of genre - almost exceeds the number of texts that are “correct” from a genre point of view. This is not accidental: genre consciousness presupposes the isolation of texts from each other. The monuments of ancient Russian literature, designed to express and carry the only Divine Truth, constituted a single semantic space.

Religion determines not just a set of themes of ancient Russian literature; faith determines the very essence of ancient literature.

The reforms of Peter I charted a new path for Russian culture and literature: secular, worldly art triumphed, and the works of Western European authors became a model. Ancient traditions were cut short, their own literature was forgotten. The gradual discovery, the “rebirth” of Old Russian literature took place in the 19th and 20th centuries. A special world appeared before researchers and readers, beautiful and mysterious in its difference from modern literature.


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1.Borders and periodization of ancient Russian literature. Characteristics of the main stages.

According to many researchers, ancient Russian literature developed in the 10th century, but the works of this period have not reached us. Old Russian literature is the literature of the Russian Middle Ages, which has gone through a long seven-century path in its development, from the 11th century. to the 17th century

Already in the middle of the 17th century, new trends in literature began, oriented towards the West. But it was decided to include all the literature of the 17th century in the study and consider it as a transitional period. During the period of the formation of literature, its “apprenticeship”, the center of political and cultural life was Kyiv, “the mother of Russian cities”, therefore the literature of the 11th - first third of the 12th centuries. usually called literature of Kievan Rus .This period is characterized by the relative unity of literature, which is determined by the interrelationship of two main cultural centers states - Kyiv and Novgorod. This is a period of apprenticeship, with Byzantium and Bulgaria acting as mentors. Translated literature predominates. It is first dominated by religious texts, and then secular literature appears. The main theme is the theme of the Russian land and its position in the family of Christian peoples.

Literature from the era of feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th-first third of the 13th century). This period is associated with the emergence of regional literary centers in Vladimir, Rostov, Smolensk, etc. There has been a process of “dissimilarity” of the styles of Russian chronicle writing, hagiography, and oratory. The monumental-historical style dominates in literature. The most significant literary monuments of this period are “The Prayer of Daniel the Prisoner”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “Walking across the Three Seas”, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”.

Literature of the era Tatar-Mongol invasion (second third of 13-1380). During this period, the main theme of literature is heroic, and the monumental-historical style acquires a tragic connotation and lyrical emotion.

Literature from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo (1380-80s of the 15th century). This is a time of creative quest and discovery in literature, which is caused by the rise of national consciousness and the rise of Moscow. A new moral ideal of the era is emerging, which is reflected in the lives of the saints Epiphanius the Wise. The reader's interest in fiction and historical-journalistic literature is growing.

Literature of Moscow centralized state (late 15th-16th century). This stage was characterized by an unprecedented flourishing of journalism, because there were many problems in the state. Tradition begins to prevail over the new, literature is going through a period of new monumentalism, and interest in the biographies of historical figures is emerging.

Literature of the transitional stage (17th century). During this period, there is a clash between new and old principles of artistic creativity. The development of the individual principle is visible in everything. After Nikon's church reform, literature was divided into democratic and official. The autobiographical principle is rapidly growing, and attention to the person’s personality appears.

2. The main features of Old Russian literature and its artistic method.

The literature of other Rus' set as its goal the creation of a spiritual ideal of man. There were almost no portraits in literature (only those based on comparison or by mixing internal and external characteristics person), the landscape was used quite rarely and only for a symbolic purpose (with the exception of the genre of walking). There was no satire in the works, there were only elements of humor and irony, only in the 17th century. satirical stories appeared. The purpose of writing any work was to teach. Up to the 17th century. there was no conscious fiction in literature; historicism was mandatory in works. But the literature was filled with legends. Literature also had obligatory features: journalisticism, patriotism, and traditionalism. Old Russian literature was anonymous and handwritten. The author of most works is unknown.

3. The originality of the system of genres of ancient Russian literature and the characteristics of the main genres. Article by N.I. Prokofiev “On the worldview of the Russian Middle Ages and the system of genres of Russian literature XI - X V1st century."

In ancient Russian literature, several systems of genres existed and interacted: folklore and business writing, translated and original literature, both liturgical and secular in nature. The basis for identifying genres was the object of the image. Lyrical genres: teachings and messages. Teaching is a genre designed to convey a system of political, religious or moral views to listeners or readers. They were didactic and solemn. An epistle is a genre intended for telling about events or expressing thoughts to an addressee remote from the author. It consists of 4 parts: escript (external address), prescript (introduction, appeal), semantheme (content of the message), clause (good wish). There were also inserted genres, for example, crying, praise, prayer. Epic genres: hagiography - a genre telling about life real person, canonized after death. Composition of the life: introduction (self-deprecation of the author, many topoi, appeal to God for help), central narrative (story or mention of parents, story about childhood, the life of the hero, his death and posthumous miracles), conclusion (praise or prayer to the saint). Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. There are different types: pilgrimage, merchant, embassy, ​​and exploration. In composition, it is a chain of travel sketches connected chronologically or topographically. A historical story is a genre that tells about a historical event. It is divided into a military story and a story about princely and boyar crimes. Composition - preparation of the event, narration about the event, consequences of the event. The narrator, as a rule, is a mysterious person. There is also another epic genre - the parable. Symbolic genres – vision, miracle, sign. Other genres are chronicle (could include all genres), patericon (stories about the life of monks).

4.Genre of teaching in literatureXI- XIIcenturies Solemn teachings of Hilarion and Cyril of Turov.

Teaching is a genre intended to convey a certain system of ideas to the reader or listener.
1 type - ceremonial (church and state problems)
Type 2 - didactic (moral and everyday problems)

The monument of oratorical prose of Kievan Rus belongs to the solemn eloquence “The Sermon on Law and Grace of Metropolitan Hilarion” - affirms the idea of ​​equality of Rus' and the Russian people with all other Christian states and peoples. Comparison of the Old and New Testaments. Assessment of the actions of Vladimir. Teaching against Judaism. The word is full of quotes and detailed comparisons from biblical texts; it activates the reader’s perception due to the abundance of rhetorical figures.

Teachings of Kirill of Turov. See summary 7 Kirill is an original thinker and artist. Perhaps, until Derzhavin, a writer of such strength, significance and height of moral feeling as Kirill, the conscience of his difficult and turbulent time, had not appeared in Russian literature. He subtly uses the wealth of traditional poetic means to create a text that is polyphonic in meaning and feeling. Here the lofty and everyday plans seem to coexist, signifying the endless struggle between good and evil.

5. Characteristics of the genre of life. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”: composition, image of the main character, style. Genre originality of “The Tale of Boris and Gleb.”


Life- a genre that tells about the life of a historical person who was canonized after death. A strict canon of writing, 3 parts in the composition: introduction (author’s self-deprecation, prayer, about sources), biography of the saint (childhood, parents, growing up, life path, exploits, about death and posthumous miracles), praise or prayer to the saint.

About the works, see in the future

The problem of the time of creation, the genre originality of “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”.

A whole series of works in Russian literature is dedicated to Boris and Gleb. In addition to the chronicle stories, it includes the “Reading about the life and destruction” of Boris and Gleb, written by Nestor, the anonymous “Tale and Passion and Praise” to the saints, which in the Assumption collection is adjoined by the “Tale of Miracles”, which arose on the basis of records compiled V different time . The question of the relationship and chronology of individual works that make up the Boris-Gleb cycle is very complex. There are several versions. According to the first, first the “Tale” arose (at the end of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise), then the “Tale of Miracles”, and on this basis Nestor wrote “Reading”. According to the second version, “Reading” first appeared (at the end of the 11th century), together with the chronicle story, serving as a source for the author of the “Tale”. But there is no consensus. The most literary monument of the Boris-Gleb cycle is considered to be the anonymous “Tale”, the author of which focused mainly on the spiritual side of this historical drama. The task of the hagiographer is to depict the suffering of the saints and show the greatness of their spirit in the face of inevitable death. Boris knows in advance about Svyatopolk’s plans to kill him, and he is faced with the choice of either going to “fight Kyiv” and killing him, or with his death to initiate Christian relations between the princes - humility and submission to the elder. Boris chooses martyrdom. The psychological complexity of this choice is shown, which makes the picture of his death truly tragic, and to enhance the impact on the reader, the author repeats the scene of the prince’s murder three times. There are a lot of prayers in “The Legend,” Boris prays especially with inspiration before his death. The intonations of crying literally permeate the “Tale”, defining the main tone of the narrative. All this corresponds to the hagiographic canon. But the work is also characterized by a tendency towards individualization of the hagiographic hero, which contradicted the canon, but corresponded to the truth of life. The image of the younger brother Gleb did not duplicate the hagiographic characteristics of the elder. Gleb is more inexperienced than his brother, so he has complete confidence in Svyatopolk. Later, Gleb cannot suppress his fear of death and begs the killers for mercy. The author created one of the first psychological portraits in Russian literature, rich in the subtle emotional experiences of the hero. For Gleb, the destiny of a martyr is still premature. The depiction of the hagiographic anti-hero Svyatopolk is psychologically reliable. He is obsessed with envy and pride, he thirsts for power, and therefore is characterized by the epithets “cursed”, “despicable”. For the crime he committed, he bears a well-deserved punishment. Yaroslav the Wise defeats him, and Svyatopolk dies on the run. He is contrasted with Boris and Gleb, and Yaroslav, who became an instrument of divine retribution for the murderer. In order to surround the heroes with an aura of holiness, the author at the end talks about their posthumous miracles and praises them, putting them on a par with famous church figures. Unlike the traditional hagiography, the “Tale” does not describe the lives of the heroes from birth, but speaks only of their villainous murder. Pronounced

Historicism also contradicts the canons of life. Therefore, we can say that “The Tale” combines both hagiographic elements and elements of divergence from the canon, which reveals the genre originality of this work.

Hagiography is a genre that tells about the life of a real historical figure, canonized after death. Russian hagiographies developed on the basis of Byzantine ones. The genre took shape in the first centuries of Christianity and was supposed to serve as an illustration of Christian commandments. In the first lives, many miracles repeated the miracles of Christ. They were simple in form, but gradually they became more complex. Signs of life: idealization (ideal saints, ideal evil); in composition - strict adherence to the canons (introduction - many topoi, self-deprecation of the author, appeal to God for help; central narrative - a story or mention of parents; a story about the hero’s childhood; a story about his life and exploits; a story about death and posthumous miracles; conclusion -praise or prayer to a saint); the narrator is always an educated and well-read person, distancing himself from the hero, providing information about himself, clearly expressing his position in relation to the hero with the help of biblical quotes; the language is Church Slavonic and lively spoken, with extensive use of tropes and biblical quotations. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Following the genre canon, the author filled the life with traditional images and motifs. In the introduction, he self-deprecates; in stories about his childhood, Theodosius talks about his spirituality, talks about posthumous miracles. But Nestor violates one of the main rules of the genre - to depict -> a saint outside the specific signs of time and peoples. The author strives to convey the flavor of the era, which turns the work into a source of valuable historical information. From it we learn what charter regulated life in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, how the monastery grew and became rich, intervened in the struggle of the princes for the Kiev table, and contributed to the development of book publishing in Rus'. The main part of the life sometimes resembles the “hagiographical chronicle” of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, because includes stories about spiritual mentors, associates and students of Theodosius. In addition to the monastic life of Theodosius, his participation in the political life of Rus' is shown, which also increases the value of the “Life” as a literary monument.

“Life” laid the foundation for the development of the genre of venerable life in Russian literature.

6. “Teaching to Your Children” by Vladimir Monomakh. Composition, style, elements of autobiography.

“The Instruction” of Vladimir Monomakh is a wonderful monument of secular “educational” literature. It is written in the form of a lesson for children. The advice given in it reflected not only his experience as a statesman, a far-sighted politician and commander, but also his literary education, writing talent, and his ideas about the moral character of a Christian. This “Teaching” has come down to us in the Laurentian Chronicle. Compositionally, it consists of 3 parts: the actual teaching; Monomakh's story about his life, including his campaigns; letter from Monomakh to Oleg Svyatoslavich. At the same time, parts 2-3 serve as an illustration of the advice in part 1. Chronologically, these parts were arranged in a different sequence. There is a version that the “Letter” was written first, then the main part, the teaching itself. And lastly, an autobiographical part was created, where Monomakh summed up his work. For the edification of his contemporaries and descendants, Monomakh created the image of an ideal prince who cared about the glory and honor of the Russian land. He unquestioningly obeys his elders, lives in peace with his equal princes, strictly observes the Christian commandments and works incessantly. The autobiographical part contains many descriptions of the prince’s battles and campaigns. Stories about these campaigns are in the form of a list, with virtually no concentration on details. This part ends with praise to God and gratitude that God protected him all his life. Vladimir Monomakh was fluent in different styles of speech, varying them in the “Instruction” depending on the topic and genre. The autobiographical part is written simply, in artless language, close to colloquial. “High syllable” is characteristic of ethical-philosophical reasoning, permeated with biblical quotations and rhythmically organized. Many fragments of the message to Oleg Svyatoslavich are permeated with a subtle lyrical feeling, for example, the request to release Izyaslav’s widow to him in order to mourn him together.

The “teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh went beyond the scope of a private document. It has a philosophical depth of reflection about God and man, life and death, valuable practical advice that has not lost its meaning, poetic imagery of style, and autobiographical elements, which helped the “Message” enter the “golden fund” of world literature.

7. The originality of “The Tale of Bygone Years” as a chronicle collection: themes, composition, intra-genre composition.

The appearance of each genre in literature is historically determined. Chronicle writing in Rus' arose from the need of early feudal society to have its own written history and was associated with the growth of national self-awareness of the Russian people. The question of the time of the emergence of Russian chronicles is considered controversial in science. Scattered records of historical events apparently existed already in the 10th century, but chronicle writing was not yet purposeful. It acquired it during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, at the beginning of the 11th century. the name of the first of the chronicles that have come down to us from the beginning of the 12th century. has the title “The Tale of Bygone Years of the Monk Fedosev of the Pechersk Monastery, from where the Russian land came...who began to live in it, and from where the Russian land began to eat.” In ancient times, the title indicated the main theme rather than signaling the genre. “The Tale of Temporary Summers is a work on which more than one generation of Russian chroniclers worked, it is a monument to collective creativity. The first stage of work dates back to the 30-40s. 11th century under Yaroslav the Wise. This stage was associated with the prince’s educational activities. The center of the chronicle was Sophia of Kiev, where the prince tried to establish a Russian, not a Greek, as metropolitan. The aggravation of the religious struggle for independence from Byzantium was also reflected in the chronicle, the core of which was “The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Rus'.” In form, this is not yet a chronicle, but rather a patericon. The second stage occurred in the 70s. and is connected with another center of Russian enlightenment, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Compilation of the first Pechersk chronicle of the 70s. took place with the participation of Nikon. At this stage in the history of chronicling, there appears a tendency towards a strict chronology of events, without which history would be devoid of movement. Dates could be taken from Easter tables, and historical information from the folklore of the Black Sea region. In Nikon's vault, church history gradually began to develop into secular history. The compilation of the second Pechersk chronicle dates back to the 90s. 11th century and is attributed to Abbot John. The monastery at that time was against Svyatopolk. The journalistic focus of the code was to glorify the former power of Rus' and denounce the princes waging fratricidal wars. At the end of the 90s. There was a reconciliation between the prince and the monastery and in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra a new chronicle was created in his interests - “The Tale of Bygone Years”, the first edition of which belongs to Nestor. From an opposition chronicle it turns into an official one and begins to have an all-Russian character.

New editions of The Tale of Bygone Years are being created outside the Pechersky Monastery. The second edition was compiled in 1116. priest Sylvester, whom Vladimir Monomakh instructed to “straighten out” Nestor’s work, which glorified his political opponent. In 1118 the chronicle is again edited in the interests of Prince Mstislav.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” contains 2 main ideas: the idea of ​​​​the independence of Rus' and its equality with other countries (in the description of military operations) and the idea of ​​​​the unity of Rus', the Russian princely family, the need for a union of princes and condemnation of strife (“The Legend of the Calling of the Varangians”). The work highlights several main themes: the theme of the unification of cities, the theme of the military history of Rus', the theme of the peaceful activities of princes, the theme of the history of the adoption of Christianity, the theme of urban uprisings. In terms of composition, this is very interesting work. It breaks down into 2 parts: up to 850, a conventional chronology, and then a weather one. There were also articles where it was a year, but there was no record. This meant that nothing significant happened that year, and the chronicler did not consider it necessary to record it. Under one year there could be several large narratives. The chronicle includes symbols: visions, miracles, signs, as well as messages and teachings. The first, dated 852, article was associated with the beginning of the Russian land. Under 862 there was a legend about the calling of the Varangians, the establishment of a single ancestor of the Russian princes Rurik. The next turning point in the chronicle is associated with the baptism of Rus' in 988. The final articles talk about the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Also, the compositional originality of “The Tale of Bygone Years” is manifested in the combination of many genres in this work. Partly because of this, messages of different content were sometimes placed under the same year. The chronicle was a collection of primary genre formations. Here we find both a weather record - the simplest and oldest form of narration, and a chronicle story, chronicle legends. The closeness of the chronicle to hagiographic literature is revealed in the stories about two Varangian martyrs, about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery and its ascetics, about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, about the repose of Theodosius of the Pechersk. The genre of funeral laudatory words was associated in the chronicles with obituary articles, which often contained verbal portraits of deceased historical figures, for example, a description of the Tmutarakan prince Rostislav, who was poisoned during a feast by a Byzantine warrior. Landscape sketches are symbolic. Unusual natural phenomena are interpreted by the chronicler as “signs” - warnings from above about impending death or glory.

In the depths of the “Tale of Bygone Years” a military story begins to take shape. Elements of this genre are already present in the story about Yaroslav’s revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicler describes the gathering of troops and the march, preparations for battle, the “evil slaughter” and the flight of Svyatopolk. Also, the features of a military story can be traced in “The Tale of Oleg’s Capture of Tsaryrad”, in the story “About the Battle of Yaroslav with Mstislav”.

8. The depiction of historical figures and the originality of the style of “The Tale of Bygone Years.”

The central heroes of the chronicle are the princes. Chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries. they were depicted from the point of view of the established princely ideal: a good warrior, the head of his people, generous, merciful. The prince is also a good Christian, a fair judge, merciful to those in need, a man incapable of committing any crimes. But in The Tale of Bygone Years there are few ideal princes. First of all, these are Boris and Gleb. All other princes are presented more or less diversified. In the chronicle, the squad supports the prince. The people are most often depicted as a passive force. A hero emerges from the people and saves the people and the state: Nikita Kozhemyaka; a youth who decides to make his way through the enemy camp. Most of them do not have a name (they are called by age), nothing is known about their past and future, each has an exaggerated quality, reflecting a connection with the people - strength or wisdom. The hero appears in a certain place at a critical moment. The depiction of the heroes of the early chronicles is greatly influenced by folklore. The chronicle gives laconic but vivid characteristics to the first Russian princes (Oleg, Olga, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir), highlighting the dominant feature in the image of the hero, and of an individual order. The image of Olga poetizes the wisdom of a statesman, which is expressed in the search for a single faith and in revenge on the Drevlyans. The characterization of Svyatoslav is epically laconic. He is a straightforward and courageous man, easy to communicate with soldiers; he preferred victory in open battle to military cunning. He always warned his enemies that he was preparing a campaign against them. Characteristics of Svyatoslav are given through his actions and accomplished feats. In later fragments of the chronicle, the image of the good Christian prince comes to the fore. The characteristics of these princes are official, devoid of individual signs. The murderous prince could turn into a righteous man; Yaroslav the Wise turns from a rebellious son into an instrument of divine punishment for Svyatopolk the Accursed. In the chronicle there is a mixture of the style of monumental historicism, epic stylistics and church stylistics. In stories written in the style of monumental historicism, everything is known in advance, the fate of the hero is predetermined. And in epic parts the effect of surprise is often used. Also a feature of the style is the mixture of different genres in one chronicle, often condensing different events into one year (especially if this event lasted several years).

9. The originality of the content and form of the Novgorod chronicle of the era of feudal fragmentation. "The Tale of the Battle of the Lipitsa River."

The basis of the Novgorod 1st Chronicle was made up of records that were kept at the bishop's court. The chronicle itself retains the names of some authors, for example, Herman Vojata and his successor, sexton Timofey. Chroniclers often expressed their point of view on the events described. The Novgorodians themselves chose their princes and treated them very freely, so the prince was not the main person in the Novgorod Chronicle. The main content of the chronicle consisted of records about the life of the city and the entire Novgorod land. Pictures of disasters and natural phenomena appear repeatedly. Much attention is paid to the various activities of the townspeople, especially the construction and painting of churches. The number of people mentioned in the chronicle is very large: townspeople, mayors, etc. Novgorod chroniclers were prone to brevity, most of the records were weather records. All Novgorodians were patriots of their city, so in descriptions of battles they tended to exaggerate the number of enemies and understate the number of Novgorodians. The event type is very rare and stands on the border with the informative one. Legendary subjects were used quite often. A striking distinctive feature of the Novgorod Chronicle is the author’s direct expression of his opinion about people. A genre that can be confidently identified in the chronicle is the military story. The types of military stories in the Novgorod chronicle are the same as in other principalities (informative and eventful), but the boundaries between them are much more fluid. In military stories, little attention is paid to heroes, although there are much more names of characters mentioned in them than in other chronicles, since the authors name the names of princes, governors, and individual townspeople. The descriptions of the battles are very brief (most of the chronicles were created by clergy who were far from military events). The chroniclers cared about the glory of their city and were extremely reluctant to write about the defeats of the Novgorodians. They often resorted to methods of keeping silent about the results of the battle, instead of which the deaths of individual Novgorodians were reported, and it was mentioned that more enemies died. One of the few event stories in the Novgorod Chronicle is the story of the battle on the Lipitsa River in 1216. The first part tells in detail about the events preceding the battle. The beginning of Mstislav's campaign with the Novgorodians against Yaroslav is dated. Then the movement with battles near small towns, which were claimed by the allies or Yaroslav himself, is described; there are no descriptions of the battles. The exact location of the troops who came to the battle is indicated. The second part tells about the battle. Its description is very brief. The third part talks about the consequences: the flight of Yaroslav to Pereyaslavl; the arrest of captured Novgorodians, causing many to die; the expulsion of Yuri from Vladimir and the reign of Constantine there; the return of the Novgorodians from Pereyaslavl and the arrival of Yaroslav in Novgorod. The heroes of the work are characterized very poorly, as in most Novgorod stories. The author emphasizes the correctness of Mstislav and his desire to avoid bloodshed. Simple Novgorod warriors also appear. They are the ones who determine how they will fight and win. The narrator openly and consistently expresses his position. He rejoices at Mstislav’s victory and is surprised that “they are like father against father, brother against brother...” (during the gathering of princely coalitions). The author's position, as in many Novgorod stories, is manifested in exaggerating the forces and losses of the enemies and belittling the forces and losses of the Novgorodians. The speech of the characters is colloquial and laconic. In different parts of the work, military formulas are used: “many were beaten, and some were confiscated, and some were escaped,” less numerous than in informative stories.

10. Review of translated literatureXI- XIIIcenturies Characteristics of the Apocrypha.

Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium through the mediation of Yugoslav countries, primarily Bulgaria. Therefore, the first books that Russians began to read were translations from Greek, often made by Bulgarian scribes. At first, the main topic was the topic of world history. Byzantine chronicles were very common in Rus', among which were the “Chronicle” of George Amartol and the “Chronicle” of John Malala. A feature of the narrative was the combination of dynastic series with entertaining stories about the fate of historical figures and events of the past. The History of the Jewish War by Josephus is considered a masterpiece of translation art. This work tells about the destruction of Jerusalem in the first person, because. Joseph was an eyewitness to these events. “History” is imbued with a sense of experience, pictures of war are created on an apocalyptic scale. The novel about Alexander the Great was especially popular in Rus'. Its basis is not historical authenticity, but the thrill of the story about the adventures of the hero, about wonderful lands where fantastic creatures live. The personality of the commander itself also acquired a legendary character. The Macedonian was credited with semi-divine origin, campaigns in Sicily, and the conquest of Rome. His death is also shrouded in mystery. In addition to historical chronicles, hagiographic literature, oratorical prose, apocrypha, and natural science literature penetrated into the country. Of the translated hagiographic literature, the most famous are the translations of the lives of Alexy, the man of God; Andrey Yurodivy; St. George the Victorious and others. They had no less circulation in Rus' than the lives of Orthodox saints. Nicholas the Wonderworker enjoyed great veneration in Rus'. Many religious traditions and legends were associated with his name; he was a favorite hero of folk spiritual poetry. There were about 40 works about him. Known in Rus' since the 11th century. “The Life of Alexy, the Man of God” gained particular popularity in the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (the saint was his patron). This life had a great influence on many hagiographic monuments of Rus'. The Indian Patericon (translations of India) and the Sinai Patericon (translations of the Sinai area) were also very famous in Rus'. The Patericon did not contain complete biographies of the saints, but short stories about the most striking episodes of their ascetic activity. Of oratorical prose, the most famous collection was the Byzantine “Bee”. It consisted of short stories, anecdotes, sayings, and quotes that glorified virtues or condemned vices. The translated “Physiologist” was a kind of “natural science encyclopedia” of the Middle Ages. It contained information about the flora and fauna, sometimes of an exotic and often fantastic nature (for example, crocodiles cry when devouring their prey, lions sleep with their eyes open, and the phoenix bird is able to be reborn from the ashes). The “physiologist” symbolically interpreted the habits and properties of animals, correlating them with the state of the human soul. The general idea of ​​the structure of the universe was formed by “Christian Topography”, and the commentary on the story about the creation of the world in 6 days contained “Six Days”. Interest in apocryphal literature and non-canonical books was also persistent in Rus'. They are divided into books that do not contradict the dogmas of Christianity and are calmly accepted by the church, and those that contradict the canonical ones and are prohibited by the church. There are about 30 apocrypha related to the Old Testament, and the same number related to the Gospel. The Apocrypha were oral, they are usually divided into 3 groups: Old Testament (the legend “How God Created Adam” - the authors recognized that the devil also took part in the creation of man); New Testament (apocrypha about the life of Christ and his disciples) and eschatological (telling about a journey to the afterlife, for example, “The Virgin Mary’s Walk through Torment” - the Mother of God wants to see how sinners live in hell).

11. Characteristics of the walking genre. Features of “The Walking of Abbot Daniel” as the first monument of the pilgrimage variety of the genre. The work of N.I. Prokofiev “Walking: travel and literary genre.”

Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. There are pilgrimage, merchant, embassy and exploration walks. Signs of the genre of circulation: events that are actually historical; by composition - a chain of travel sketches connected by chronological or topographical criteria; the narrator is not necessarily educated, but has the obligatory personal qualities - courage, energy, diplomacy, religious tolerance, he does not seek to embellish or idealize events; the language is simple, colloquial Old Russian, the use of foreign words for the nominative function, comparisons are most often used. In the travel literature of Ancient Rus', Prokofiev distinguishes 5 groups of “travellings”: documentary and artistic works of an essay type, compiled on the basis of personal impressions; “travelers” - short practical route indicators; “skasks” are records of oral stories of Russian people who visited foreign countries or foreigners who came to Rus'; article lists and reports of Russian ambassadors on trips abroad with a diplomatic mission; legendary or fictitious travel stories compiled for journalistic purposes. The first example of this genre is “The Pilgrimage of Hegumen Daniel to Palestine.” The work begins with a rather extensive introduction. Daniel uses self-deprecation and speaks of the purpose of writing: so that people who could not travel would receive spiritual pleasure. But the second side of his goal is work, the creation of a “buy-in” for the talent given to him. In terms of composition, it is a chain of travel sketches connected according to a topographical principle. “Walking” is characterized by a fusion of the legendary, the source of which could be the Bible, apocrypha, and folk legends, with the real, topographically reliable. Features of “The Walking of Abbot Daniel”: descriptions of holy places; many real landscape sketches, he strives for extreme concreteness of what is depicted; retelling or mention of hagiographic, biblical or apocryphal legends; a narrative about the journey itself and discussions about the narrator. The versatility of the abbot’s interests is also striking: in addition to holy places, he is interested in practical issues - the irrigation system of Jericho, the extraction of incense on the island of Cyprus, the special layout of Jerusalem, built in the shape of a 4-pointed cross. The style of the work is characterized by laconicism and stinginess. linguistic means. Daniel avoids abstract words, preferring simple vocabulary of a concrete everyday nature. Epithets are usually descriptive or evaluative. The simple language is explained by the fact that the abbot from the very beginning set himself the intention of writing simply and understandably for ordinary people. The Walk of Abbot Daniel" is valuable as a detailed guide for Russian pilgrims and a source of archaeological information about Jerusalem. In his work, the first in its genre, the basic canons of writing walks were formed, which later became distinctive features for this genre.

12. Kyiv literature of the era of feudal fragmentation. Kyiv Chronicle. South Russian story about Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians.

13. History of origin, genre composition, style features of the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”».

The genre of “patericon,” a collection of works about the saints of a particular locality, had a wide geographical scope and a long history before it began to develop in Russian literature. Translated patericons were known in Rus' back in the 11th-12th centuries. In Russian literature, the first work of this genre was the patericon of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, founded in the mid-11th century. The Patericon was created in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Its new editions were created in the 14th, 15th, and 17th centuries. This patericon was a genre-ensemble, the structure of which was complex and flexible: the composition of the patericon and the principle of arrangement of texts in it changed from edition to edition. Very early on, it included chronicle articles related to the history of the most famous monastery, as well as works from the Fedosievo cycle (the works of Theodosius of Pechersk, “Life” and “Praise” of the saint). The basis of this patericon is the correspondence between Bishop Simon of Vladimir and the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Polycarp. This correspondence raised questions of the moral behavior of the monks and personally of Polycarp himself, who desired strength and power. And, dreaming of becoming an abbess, he turned to Simon for help. The composition of the patericon within the genre is very diverse: it contains epistles, patericon lives, teachings, miracles, visions, signs, and oral monastic legends. All patericon lives have an action-packed character. The main characters, along with monks, are also demons. Direct speech is used very often. Only the didactic parts contain Slavic vocabulary and quotes. In the Patericon Life there is no complete narrative about the life of the saint from birth to posthumous miracles; the author limits himself to one or several episodes, but the most striking and significant ones. The remaining news about the saint is given in a compressed form. These lives are very laconic, artless, they contain many cliched comparisons, little allegories and rhetoric. The stories of the patericon arose on a folklore basis, preserving the epic nature of the images, the fairy-tale style of narration and many dialogues. The style of the patericon is short and artless, teaching in the form of an entertaining and action-packed story. Features of the patericon: presentation of the lives of the heroes, information content, lack of idealization of the heroes. These features are inherent in the epic style of the work.

14. Time of creation, Main idea, plot and composition of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign”. Work by V.F. Rzhiga “Composition “Tales of Igor’s Campaign”.

The work was discovered in 1788-1792. Musin-Pushkin. Two directions arose in the study of the “Word”: the text as an ancient monument and the skeptical direction (they believed that the “Word” was a fake of the late 18th century). One of the adherents of the theory of the authenticity of the “Word” was A.S. Pushkin, he was also studied by Buslaev (author of an anthology for gymnasiums), Potebnya (unified the spelling of all the words of the work, established the poetic characteristics of the “Word”), Barsov (wrote a work on the “Word” , where he summarized everything that had been said about him for 100 years, gave his interpretation of the “dark places”, and created part of the reference dictionary “Words”). The skeptical school reached its peak in the 20-30s. 19th century The group of researchers was headed by Kochenovsky. Also adjoining him were Belikov, Katkov, Aksakov and others. They proceeded from a low knowledge of ancient Russian culture. It was believed that the Lay used words from different Slavic languages. Skeptics ignored the fact that traces of the work were found in other ancient Russian monuments. Until 1852, skeptical views remained unchanged. But this year a list of “Zadonshchina” was found, where the traditions of the “Word” stood out very clearly. Skeptics are fading into the shadows, and the last surge of skeptical theory was in the 60s. 20th century Zimin brings forward new arguments: he published a number of articles and summarized his observations in a book, which was not published in large numbers. The main points of his theory: “The Word” was written in the beginning. 90s 18th century; associated with the Russian-Turkish war; author - Bykovsky. Baza-Bykovsky was a poet, Musin-Pushkin also made his own amendments. He claimed that Slovo had many folklore sources(“Zadonshchina”), there are many Turkisms in it. The time of creation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was the last 15 years of the 12th century. a number of researchers call the more probable time 1185-1187. (between the time of the campaign and the death of Vladimir Pereyaslavsky and Yaroslav Galitsky, mentioned in the work). The historical basis for the creation of this work was the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It was written after this tragic event. The work has a very strong idea about the need for the unity of Rus' and the end of princely civil strife. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in the Kyiv Chronicle describes the same events that are described in the “Word”. It is clearly divided into 3 parts: preparation of the battle - battle - consequences of the campaign. There are no lyrical fragments in this story, while the Lay is full of them (for example, Yaroslavna’s cry). There are similarities in the central parts: they seem to be divided into 2 fragments - 2 battles. But there is one more part in the “Word” - it includes the preparation of troops and the march. In the “Tale”, the first part is detailed and detailed - there is a description of the troops, the exact date of the start of the campaign, a description of the sign, which is interpreted not by the author, but by the prince and the squad. In “The Word” this part is included in the 2nd, and the introduction is lyrical in nature. The author addresses the listeners, talks about the purpose of his work (which is not in the “Tale”). The third part, telling about the consequences of Igor’s campaign, in the “Tale” begins with a fragment of Svyatoslav’s gathering of troops to repel the Polovtsy, and then tells about the Polovtsian campaign against Rus' (an independent military story introduced into the narrative of Igor’s campaign). In “The Lay,” this part begins with a lyrical fragment of Yaroslavna’s lament, and then it tells about Igor’s escape from captivity with many lyrical fragments, a description of the forces of nature that help Igor. Both works end with the same event—Igor’s escape from captivity and his return home, described in detail. The main difference between these works is the lyrical fragments (in the “Word” they are in abundance, but in the “Tale” they are absent). There are also differences in composition.

The plot and compositional design of “The Lay” is unique; it does not obey the canon of any of the known genres of ancient Russian literature. Also, the construction of the monument is distinguished by artistic perfection and expediency. The composition text is usually divided into 3 parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. The introduction is lyrical in nature. The author addresses the listeners, talks about the purpose of writing the Lay, recalls Boyan, who glorified the deeds of the princes. The author points to 2 time layers that determine the chronological framework of the story: “from old Vladimir to present Igor,” we are most likely talking about Vladimir Monomakh, because the idea of ​​the word was relevant precisely during his reign. There is already a desire for journalisticism, for the relevance of the work. The central part of the work is divided into 3 subparts: the plot - Igor’s preparation for the battle, a solar eclipse, 2 battles with the Polovtsians; a combination of lyrical and lyrical-journalistic fragments - Svyatoslav’s dream, the interpretation of this dream, Svyatoslav’s “Golden Word”, at the end, in part, the idea that the Russian princes need unity to fight not only the Polovtsians, but also all external enemies. Here a historical digression appears about Vseslav, an older contemporary of Monomakh, who participated in numerous strife, but never achieved success. The third subpart connects the lyrical fragment - Yaroslavna's lament - with the end of the plot - the story of Igor's escape from captivity, where there are many landscape sketches describing the natural forces helping Igor. Conclusion - praise to Igor. With the help of lyrical fragments and historical digressions, the author managed to show the harmful influence of the uncoordinated actions of the princes on the fate of Rus'. The main idea of ​​“The Lay” is expressed in the central part, when the action takes place in Kyiv. Kyiv is thought of as the unifying principle of the Russian princes. The most important place Landscapes occupy a place in the visual system of the “Word”. They can be divided into 3 groups: dynamic, symbolic, static. Dynamic (promoting or opposing heroes) is used in subparts 1 and 3; static (denoting the time of day or recording some state of nature) appear there, there are very few of them; symbolic ones are associated only with Igor’s campaign and are dominated by images of luminaries. The composition “Words” combines both lyrical and epic principles, which determines its originality.

15. Features of the depiction of historical figures in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

There is no one main character in The Lay. Each part has its own main character. This is Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaroslavna. In addition to the main characters, there are also secondary ones, for example, images of princes of the past in historical digressions. Each historical figure in The Lay is depicted in its own way. Igor is depicted in the same way as the prince-heroes of military stories were often depicted. He is a warrior and a courageous and courageous person. His desire for fame is very strong and sometimes clouds his mind. His unreasonableness forces the author to almost not show him in battle, because no heroism can justify a prince who does not think about the fate of his native land. The author draws the image of Igor using metaphors, comparisons, and characteristics of other characters in the work. For the author, Igor is an example of an erroneous princely policy, and praise is given to him only because he came to Svyatoslav, i.e. realized the need for unity. The author portrays Svyatoslav as an ideal hero. He is opposed to Igor and Vsevolod. His image is that of a powerful prince-military leader who defeated the Polovtsians thanks to unity. He is also characterized by his speech: wise, judicious statements, even prophetic. It is he who pronounces the famous “golden word” and sees a prophetic dream about the death of Igor’s army. The image of Yaroslavna was created on the basis of a lyrical fragment of lamentation. Her image is a generalization; this is precisely why such a genre was chosen to characterize her - purely folk. Yaroslavna is depicted as a kind of symbol of peaceful Russian people, in contrast to the historically described princes. The power of her love, which helps Igor escape from captivity, is the power of all Russian women. In addition to the main characters, the author portrayed real-life historical figures who are minor characters in The Lay. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Igor’s brother. He is younger than Igor, but he also... has the brotherly trait of warrior heroism. This is the only person shown by the author in battle, and his actions are similar to those of a hero. He is shown in battle as an epic hero, his description is full of hyperbole, his selflessness with which he chops down the enemy is shown. It embodies best features warrior. The remaining minor characters are shown in a very general way. But in addition to real-life persons participating in the battle, the Lay contains images of princes of the past, who are spoken of at moments of historical retreats. Oleg Svyatoslavich is condemned by the author: “TiboOleg we throw sedition and sow arrows on the ground.” There are 2 metaphors here: the sword-weapon of the defender of Rus', and arrows that dotted the ground instead of grains. Oleg is the sower of strife between the princes. Prince Vseslav of Polotsk appears as a man endowed with supernatural abilities, “prophetic”. Episodes of his life are conveyed using metaphors, the meaning of which can be understood from the chronicle. The author has an ambiguous attitude towards him: on the one hand, he participates in civil strife, and the author condemns him, but on the other hand, Vseslav himself more than once becomes a victim of these civil strife. The third image of the prince of the past is the image of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. There are almost no characteristics of him, he is mentioned only in connection with his tragic death. He dies from the Polovtsians at a very young age, and the author shows in his image the images of many young men who suffered the same fate after the battle with their enemies. In the images of the princes of the past, the author reminded readers of the disastrous consequences of internecine wars and fragmentation of Rus'.

16. The problem of the rhythmic organization of the text “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The originality of the poetic language of the work.

The problem of the rhythmic organization of the “Word” is one of the most difficult problems in literary criticism. It is not known whether this is prose or poetry, because... Not all rhythmic patterns have been identified. Stelletsky’s concept is considered the most convincing. He tried to identify the patterns of rhythmic units, main feature which he considered completeness of intonation with a decrease in tone towards the end of the unit. He identified 2 groups of these units: lines of archaic rhythmic-intonation verse and lines of rhythmically organized prose. To create rhythm, various syntactic means are used: anaphors, epiphores, syntactic parallelism, homogeneous members. Following his theory, the lines written in verse are limited to beginnings and refrains: “O Russian land! Already for the shelomyanem \”, “. For the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, Bugo Svyatslavich\”, etc. But Stelletsky's theory is not ideal. For example, he suggested that for ancient Russian literature word stress did not matter, although for poetry it is an important factor. It is impossible to check the influence of stress on the rhythmic structure of the “Word”, because there is no accentological dictionary for that time. And therefore, although Stelletsky’s work has provided many patterns, the problem of the rhythm of the work still remains relevant.

The poetic language of the “Word” is created through a variety of syntactic means, tropes, and lyrical means (for example, Yaroslavna’s cry).

17. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and oral folk art.

The view of researchers who believed that “The Lay” is a folklore work and tried to find analogies for it in the field of genres of folk art can be considered almost obsolete. But despite this, quite a lot of folklore traditions can be traced in the work. As Likhachev said, the “Word” of the folklore genres is closest to laments and words. There are CNT traditions in visual and expressive means: constant epithets, metaphorical images familiar to folk art (for example, battle-feast and battle-sowing, harvest), tautological combinations (“neither think, nor think”), personifications (“Nichit grass with pity, and the tree bowed down to the ground." Folklore traditions are also used in the images of heroes and some descriptions. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, who looks like an epic hero during a battle, his strength and power are exaggerated. Svyatoslav also combines heroic qualities: wisdom and strength. Symbolic landscape descriptions can also be considered a continuation of the CNT traditions. Fantastic events (nature's help to the prince during his escape from captivity), symbolic phenomena (solar eclipse, bloody dawn, screams and barking of animals before battle) are also remnants of folklore ideas. Summarizing what has been said, it can be argued that the connection with CNT is manifested at the genre level (crying, lamentation, proverbs, epics), as well as through artistic means (psychological parallelism, repetitions, epithets).

Finding the author of the “Tale” is one of the main tasks of studying this monument. Since its main idea is the need to unite the forces of all princes to protect Rus', and its features, according to various researchers, make it similar to the Novgorod, Galician-Volyn, Kyiv and other traditions, the author of this work may come from a variety of lands. For example, from Kyiv (according to Rybakov’s hypothesis) or the Pskov principality (according to Gogeshvili’s hypothesis). Zimin, a representative of the skeptical trend in the study of the “Word,” believed that it was created by the Archimandrite of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery, Joel Bykovsky, and Musin-Pushkin slightly modified it. Despite the abundance of hypotheses, the question of the authorship of the “Lay” can be considered deadlocked, because none of the hypotheses naming the author of the monument can be considered true, because there are no sufficient grounds for this, and the appearance of new historical figures who are credited with authorship only confuses readers without adding anything important to the study of the work itself.

19. Genre originality of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” History of translations of the “Word”, their types and features.

The solution to the problem of the genre of the work still remains ambiguous. The opinion about folklore genre"Words". This work is considered as a work of book tradition, having some folklore features. I.P. Eremin believed that it belongs to the genre of solemn political eloquence. This version has been convincingly proven, although not ideal. Likhachev proposed a more compromise option. He argued that the “Word” is closest among written genres to the genre of solemn oratorical eloquence, and among folklore genres it is closest to laments and words. The most successful is considered the point of view of Prokofiev, who said that “The Lay” is a lyrical-epic song. This decision simultaneously takes into account the generic complexity of the work, its connection with the folk poetic tradition, and the originality of the rhythmic organization. At the same time, it makes it possible to compare the “Lay” with Western European works of medieval epic, for example, “The Song of Roland.” Translations of the “Lay” exist in all languages ​​of the world. There are about 100 translations in Russian: interlinear (for educational purposes, literal translation); poetic (the text is accurately conveyed, not written in the syllabic-tonic system); poetic arrangement (individual deviations from the text are allowed, dividing it into parts, written in syllabic tonic). The names of several translators of the Lay have been preserved, whose translations we still use today. Zhukovsky, translating the Lay, sought to preserve the ancient text (its vocabulary and rhythm) as much as possible. He translated it in rhythmic prose. All other translations are from the 19th and 20th centuries. can be classified as a type of arrangement. The best of them is Maikov's translation. Maikov worked on it for 4 years. His translation contains many interpretations of the “dark places” given by himself. The translation is written in 5-foot trochee. Because of this, the text acquired a monotony that is not present in the original. Zabolotsky's translation is also very common. He decided to divide the text into parts and translated the “dark places”. His translation is easy to read, but does not convey the vocabulary of the “Word”. The translation size is 5-foot trochee with separate tonic inserts. In the 20th century There were 2 translations: Andrei Chernov and Shklyaris. They sought to convey the text of the Lay more accurately. Chernov took into account the special rhyme of the original, on the basis of which he made his translation.

20. History of the study of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Translations of works, their types and features.

21. Galicia-Volyn Chronicle as a monument to the era of feudal fragmentation. The originality of the “Chronicle of Daniil of Galicia” as a princely chronicler.

This chronicle is heterogeneous in nature. It consists of two parts: the Galician Chronicle (before 1262) and the Volyn Chronicle (tells about the history of the Volyn Principality in the last period). The 2nd part is unoriginal in a literary sense. In this sense, the 1st part is more interesting. Initially, the chronicle was created as a description of the prince's life. But the late setting of dates led to a discrepancy in years of up to 5 years (compared to other chronicles). Prince Daniil Galitsky is presented in the chronicle in many ways. He is shown not only as an experienced commander and warrior, but also as a city planner. Unique portrait descriptions prince and troops. The prince's clothes and the harness of his horse are described in detail.

The content of the chronicle is largely related to the position of the principality on the outskirts of Rus', in close proximity to the Polovtsian steppe and Western European countries. The Galician princes had to enter into difficult relationships with other Russian princes and with their western neighbors. As in most chronicles of the era of feudal fragmentation, stories about internecine wars, battles with the Cumans and their western neighbors occupy a significant place. The narrative is secular in nature, although the author’s erudition not only in secular, but also in church literature is beyond doubt. But the task that stood in the foreground—to give a heroic biography of a contemporary prince—forced us to abandon the didactic-moralistic approach. Because This chronicle is a princely chronicler, much attention is paid to Daniel. The chronicle contains many descriptions of battles, and therefore many military stories. The battles (mainly those in which Daniel participated) are described in detail. These descriptions are distinguished by the detail and vividness of the depiction of events, attention to the heroes, especially Daniel, and a penchant for picturesque depictions of battles. For example, in the story about the battle of Yaroslav, each of the characters is endowed with individual traits, the images of Daniel and Vasilko as courageous warriors and brave, successful commanders are especially vividly drawn. The author speaks of divine help to them in battle: “I will show God my help over them, as victory does not come from the help of man, but from God.” In the story of the ruin of Kyiv by Batu, the commander of the battle was Dimitar, appointed by Daniil Galitsky. The author does not pay much attention to the characters in the story, focusing on a picturesque depiction of events, perhaps because the main character did not participate in the events. The image of Dimitar is drawn in only a few lines: it is said about his injury and at the end it is said about Dmitry’s courage.

22. Vladimir-Suzdal literature from the era of feudal fragmentation. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign against the Polovtsians” according to the Laurentian Chronicle.

This was a principality in the 12th century. became one of the most powerful Russian principalities. This process of strengthening the principality was preserved in the chronicles: Radzivilovskaya and Laurentian. The Vladimir chronicles of this time are closer to the all-Russian type. For them, the division of the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in this principality, is important. The Vladimir and Kyiv stories about Andrei Bogolyubsky are very similar. Most likely, its source was the Kiev Chronicle.

The genre composition of the Laurentian Chronicle is reminiscent of The Tale of Bygone Years. But a greater place is occupied by the military story, primarily about internecine wars, the struggle with the Polovtsians, the Volga Bulgars and the northern peoples. Consequently, the military story receives its final form in this chronicle. The informative type of stories predominates; chroniclers pay great attention to the assessment of events. Quotes and retrospective historical analogies are very common. For example, a story about Igor Svyatoslavich’s campaign against the Polovtsians. The work consists of 3 parts. The first part talks about the reasons and preparation for the trip. The second part is a description of both battles with the Cumans using several military formulas. The third part is complex in structure, it talks about the consequences of the campaign. This part is divided into 3 more subparts: Svyatoslav’s campaign against the Polovtsy, the story of the siege of Pereyaslavl, the story of Igor’s escape from captivity. The story ends with a didactic digression, where the author speaks of the prince’s defeat as God’s punishment. This story differs from the story in the Kyiv Chronicle. None of the princes is shown as an independent character - they are a single whole, “Olgovyvnutsi” or “Olgovichi”. The motives that drive them are not the defense of their native land, but the thirst for glory. The reason for defeat is boasting, excessive self-confidence. But Svyatoslav of Kiev and Vladimir Pereyaslavsky are presented to the author as genuine defenders of Rus', trying to stop the Polovtsians. But, like all other characters, they are depicted by the author very sparingly. The image of the narrator in the story is typical of the Laurentian Chronicle: he condemns the Olgovichs. His assessment is manifested through the characteristics: “but not the building of God,” “man has no wisdom, no courage, no thoughts against the Lord.” Also in the story there are almost no figurative and expressive means, except for military formulas. In addition to stories of an informative type, there are weather records. They are laconic and lack precision in dating. There are also military stories of the event type. But there are significantly fewer of them. For example, stories about the campaigns of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Yuri Dolgoruky. In these stories, the author pays much more attention to the heroes than in the story about Igor’s campaign. In addition to military stories, other primary genres are found in the chronicle: signs, praise (usually accompanies the story of the death of a prince), and teaching. An example of Vladimir-Suzdal literature can rightfully be called “The Prayer of Daniil the Zatochnik.” He had 2 editions, which gave 2 works - “Prayer” and “Word”.

23. History of the text, content, problem of the genre “Prayers of Daniel the Imprisoner.” Article by B.A. Rybakov “Daniil Zatochnik and Russian chronicles of the 12th century.” No. 22.

“Prayer” is one of the most striking monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality of the period of feudal fragmentation. There are 2 editions of it: “The Word” and “Prayer”. Daniel remains a conditional person for us, because... it is unknown whether he actually existed. Rybakov refers to the “Word” to 1197. The addressee is Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. Rybakov dates the “Prayer” to 1229 and believes that it was written by another author and addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. The scientist proposed calling the author of this edition “pseudo-Daniil.” In the “Word” Daniel humiliates himself before the prince; he talks about his poverty and defenselessness. Daniel asks to help him, because “we know a rich man everywhere and keep friends in a foreign country; but we hate to walk in ours, wretchedly.” His speeches contain many expressions similar in style to sayings and proverbs. He praises the prince, saying that his voice is sweet and his image is beautiful. The 2nd part of the “Word” is similar in style to a teaching, when Daniel tells the prince how to rule, mentioning King Solomon, Ezekiel and others. Then the story comes down to what the prince’s wife and retinue should be like. In conclusion, Daniel wishes the prince “Samson’s strength and David’s cunning.” The text of “Prayer” is not much different from the 1st edition. But it contains a number of factual information and stylistic features. The ending contains an appeal to the prince, the author warns of some terrible events (which is not in the Lay). In “Prayer,” the style of the 1st edition is generally preserved, but folklore elements become more obvious. Both editions make extensive use of puns, rhetorical appeals, syntactic parallelism and rhetorical questions. There is a point of view that “The Word” and “Prayer” are written in the genre of epistle. But there are many deviations from the main purpose of the message. Therefore, there is such a point of view that this is a collection of aphorisms. In the USA there are 2 scientists who developed this theory: Romanchuk and Bernbaum. They argued that Daniel had many deviations from the letter, the work had a second addressee (brothers and prince), and Daniel himself was a monk (brothers-address to monks). “The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner”, against the backdrop of other written monuments of this period known to us, is an innovative work that combines book wisdom and folk speech, biblical reminiscences and buffoon jokes, techniques of solemn eloquence and the folk tradition of puns. As a unique monument, “Prayer” is outside the traditional medieval genre system. Therefore, it is impossible to define the genre of this work unambiguously, which is the problem of the “Prayer” genre

“The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” has come down to us in 2 copies, but both of them are late, and only in fragments. There are hypotheses that this is an introduction to a trilogy or an introduction to the life of Alexander Nevsky, because in both lists, after him came the life of Nevsky. But most researchers assume that this is an independent work. The text that has survived can be divided into 3 parts: 1-praise of the Russian land (“Oh, bright and beautifully decorated”); 2-memories of the power of Rus' (the time of Vladimir Monomakh, when “everything was subjugated to the God-Christian language”); 3-word about the illness that existed at that time. Despite the insignificance of the volume of the surviving text, a number of artistic features turn out to be comparable to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Perhaps the reason for the similarity is the patriotism of both authors, their concern for Rus', which is also manifested in their works. Both authors combined the past and present in their works, looked at Rus' panoramicly, hence the natural pictures depicting the power of their native land. And the choice of Monomakh’s timing is not accidental, because... under him, Rus' defeated the Polovtsians. Some paths and images are also similar: “One brother, one bright light” in “The Tale of the Regiment” and the “lightly bright” Russian land in the “Tale of Destruction”; in “The Tale of the Regiment” Yaroslav Galitsky props up the mountains to protect them from the Ugrians with “iron regiments”, and in the “Tale of Destruction” the Ugrians hide from Monomakh behind “ iron gates" There are also stylistic coincidences, similar methods for determining the time period of the reign of the princes: in the “Tale of the Regiment” - “from old Volodimer to the present Igor”, and in the “Tale of Destruction” - “from the great Yaroslav to Volodimer”. The identity of the rhythmic structure of the works, based on the rhythm of homogeneous members, syntactic parallelisms, and verbal repetitions, was also established. All this allowed us to assume that both works belonged to the same poetic school.

25. The originality of “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” as a military story.

This story belongs to the best examples of military stories. It originated in the 13th century. and came to us in lists of the 14th-17th centuries. Compositionally, it consists of 4 parts: 1-independent plot about Batu’s arrival to the borders of the principality and the embassy of the son of the Ryazan prince Fyodor Yuryevich to him; 2-constructed as an event-type military story. A story about the gathering of troops, the battle, the defeat of Ryazan; 3-epic tale about the Ryazan nobleman Evpatiy Kolovrat. It is attached to the previous part chronologically. The genre is a military story. The beginning of the action is the arrival of Kolovrat in the devastated Ryazan, the climax is the duel with Khostovrul, the denouement is the death of the hero; 4th arrival in Ryazan of the brother of the deceased Prince Ingvar Ingvarevich. It is connected to the previous part by chronology. This part of the plot does not represent a single whole. This combines Ingvar’s lament, praise for the family of the Ryazan princes, and a message about Ingvar’s actions (about the funeral of his brother, about his enthronement in Ryazan and its reconstruction). Each part of the story has its own main character, who has power, shown both in battle (2-3 parts), and in worldly actions or spiritually (1-4 parts). This is one of the features of a military story. There are also other features of a military story. For example, the story describes the prince’s preparation for battle and his prayer. In the description of the battle itself there are a lot of military formulas: “I attacked, and began to fight hard and courageously,” “the slaughter of evil was swift and terrible,” “Batu’s strength is great and heavy, united with a thousand, and two with you,” etc. . Describing the battle of Evpatiy Kolovrat with the Tatars, the author uses the military formula: “Riding through the Tatar regiments bravely and courageously.” The first non-chronicle story that has come down to us, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu,” is built on the basis of a sequential combination of a number of independent fragments connected by one central event—Batu’s ruin of the Ryazan principality. Its compositional structure corresponds to the canons of a military story. But the story clearly increases attention to the characters, each of whom acquires individual traits. The number of visual and expressive means is expanding, along with military formulas, tropes appear that express the author’s attitude to events and heroes.

26. Genre originality of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”.

During the era of the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the genre of hagiography developed. The heroes of the works now became not only saints, apostles, martyrs, but also people who defended Rus' and the faith from infidel enemies. An example of such a life is “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.” This life appeared around 1283, its author is unknown, but it is known that it was written in the Nativity Monastery. It has come down to us in many lists. The life was created even before Nevsky’s canonization, and initially it was a secular biography. Perhaps because of this ambiguity, the hagiography combined two genres: hagiography and a military story. Compositionally, the work has a hagiographic macrostructure - it consists of 3 parts. 1-introduction (self-deprecation is used, the author says that he knew Nevsky as an adult, that he writes with a pure soul). 2-central part (a story about miracles during the life and after the death of Alexander). 3-conclusion (praise to the prince). Contrary to the tradition of life, there is no story about Nevsky’s childhood, because the author did not know the hero at this age. The features of the military story can be traced in the central part. When the Swedish king attacked Novgorod, the prince goes to the temple, prays, and then gathers a squad. This is the tradition of a military story. But a new genre-vision is inserted into this part. Pelugy, standing guard, sees Boris and Gleb in red clothes, who promised to help Nevsky. Next, Pelugius reports this to the prince, he listens attentively and soon goes into battle. The actions of 6 warriors fighting under the leadership of Alexander are described in detail, which is also typical for an event-type military story. There is a mention of a miracle, but after it happened: the angel of the Lord allegedly killed many of Alexander’s opponents where he could not reach them. In descriptions of battles, military formulas are used, for example, “quickly cut evil” (battle with the Germans). But at the same time, it speaks of Divine help to the prince, which is more suitable for life. The last episode tells about Alexander’s 2nd trip to the Horde and his death on the way back. The story ends with a story about the burial and a posthumous miracle: when Nevsky was lying in the coffin, the Metropolitan wanted to unclench his hand in order to enclose a spiritual letter. The prince, as if alive, unclenched his hand and took the letter from the hands of the metropolitan, neither accepting the horror nor retreating from him.” C6 structure “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” is a work of a complex ensemble nature: inside the central part of the hagiography, independent military stories (event-based and informative types) are introduced as two episodes, which include genre formations characteristic of hagiographies - visions and miracles . The combination of life and military story is also in the style and language of the work: military formulas and living language are used by the author together, which is also a genre uniqueness of the work.

The originality of the genre “Tales of the murder of Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Fyodor in the Horde.”

The story was compiled in Rostov in the 60-70s. 13th century and was subsequently reworked several times. The story is based on real events of 1246. The author of the story combined the genre of historical story and hagiography-martyrium (a story about the last stage of the hero’s life). The story tells about the arrival of the Tatars in Southern Rus', about the trip of Russian people to the Horde and the performance of humiliating tasks in order to receive a label for reign. Having come to Rus', Batu began to convert everyone to his faith, saying that if the Russians bowed to their “idols”, bowed to him, then he would accept them. But Mikhail of Chernigov decided to go to the Horde to “die for Christ and for the orthodox faith.” His boyar Fyodor decides to go with him. They receive a blessing and go to the Horde. Arriving at the king, they say that Michael came to bow to him. Batu decided to subject them to humiliating tasks - to walk through the fire and bow to their idols. But Mikhail and Fyodor respond that this is unworthy of them, to which Batu became angry and said that he would kill them if they did not complete the task. But they pray to their God and accept the verdict. Hagiographic traditions in the story: an abundance of internal monologues of the characters, the author’s transmission of their thoughts and feelings. From the historical story in the work: real historical facts, logical-chronological three-part structure (preparation of the event - Batu’s attack, asking for Mikhail’s blessing for a trip to the Horde; narration of the event - trip to the Horde and refusal of Batu’s conditions; consequences of the event - the murder of Fyodor and Mikhail ), the author's personality is not very clearly shown, his assessment of events is through individual remarks, sometimes biblical quotes. The language of the work is traditional for a historical story and hagiography - colloquial Old Russian and Church Slavonic, a moderate number of tropes, but many biblical quotations.

27. Traditions and innovation in historical works about the Battle of Kulikovo (chronicle stories, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”, “Zadonshchina”). Prokofiev’s article “Moral and aesthetic quests in the literature of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo.”

A feature of the monuments from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo is an attentive and humane attitude towards people. The depiction of figures of Russian history is losing its former officiality and grandeur. In the foreground are not only military merits, but also family life. Prokofiev noted: “In such an image, the Battle of Kulikovo appears not only as a state or national event, but also as a universal phenomenon, expressed through personal and family relationships. This is seen as one of the artistic discoveries of the era.” The assessments of what was happening were marked by particular emotionality. Also literary styles of the 14th and 15th centuries. were largely the result of the creative assimilation of their own pre-Mongol experience. The Battle of Kulikovo is reflected in literature. Almost all chronicles of this period depicted the Battle of Kulikovo in military stories. The trends in the development of the genre were expressed most clearly in two types of stories: lengthy and short. The short story was included in the “Rogozhsky Chronicler” and is an informative work with a traditional 3-part structure. Considerable space is devoted to the 3rd part - the consequences of the battle. But new details also appear: the list of dead at the end of the story; techniques of stringing together homogeneous tropes (“the godless, evil and Horde prince, the filthy Mamai”) and combining tautological phrases (“the dead are countless in number”). The lengthy story was preserved as part of the Novgorod 4th Chronicle. The composition of the factual information is the same as in the summary, but... This is an event-type story; the author has increased the number of compositional elements characterizing the heroes. The number of prayers of the main character increases: before the battle - 3, after the battle - a prayer of gratitude. Another lyrical fragment, previously unused, also appears - the lament of Russian wives. A variety of figurative and expressive means are also used, especially vivid in relation to enemies: “dark raw foodist Mamai”, the apostate Oleg Ryazansky, “soul-destroying”, “bloodsucking peasant”. The descriptions of the Battle of Kulikovo itself in all the stories are distinguished by their emotionality, which is created by the author’s exclamations and the inclusion in the text of landscape elements that were not previously used. All these features make the narrative more plot-motivated and emotionally intense. There are also 2 stories about the Battle of Kulikovo: “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev” and “Zadonshchina”. The composition of “Tales” structurally follows the tradition of a military story, but the narrative consists of a number of separate episodes-micro-plots, interconnected by plot-motivated or chronological inserts, which is an innovation. Also new is manifested in the author’s desire to show the personality of each character individually and show his role throughout the story. The characters are divided into main (Dmitry Ivanovich, Vladimir Andreevich and Mamai), secondary (Sergius of Radonezh, Dmitry Bobrok, Oleg Ryazansky, etc.) and episodic (Metropolitan Cyprian, Thomas Katsibey, etc.). Also a compositional feature is a lot of lyrical fragments (prayers, crying) and natural descriptions. A vision also appears in the text. A new descriptive element appears - an image of the Russian army, as the princes saw it from the hill. Along with the preservation of military formulas, many epithets and comparisons are used, and the role of metaphors is enhanced, emphasizing the experiences of the heroes. The author of “Zadonshchina” took “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” as a model. Boyan is also mentioned in the introduction, and at the end the time of the event is established (“And from the Kalat army to the Mamaev massacre is 160 years”). The subsequent text as a whole has a traditional 3-part structure. But within each part, the narrative is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author’s digressions. The story contains documentary elements, the use of digital data, and lists. There are minor deviations from the chronology, which is unconventional for a military story. Lyrical fragments are few in number, according to the canons of a military story. There are no detailed descriptions of the characters (except for Dmitry Ivanovich), and the enemies are described quite schematically. The folklore influence is visible in the use of negative comparisons (“You were not gray wolves, but you came to the foot of the Tatars, they want to go through the whole Russian land fighting”). “Zadonshchina” is a monument created at the intersection of traditions: folklore, military tales and “The Lay”. But the tradition of the military story should still be recognized as the leading one.

28. “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Artistic connections and the problem of the genre of works.

The author of “Zadonshchina” took “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” as a model for the narrative. But, despite this, “Zadonshchina” is an independent work of art. The introduction is focused mainly on the Lay; Boyan is mentioned here, previously known only from the text of the Lay. But the part ends with establishing the time of the event: “And from the Kalat army to the Momayev massacre is 160 years.” The further text as a whole repeats the 3-part structure of the military story, but within each part the narration is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author’s digressions, which are focused on the “Word”. But in “Zadonshchina” there are documentary elements that are absent in “The Lay”. There are also similarities in the portrayal of the main characters. Prince Dmitry in “Zadonshchina” is an ideal hero. This is a continuation of the traditions of the Lay, the image of Svyatoslav as an ideal hero. In “Zadonshchina” there are many borrowings from “The Lay”. For example, there are many historical digressions in The Lay, and there are also in Zadonshchina (but much less). For example, predicting the outcome of a battle: “Shibla glory to the Iron Gates.” Or the words of Peresvet and Oslyabli, which could only have been spoken at the beginning of the battle (Peresvet died), are given after it. Another common place is crying. In “The Lay” there is the cry of Yaroslavna, and in “Zadonshchina” there is the cry of Russian wives. But their meanings are different. Yaroslavna's cry is symbolic, and the cry of the Russian wives breaks up the narrative of the battle to add additional emotional nuance. There are also commonplaces in the descriptions and speech of the characters. In the “Word” Igor says that “Lutsezh would have died without being destroyed.” And in “Zadonshchina” Peresvet almost word for word repeats these words: “We would rather be sweaty than be overwhelmed by the filthy Tatars.” “Zadonshchina” is a synthesis of a military story, folklore and “The Lay”. But the tradition of the military story prevails in it, which forces us to define its genre as a military story. “The Word” also combines several genres, which has led to the problem of defining its genre. It was close to both folklore and written genres (military stories, songs, solemn eloquence). But its genre is defined as a lyric-epic song.

29. Lives written by Epiphanius the Wise. The reasons for the emergence and basic techniques of the “weaving words” style.

30.Literary features and significance in the development of the genre of the military story “Nestor Iskander’s Tale of the Capture of Constantinople by the Turks.” Work by A.S. Orlov “On the peculiarities of the form of Russian military stories.”

This work belongs to the military stories of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It tells the story of the fall of the Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453 under the onslaught of the Turks and the transformation of the capital of the Orthodox world, Constantinople, into a Muslim city. The story became widespread in Rus' and was included in a number of chronicles of the 16th century, influencing the further development of military stories. The work consists of two parts. 1-prologue of events. A story about the founding of Constantinople, a sign that predicted the fate of this city (a fight between a snake and an eagle with the victory of the first, the symbol of Islam; but then people kill the snake), about the beauty and greatness of Constantinople. 2-main plot - a story about the siege and capture of the city by the Turks. This part corresponds to the canons of a military story. The description of the gathering of troops is very abstract. The central narrative lists military events. The plot is linear, traditional for a military story. But it is complicated by descriptions of many events. The author describes every day of the Turks' attack on the city, battles, and advice from the emperor and his entourage about further actions. And this is how every day of the siege is described. Here comes the motif of fate, predestination from the very beginning (a sign). The descriptions are very emotionally intense, which is enhanced by two signs - the departure of the patron angel of the city from the Church of Sophia (the central cathedral), and then the bloody rain. The last part of the story is a story about the death of the city and the fate of the townspeople. A prophecy is also introduced here: just as people killed the snake that strangled the eagle, so in the future Christians will have to defeat Muslims and revive Christianity in the city. Thus, military event becomes part of the history of the Christian city, represented in its most important events. This is expanded (The shock is akin to “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev.”

The text contains detailed descriptions of 4 heroes: Constantine, Patriarch Anastasius, Zustuney and Sultan Magomed. The image of the main character is traditional for military legends, the RN is courageous (he decides to die along with the city), and defends his hometown until his last breath. But in his image one can also see new approach: the author strives to convey the depth of his feelings through prayers, crying, and depictions of manifestations of his mental state. Patriarch Anastasius constantly supports the Tsar. His image is similar to the image of Cyprian from “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” - this is the support of the fight against enemies by the Orthodox Church. Zustunei is a minor character, but his special role is that he alone responded to Constantine’s request for help from foreign states. This is the embodiment of the ideal image of a warrior, “brave and wise, and skilled in military affairs.” Magomed is presented in an unusual way. In the beginning, everything is traditional - he is “.faithless and deceitful.” But then his characterization changes - he is shown as a powerful ruler who has gathered enormous forces for the campaign, an experienced and patient commander. After the capture of the city, he shows generosity - he forgives all civilians, and at the sight of Constantine’s head he pays tribute to him: “Obviously, the God of the world gave birth to a king, rather than perish in vain.” In the description of battle scenes, the author does not strive for a detailed depiction of events; there are no landscape elements. The descriptions are based on military formulas: “the slaughter was evil and terrible,” “one was one thousand, and two was one thousand.” The story of Nestor-Iskander, using traditions, complicates the plot due to the introduction of twists and turns, a tendency towards some expansion of the circle of characters and greater versatility in their depiction; the depiction of the enemy undergoes significant changes. The author creates a narrative using stylistic techniques of an emotionally expressive nature, previously used only in hagiographies. Thus, the military narrative in Rus' begins to become more complex, not without the influence of this story. There is a convergence of the image of the main positive hero with the image of the ideal hero of the princely life. It is the non-chronicle stories of this era that are the prerequisites for the creation of a new type of large-scale historical story.

31. The originality of Novgorod historical and legendary stories of the 15th century. (The Tale of the Mayor Shchila, The Tale of the Journey of John of Novgorod on a Demon to Jerusalem).

The genre of fictional story emerges in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It had its source in Novgorod historical and fictional stories, which were based on local legends. In the first place in them was the plot's entertainingness, the absence of pronounced didacticism. Among such stories are “The Tale of Posadnik Shchila” and “The Tale of Ivan’s Journey on a Demon.” “The Tale of a Journey” is built on the basis of two miracles: traveling on a demon and saving Ivan from the slander that the demon brought upon him. The oral legend of this arose very early. The plot of this legend—the service of a demon to a man cursed with the sign of the cross—goes back to the fabulous folklore of Ancient Rus'. This story came to us as part of the “Life of John,” which belongs to the Patericon, which consisted of 3 parts, the 2nd of which was a travel story. The story begins with the words that it was “God who created” the fact that the demon ended up in a vessel with water in John’s cell. Next comes the story of the demon making the sign of the cross and John’s journey to Jerusalem. After returning back, the demon tells John to remain silent about this incident, otherwise “the imam will bring temptation upon you.” But he did not fulfill the request and the demon punished him: the demon was transformed into a harlot and left the saint’s cell when others saw it. Soon John was expelled for this. But then, when everything was revealed, people wanted to return the saint and ask him for forgiveness. Because of their prayers, John’s raft floated to the shore, “as if carried through the air.” Then the consequences are told: the prince of Novgorod put up a cross at the place where the saint sailed. The story ends with a biblical quote - the words of Christ about those expelled “for the sake of truth.” The Tale of Posadnik Shchila traces the heretical views of the Strigolniks. This story has a wonderful character. Posadnik Shchil was rich and built the church with interest from loans to other people. When he went to the archbishop to ask to consecrate this church, he had to tell where the money for the construction came from. The Archbishop became angry and said that Shield “has become like Esau; I would like to take a blessing from me for such a divine deed,” and ordered Shield to go home, build a coffin in the wall and lie down in it, and the funeral service was performed over him as it should be. The shield did just that, after which it suddenly fell into the ground. His son went to the saint for help. The saint ordered him to draw a picture on the wall depicting Shield in hell. The son did so, after which he performed a memorial service 3 times for 40 days and gave out alms (according to the teachings of the saint). First, in the picture, Shield's head came out of hell, then his body, and then the whole thing came out. After this, the coffin in which the Shield had fallen came to the surface. And the archbishop, seeing this miracle, consecrated the church. In this story, a miracle comes first: the miracle of the Shield’s sudden disappearance and the miracle of his exit from hell with Divine help. This story arose on the basis of oral legendary tradition.

32. “Walking across 3 seas” - the first merchant voyage.

The genre of “walking”, which arose at the beginning of the 12th century, until the end of the 15th century. Continued to exist as a pilgrimage. Russian travelers described their visits to the holy places of Christianity. Each author brought something of his own to this genre. Significant changes began to occur in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, when interests in holy places began to be replaced by interest in events modern life. A new genre variety has appeared - merchant “travellings”. It became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries. the object of the image was the impressions of travelers about the countries where they visited for trading purposes. The range of phenomena described has expanded noticeably - everyday life, customs in the countries described. Descriptions of shrines and legends have disappeared. The composition of the walks resembled diary entries. The narrator's personality was revealed more widely through his assessments and emotions. The language was distinguished by its simplicity, abundance of colloquial vocabulary, proverbs and sayings, and foreign language vocabulary. The first merchant walk that came down to us was “The Walk across 3 Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. At the beginning, there is no self-abasement traditional for the pilgrimage, other than the “sinful walk.” The introduction is a listing of the seas through which he sailed, completely missing

Tatars. 2-way from Derbent to India. The geographical names of the places he visited during this time are listed here. There are practically no descriptions. 3-description of a journey through India. There are a lot of descriptions here, there are stories about the cities he visited and the time it takes to get from one to another. Afanasy talks about life in India, about the climate, customs and way of life, describing everything national (clothing, animals, food) in Russian words so that he is better understood. 4-story about a trip to your homeland. It is characterized by listing the main geographical features and travel times with short descriptions. In conclusion, the author mentions the 3 seas passed and a prayer in a mixture of oriental languages. The predominant principle of narration is chronological. The image of the narrator corresponds to the merchant tradition. Having expanded his range of interests, he meets a lot of new people. The author is third to someone else's, although it is not easy for him. He counts time based on Orthodox holidays (mainly Easter). He suffers from the fact that he cannot fulfill Orthodox customs: “I don’t know the Nativity of Christ, I don’t know other holidays, I don’t know Wednesday or Friday, but I don’t have a book,” etc. The image of his homeland is constantly present in his thoughts, he praises it (though in a mixture of oriental languages), his exclamations are frequent: “May the Russian land be preserved by God! God save her! There is no country like it in this world, although the boyars of the Russian land are unjust.” The author constantly asks God for forgiveness for not keeping fasts. In fact, the author becomes the main character of the work, appearing as an original personality. The language used is colloquial Old Russian, almost devoid of Church Slavonic elements. Foreign words are widely used, even in prayers. In general, the style of walking is the style of a living story by a person who can vividly and clearly describe his impressions. The object of the story also changes - now it is the life of people, their morals and way of life.

33. The emergence of the fictional story genre. Principles of composition and folklore subjects in “The Tale of Dracula.”

The genre of fictional stories arose during the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It had its source in Novgorod historical and fictional stories, which were based on local legends. In 1st place was the plot's entertaining nature and the lack of pronounced didacticism. Fictional stories with fictional plots. Most of the heroes had historical prototypes, but they either lived in the past or were very far away. The plots go back to folklore. In these stories, the author did not express his attitude to the events. The plots were built either on the principle of a chain or on the principle of open compositions. These stories were originally intended to be exciting reading. The first of these stories is “The Tale of the Mutyansk Governor Dracula.” Its plot is based on oral legends that existed in Europe about the Romanian prince Vlad, who was nicknamed “Tepes” and “Dracula” for his cruelty. The composition of the work is interesting. This is a chain of separate stories about the actions of Dracula. Moreover, the author refrains from evaluating his actions, leaving the right to the reader to do so. Only once does the author talk about his cunning and the fact that Dracula is the namesake of the devil. The story begins with the words that once upon a time there lived in the land of Mutyansk such a ruler, Dracula, and that he was cruel. Then a chain of stories begins, one after another. And at the end it talks about the captivity of Dracula by the Hungarian king and his torture of birds and mice in prison. And after his release, Dracula did not change his character, killing the bailiff who allowed the robber into his yard. The story ends with the story of the death of Dracula and his son Vlad. The story contains a folklore motif of riddles. For example, in the story about how 2 Catholic monks came to Dracula, and he asked each of them what they thought about his deeds. One said that he acted wrongly, because the sovereign should be merciful. The second replied that those executed did evil and were punished according to their deserts, because the sovereign punishes and pardons only for the cause. Dracula impaled the first one and rewarded the second one. There is also another story when an ambassador came to Dracula, and the sovereign showed him a gilded stake and asked what he thought this stake was for. The ambassador replied that it was for a noble person. Dracula replied that what he said was true, and this stake is for him. To which the ambassador said that if he had offended Dracula, then let the sovereign do as he wants. For this, Dracula rewarded the ambassador and released him. And in the same story it directly says that he had such a custom of asking riddles to ambassadors. And if they answered incorrectly, they were executed, and a letter was sent to their king so that in the future they would not send bad ambassadors to Dracula. The plot of this story is traditional for its genre. The main character has real prototype, the plot is based on legends and folklore, and the composition looks like a chain of plots. Also, the work does not contain a direct author’s assessment, which is also traditional for fiction stories.

34. The problem of the genre “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”.

It was created in the mid-16th century (but for a long time it was attributed to the 15th century) by the priest and publicist Ermolai-Erasmus. In theory, this work was created as a hagiography. But it was not recognized as a life due to numerous deviations from the canon in the central part, and in the process of reworking it became a story. The basis of its plot was formed on the basis of two oral-poetic, fairy-tale motifs - about the hero-snake fighter and the wise maiden, widespread in folklore. The source of the plot was a local legend about a wise peasant girl who became a princess. Folk legend had a strong influence on Ermolai-Erasmus, and he created a work not associated with the canons of the hagiographic genre: it is a fascinating narrative narrative, not much like the lives of saints with their exploits and martyrdom for the glory of the church. ‘ The work consists of 4 parts, plot-related. 1-story about the snake fighter. 2-heroes go to get a doctor for the victim of the snake. They meet a girl who speaks in riddles. What follows is the motif of riddles and

tests. 3-life of Peter and Fevronia in marriage, there are elements of folklore narrative. 4-story about the death of Peter and Fevronia and the posthumous miracle. The problem with genre is that a work combines many elements of different genres together. The work does not say anything about the childhood of the heroes (unconventional for life), folklore motifs can be traced in all parts. For example, a fairy-tale plot about a snake-fighting hero, the motif of riddles, when Fevronia says that “it’s not right for a house to have no ears and a temple to have no ears” (a dog has ears at home, a child has eyes at home) and when asked where her family answers : “Father and matipoidosha borrow posters. My brother went through his legs in Navi to see,” which means “mother and father went to the funeral, and my brother went to beekeeping.” There is also a folklore motif in the 3rd part, when Fevronya, after a meal, collects crumbs in her hand, and then they turn into incense and incense. This is an echo of the fairy tale about the frog princess, when leftovers turned into swans and a lake. And the departure of Peter and Fevronia from Murom, and then the nobles’ request for their return, also has an echo in the folk tale. But the work also has a spiritual side, characteristic of hagiography. Peter and Fevronia do not talk about love, because Peter does not even want to marry her at first. Their marriage is not carnal, but spiritual and is based on keeping the commandments. Fevronia performs miracles thanks to her spirituality. Another element of life is the posthumous miracle, when Peter and Fevronia, contrary to their dying instructions, are buried in different places, but overnight they still find themselves together in a coffin for two, which remains empty. And their death in one hour is also something unusual, which can only be characteristic of saints. The combination of folklore, hagiography and story elements in one work makes the work multifaceted, but this is the author’s special skill and innovation in literature.

35. “Kazan History” as a new type of historical narrative. Using experience from different genres in a work.

The historical story “Kazan History” was written in the mid-60s 1* in It belongs to the best examples of ancient Russian fiction and occupies a special place in the formation of new forms of historical narration. It poetizes the power of a single centralized state, the activities of Ivan the Terrible and his supporters, and the annexation of the Kazan kingdom to the Moscow state. The author is trying to create a new type of narrative with a clearly expressed ideological plan, theme and a clearly expressed position of the author. "History" consists of several short stories , connected by chronology. The introduction talks about the purpose of the work - to tell about the history of the Kazan kingdom and its relationship with Russia. The author speaks about the innovation of the story: “this red ubon story is worthy for us to joyfully listen to.” The author calls Ivan 4 chosen by God, clearly expressing the author’s position. The central part splits into 2 subparts: before the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible and after that. In subpart 1, the narrative follows a chronological path: the beginning of the Kazan kingdom, where folklore motifs about a two-headed snake and a hero-snake fighter who defeated him with the help of magic are traced; The main characters are the Moscow and Kazan kings. The plot is built on the principle of antithesis - Russian victories are replaced by defeats, the action is constantly transferred from Moscow to Kazan and back. This subpart uses a combination of local microplots. There are many military stories of both types here, brought into the general course of events. Basis 2 subparts - stories about the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible. They are presented in the form of military stories with an idealized main character, Ivan 4. but the narrative is multi-figured, the Kazan rulers, warriors, and boyars act in it. This part contains less dating of events, but many symbolic elements: signs, visions, wonders. For example, the dream of the Kazan king, where the bright month absorbs the dark one, and the animals that came to Kazan eat the Kazan animals, which predicts future events. Also the vision of Ivan 4 about the construction of Sviyazhsk and the departure of the patron demon of the city from the mosque. They play different roles in the episode. A significant place is occupied by genres traditional for ancient military history: laments (the tribute to the Kazan queen Sumbeki), praises, prayers. Sumbeki's cry addressed to Kazan plays a symbolic role, predicting his death. The “History” ends with chapters in which praise is given to Kazan, the Principality of Moscow and Ivan 4. The author evaluates the significance of the victory, speaking about the Beauty of Moscow, the OGR of the kingdom. The author's innovation can be traced in the image of the main character - Ivan the Terrible is depicted in many ways, his actions and thoughts are shown in different situations. His desire to avoid bloodshed was noted, which was not the case before, as shown in the tsar’s seven embassies to Kazan. All this speaks about the author’s approach to creating character, although the main method of creating the image of the king—idealization—remains. The image of episodic characters also changes: there was no distinction between positive and negative on national and religious grounds. A traitor can be either one of your own or a stranger, and both will be punished. The images of the troops are also drawn in an unusual way: the author often emphasizes the determination of the enemies, evoking respect for them. And the capture of the city by the Russian army is more like a plunder. Author's attitude is also innovative - he expresses his opinion much more actively, which is shown in the introduction and conclusion, digressions, which are most often of a summary nature. Innovation is also manifested in style: the widespread use of tropes, metaphors, military formulas lose their meaning (spreads them in other words, which destroys them). “History” made extensive use of the traditions of life, military stories, walking, teaching, symbolic and lyrical genre formations. A military tale: a combination of local microplots (“The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”); indication of the landscape at the time of day; the combination of the traits of a commander with Christian traits in the main character; a vision of the departure of the patron demon of their city, the penetration of rhetorical techniques into the pictures of the battle-traditions of “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople.” Life: mention of the virtues of Ivan 4, characteristic of him since childhood; rhetorical devices. Walking: static descriptions of nature expressing the author's admiration. Teachings: artistic means used in laments. Due to such an abundance of genres, it is impossible to decide the genre of a work.

36. Main problems in journalism of the 16th century. The originality of the journalistic creativity of Maxim the Greek.

The ideological orientation of the literature of the Muscovite kingdom predetermined the rapid development of journalism. Works devoted to topical topics of public life were widely distributed in journalism. Areas of journalistic problems: problems related to the formation of an autocratic state (the appearance of the autocrat, the relationship of different classes, the problem of the relationship between royal and church power), church problems (the fight against heresy, the problem of intra-church land ownership, problems of moral character).

One of the most famous publicists was Maxim Grek. He owns a huge literary heritage. In one of his works, “The Word of Maximus the Greek,” the main literary device is allegory. This is also an allegory in genre. At the center of the narrative is the image of the Wife, this is power, Vasily (from Greek, “kingdom”). The main narrative is based on the conversation between the Greek and the Wife. The Greek is depicted as a traveler who meets his wife and asks about her sorrows, but she does not want to tell anything, saying that he will not help her anyway. But still, the narrator persuades her, and she says that her name is Vasily, she is one of the daughters of the king, from whom “every good gift comes and every gift is given to the sons of men.” She talks about how she saw the exploitation of people, and that rulers must follow God's laws, otherwise wars and hardships await everyone. The originality of the Greek's journalism lies precisely in the fact that the main idea of ​​his work is uttered not by himself, but by the allegory, the Wife. This had not been seen in his works before. The Greek claims that a monk must live according to Christian precepts. The work has a clear parable beginning. Another word by Maxim the Greek - “about alien philosophers” - talks about how it is necessary to check the preparedness of Russian translators who come from abroad. Moreover, he gives all this advice to people who will receive visitors “as per my death.” He offers to give visitors his translations so that they can try to “translate according to my translation.” And if he can, then he is a good translator, and if not, then you also need to find out his ability to determine poetic meters. In this word, the Greek makes it clear that he considers his works to be a model, in which he shows innovation, because before him, it was traditional for authors to self-depreciate, but the Greek not only does not follow this canon, but also exalts himself. In “Let the blessed and saints sow the words of praise, let not the books of grammar be called as if they were spoken on behalf of her,” Maxim the Greek writes about the importance of grammar for people, praising it. Moreover, here again the allegory is traced, which is revealed at the very end - now the Greek himself is presented in the role of grammar. He calls on everyone to listen to him and follow his advice, citing examples from antiquity and mentioning Christian writers of the past. Maxim Grek's innovation in the field of journalism is very great: he introduced allegory into journalism and renounced traditional self-deprecation. And his thoughts and advice are generally very relevant and useful.

Criticism of the addressee's style in Kurbsky's second message. The polemical correspondence between Kurbsky and Grozny reflects the clash of two social positions - the high-born boyars and the serving nobility, asserting the need for strong autocratic power. The messages are different in their style—abstractly reasonable and resourceful for Kurbsky and concrete, rude and sarcastic for Ivan the Terrible. In the first message, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of cruelty and oppression of himself, says that the tsar will have to respond to Last Judgment for all. He asks: “Why, O king, did you beat up the mighty men of Israel and betray you to various deaths by the commander given to you by God?” etc. The message is written in an angry, sarcastic style. In response to this, Ivan the Terrible writes an extensive message in which he calls the addressee a false teacher who has illegally usurped the right to instruct the monarch and his subjects. Grozny reproduces individual remarks of Kurbsky and invariably refutes them. The message is created as a kind of confession of faith and principles of the Russian autocracy. Grozny parodies the style of the addressee, his structure of thoughts and literary style. The king ridicules all his arguments, distorting them and ridiculing them ironically. For example, Kurbsky in his message speaks of the blood shed for the Tsar on the battlefield, and Grozny ironically plays on these words, saying that the Tsar is not guilty of shed blood, and that a Christian should not regret the feat in the name of the Motherland. Grozny repeats key phrases, building a series of associations in the form of negative parallelism. Grozny refutes all accusations against him, guided by the Bible, like Kurbsky. In his second letter to the Tsar, Kurbsky criticizes the “broadcast and noisy” letter of Ivan the Terrible, declaring brevity the main criterion of the author’s literary training. Kurbsky considers unacceptable the excessive quoting of “parameiniki” - 1schgzl from the Old Testament, violation of the etiquette of correspondence and the abundance of quotes from his own letter, which he tells the Tsar about. The style of this message is no longer so caustic and angry. Kurbsky reconciles himself with some statements, saying that he has already come to terms with oppression, “let God be your judge on this.” Kurbsky says: “I no longer understand what we want.” The style is close to didactic, Kurbsky reflects on the actions of Ivan the Terrible, but does not condemn them so brightly, relying on God’s help: “and for this sake, let’s wait a little, because I believe that the coming of Jesus Christ is near.” Ivan the Terrible's second message also uses stylized parodies and irony. He, imitating Kurbsky, begins to complain: “I have received colic of misfortune from you, colic of insult, colic of annoyance and reproach! And for what? He parodies the humble style of Kurbsky, the style of his message approaches self-deprecation. This correspondence was the most interesting document of the era and constituted an important stage in the history of Russian journalism of the 16th-17th centuries.

38. Generalizing literary works of the middleXVIV. Ideological intent, stylistic originality, significance of monuments

General stylistic traditions and significance of monuments. In 1547-1549. There is a church-wide canonization of many Russian saints who were previously considered locally revered. This action required documentary and spiritual justification. For this purpose, Metropolitan Macarius carries out his plan - to collect all books of religious content approved in Russia - and creates the “Great Chetya Menaion”. For this purpose, about 60 lives of new canonized saints, written in a rhetorical style, were compiled. But there is no longer any historical information left about these saints, so the chroniclers made up facts and wrote in the likeness of other lives. The “Cheti-Minea” included: lives; books of the Holy Scriptures and interpretations on them; patericon; works of South Slavic and Russian writers, recognized as models; collection “The Bee”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem”, “The Walking of Abbot Daniel”. The most important event in the spiritual life of the mid-16th century. The creation of the “Stoglavy Cathedral” also appeared. It was called upon to regulate all aspects of spiritual and practical life. His decrees concerned church land ownership, norms of social order, private life of the clergy, etc. His goal was to create the foundations of a unified state and introduce order into Russian life. This council was distinguished by its stern and doctrinal didacticism. It wrote about what icon painting should be like (focused on Rublev), church books (necessarily corrected). Domostroy served the purpose of regulating family life. The author has not been precisely identified, but it is believed that the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral, Sylvester, had a hand in this book. The source of Domostroi were biblical texts, Chrysostom, documentary records and, possibly, observations. The book regulated the daily life of an Orthodox person. Often its significance is limited to the practical side, but the main task of the house-building was to translate into real life the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe soullessness of royal power. The task is to raise a submissive subject and an exemplary Christian, to create a unified model of life in Russia. The genre of “House Construction” is spiritual teaching. His style is distinguished by didacticism and morality. Its chapters can be divided into 3 groups: defining a person’s relationship to spiritual and secular authority; worldly structure (family life arrangement); house building (tips for maintaining household). Sylvester added chapter 64, where he gave advice based on his experience. The main defining features of this literature were universality, encyclopedicism, didactic and polemical orientation. The scribes of this time generalized the experience of their predecessors, combining historical subjects, parables, and teachings into large monumental ensembles. Also, their works provided a new aesthetic design for the main ideological ideas of the time.

39. Development of the genre of walking in the 16-17 centuries. "Trifon Korobeinikov's walk to Constantinople."

In the 16th century Along with merchants' travels, embassy travel notes began to appear, called “item lists” or “lists”. They contained the issues on which negotiations were conducted and recorded the etiquette of the embassy reception. The structure of the ambassador's narratives was more fully characterized by Prokofiev. He said that they begin by indicating the time and place where the embassy is sent and for whose purpose, and the route is described. In the central part, he pointed to descriptions of the reception ceremony and descriptions of negotiations. He also mentioned inserting descriptions of landscape and everyday life into the story. These works acquired elements of a business style, combined with traditional colloquial vocabulary. The text also included the speeches of the characters and a detailed description of the course of events, which made the story less DYNAMIC, BUT more ACCURATE. In “The Walk of Trifon Korobeinikov,” the convergence of pilgrimage walking with two new types is traced. The circulation begins with a message about the departure time of Tryphon and a description of its route, indicating the distance between points. The main text is divided into travelogues, which tell about a specific locality or part of the route. The descriptions are businesslike and brief, attention is drawn to the size of the city, the material of the buildings (“the town of Orsha is stone”, “the town of Borisov Drevyan is small”), the presence of trading areas and methods of protecting the cities: “And the Menska-Slutsk city has better trades and people, and the city has the gates and at the prison there are collars and archers with guns, but they won’t let a foreigner into the prison without telling them)). This is reminiscent of merchants' walks. Descriptions of nature and detailed descriptions of topography, traditional for pilgrimage, also appear. An element of the ambassadorial article list (“On the passage of Russian ambassadors to the sovereign of Voloshesk Aaron”) is also introduced into circulation: “on the 13th day of March at 3 o’clock at night,” it is said how the ambassadors were received: “And in the room a locker was made, in the man’s belt, carpets; and on the locker the Voloshsky sovereign sits in place.” The story “About the Tours Mosque and about the dervyshes who have monks in our place” is reminiscent of an everyday sketch. Attention is drawn to the clothes and appearance of people: “mustaches, and braids, and eyebrows are shaved”; the life of the “chambers” for wanderers is described in detail. 2 essays in “Walking” are devoted to a description of the shrines of Constantinople. The “Tale of the Tsar City is not about everything” describes in detail the location of the city, mentioning the main shrines: Noah’s axe, the pillar of Constantine Flavius, the Temple of Sophia, etc. The author recalls the legend about the departure of the city's patron angel, retelling it in his own way. Mention is made of the plight of the Orthodox Church and the Patriarch. In the second essay, “On the destruction of the temple of St. George,” a legend is given about the miracle of St. George, who defended his temple from the Turkish king, and not only the preservation of the temple, but also the mercy of the Sultan to his servants is called a miracle. The story is dynamic and concise, with extensive use of dialogue. At the end, the Blachernae Church, the monasteries of Pantocrator, and the Apocalypse are mentioned. “Walking” cannot be classified into a specific type. It refers to social travel, because... Most of the information is not related to religious purposes. There is no clear author's assessment. The language is traditional for “walking” - colloquial vocabulary and phraseological units, a few foreign words, always with translation. There is a tendency towards the creation of a secular type of walking, as well as the combination of various genre features in order to create a documentary and interesting narrative.

40. Main directions of development in literature about the Troubles. The artistic originality of “The Tale of the Death and Burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky.

The literature of this time is divided into 2 stages: 1-before 1613. Journalistic works, small in volume, one-sidedly representing the heroes. Lyrical and symbolic genres and business documents were combined. This stage includes “The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom”, “The Tale of the Repose and Burial of Skopin-Shuisky. 2-20s 17th centuries The works tell about the entire Time of Troubles, strive for an objective assessment of events, and pay special attention to historical figures. This literature combines genres in different ways. These include the “Chronicle Book”, “Vremennik” by Ivan Timofeev, “The Tale of Vraam Palitsev”. In 17th century literature. new relationships are established between the historical and the fictional. The stories based on historical names contain fiction; facts of Russian history are combined with motifs from fairy tales and legends. The fictional characters operate in a setting typical of Russian society in the 17th century. situations, the existential and the everyday form a single alloy, which indicates the rapprochement of literature with life. A striking example of such evolution is the “Tale of the Death and Burial of Prince Skopin-Shuisky,” full of rumors and legends. The unexpected death of a young military leader with a heroic physique struck the consciousness of his contemporaries and gave rise to the birth of the legend of his poisoning. The author of the story also adheres to it, saturating the narrative with motives coming from folk songs and laments. The plot is this: at the feast of Prince Vorotynsky, Maria Shuiskaya brings him a deadly drink, and that was “a fierce mortal drink.” The idea of ​​poisoning is compared to “catching a treacherous thought like a bird in the forest, like frying a lynx.” And Mikhail dies on the night of April 23-24, in which the author sees symbolism, because... takes place “from the days of the great warrior and passion-bearer George to the days of the governor Sava Stratshat.” This comparison was supposed to “sanctify” the image of the Russian military leader, making him the moral ideal of the Time of Troubles. Skopin-Shuisky appears as an epic hero; the author masterfully uses comparisons and poetic means of the folk epic. The prince is called the “heavenly sun”, which the warriors cannot “get enough of”. His power is exaggerated - in the whole state they cannot find a coffin for him: “an oak block.” Michael is compared to King David and Samson. A lot of hyperbole is used in describing the grief of the people-people following the coffin as many as the “stars of heaven”; the lament for it is described: “from the people there are screams and wails, a lot of voices singing the tombstone, and not being able to hear the voices of those singing,” but about those who heard all this are told: “Even if the heart is forged and made of stone, even that one will be poured out in pity.” The crying of the mother, close to a folk tale, the crying of the Swedish military leader, traditional for high oratory, and the crying of the Russian people gives the story a special emotional coloring. It is repeated several times that the singing could not be heard because of the crying. At the end there is a vision predicting the death of Skopin-Shuisky, which violates the chronology, because it was “15 days after the feast of the Resurrection of Christ.” It is told by a resident of the city, having learned about the death of Mikhail, saying that it “came true at this present time.”

41.Literary activity of Archpriest Avvakum. Stylistics and genre originality of “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.”

Avvakum is the author of more than 80 works, some of which have not reached us. His works: “Book of Conversations”, “Book of Interpretations”, petitions to Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, letters, messages, etc. His work is permeated with a passionate denunciation of the official church and secular autocratic power from the position of a supporter of the Old Believers. He became an innovator in the literary field in terms of style and principles of literary depiction, although he was an opponent of innovation in art. His most famous work, “Life,” is an autobiography. In his introduction, Avvakum writes about the influence of his confessor Epiphanius on him and follows the traditional method of self-abasement. The style of his life is similar to confessional, because he blurs the line between himself and the reader, creating an atmosphere of empathy. Likhachev defined Avvakum’s style as a style of pathetic simplification - “grounding” the high (the story of the miraculous feeding of the prisoner, when Avvakum does not know whether it was an angel or a man) and poeticization of the low (the story about the death of a chicken, which “brought 2 eggs a day for food "). It goes beyond the traditional framework of hagiography: the heroes of the work are not clearly sinners or righteous. Habakkuk himself almost succumbs to temptation when a harlot comes to him, which had never happened before in the hagiographic tradition. And the image of the harlot herself is multifaceted - she is a sinner, but she came to confess - and this somewhat “cleanses” her. Habakkuk creates a new image - a “holy sinner”, which leads to a combination of two narrative plans: the author’s solemn sermon and repentant confession. Habakkuk combined church language, swearing, and colloquial language. Another facet of the innovation of life is the combination of the comic and tragic. When the archpriest describes returning from exile, talks about crossing the river, when the archpriest loses her strength and falls, another person trips over her and also falls on her. He apologizes, to which she replies: “Why, dude, did you run me over?” Describing the horrors of his imprisonment, he jokes, saying: “I’m lying like a dog in a straw,” etc. The life is also full of satirical portraits of Avvakum’s enemies. For example, in a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich he writes: “Poor, poor, crazy king!” Also, Avvakum’s innovation was manifested in writing not a journalistic work with elements of autobiography, but an integral biography. The work turns into the history of the first years of the Old Believer movement, the history of Russia in the second half of the 17th century. In addition to Avvakum, his life contains his companions and enemies, and the spatio-temporal boundaries of the narrative are widely represented. All these innovative features make life outstanding work of a kind.

42.Historical basis, originality of style of “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks.”

In the 17th century A series of stories about Azov appears, where the patriotic feat of the Cossacks is glorified. Military stories written at this time reflected examples of the mass heroism of the Cossacks during the capture of the fortress. “The Tale of the Azov Seat” was written in the 40s. 17th century based on actual historical events, when in the spring of 1637 the Don Cossacks, taking advantage of the Turkish Sultan’s employment in the war with Persia, captured the Azov fortress without the knowledge of the Moscow government. This opened the way for the Russians to the Azov and Black Seas and protected them from constant attacks by the Turks and Tatars in the south of the Moscow state. But, fearing complications in relations with Turkey, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich did not accept Azov, ordering the Cossacks to leave it. The genre is a historical story. The first part of the story is reminiscent of a business document in style, it talks in detail about the size of the Turkish army, the dates are indicated: “Insch on the 24th day at the first hour of the day they came to us to plow it near the city)”, “every head in the Janice regiment had 12,000)) . The entire work, in fact, is an official report on the events of the Azov sitting, because at the beginning it says that “the Don Cossacks came... to Grand Duke Mikhail Fedorovich... and brought a painting to their seat of siege)). The following narrative introduces this painting. The story intertwines different styles, for example, before the start of hostilities, an ambassador comes from the Turks with a speech in which he tries to call for repentance and pity: “you attacked him like hungry wolves, and you did not spare him in any way a man of age... and you thereby put a cruel name on yourself bestial." Next, service to the Turkish king is offered for a reward. After which a response message from the Cossacks is given, in which they talk about their distrust of the Turks and the tsar’s insidious plans. These messages give the story a rhetorical, oratorical style. The work is also distinguished by its lyrical style: for example, the prayer of the Cossacks before the battle, the repentance of the Cossacks before the Tsar: “Forgive us, servant of your sinners, Sovereign Tsar and Grand Duke Mikhailo Fedorovich)). This poetic place is based on a Cossack folk song, which indicates the influence of folklore on the story. The influence of military stories is also noticeable here (in the descriptions of battles). In the last part, a rhetorical style arises again - an exchange of messages between the Cossacks and the Turks. Then a vision is given: the Mother of God appears to the Cossacks and blesses them for battle. Then again the story takes on a documentary style - it tells about the number of living and wounded Cossacks after the battle, the exact dates are given (the capture of Azov - September 26, when “the Turk Pashas and the Turks and the Crimean Tsar ... ran away to persecute us with eternal shame))). ,

The story is distinguished by patriotic pathos, accuracy of descriptions, vernacular language and poetic style, in which traditional techniques of military stories and Don folklore are noticeable. This is an original, innovative work in both content and style.

43. General characteristics of satirical stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories. Work by V.P. Adrianova-Peretz "At the origins of Russian satire."

In the 17th century Satire is developing very well. Satirical stories can be divided into 3 groups: anti-feudal, anti-clerical and everyday. Anti-feudal ones include “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”. To the anti-clerical ones - “The Kolyazin Petition”, “The Tale of Hawk Moth”. Everyday stories are fictional. The works contain fictitious characters and events. “The Tale of Misfortune” belongs to this type. They reflected the dramatic clash of “oldness” and “newness” in the sphere of personal and public life. “The Tale of Hawkmoth” has 3 parts: 1-introduction, 2-conversation between Hawkmoth and the inhabitants of paradise, 3-exit of John the Evangelist. This construction speaks of the novelistic nature of the work. This story is an anti-clerical satire. The first part talks about who the hawk moth is: “one who drinks early on the feasts of God.” He dies and an angel comes for him, after which the second part begins - the communication of the hawk moth with those who approach the gates of heaven - the Apostle Peter, the Apostle Paul, King David, King Solomon. Hawkmoth asks them to let him in, but they answer him that sinners cannot go to heaven. To which the hawk moth remembers something from their life about each one, from which each one “got away and was quickly put to shame.” In the third part, John the Theologian approaches the gates, who also says: “You cannot enter heaven as a hawkmoth.” To which Hawkmoth replies that in his Gospel it is written: “if we love each other, God will protect us both.” And he says that then John must either let him in or renounce writing the Gospel. This is how the hawk moth goes to heaven. In this work, the Supreme dogma is violated, the Divine court turns out to be unfair. The sinner goes to heaven. This story, a parody of medieval tales about the afterlife, angrily denounces church piety and church veneration of famous saints. All the saints mentioned here turn out to be unworthy of heaven. And the hawk moth acts as an angry accuser and at the same time a cunning speaker. Therefore, this story was included in the index of banned books.

44. Problematics and genre ambiguity of “everyday” stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories.

By the 2nd half of the 17th century. In Russian literature, a special genre variety of the everyday story is emerging, which reflects the drama of the collision of “oldness” and “newness” in the sphere of personal and public life. If real heroes of historical stories became participants in unreal events, then the adventures of fictional characters in everyday stories were firmly integrated into the surrounding Russian reality. All events and characters in these works are fictitious. These works were distinguished by journalisticism and authorial freedom. The author himself could resolve the dispute in favor of one or another hero, depending on his moral positions. The everyday story of the late Middle Ages acquires the features of philosophical prose. The everyday story reflected the democratization of the hero and the emerging interest in the “little man.” “The Tale of Misfortune” was created among merchants in the 2nd half of the 17th century. The story is written in folk verse, based on an everyday story, accompanied by lyrical moral teachings. The hero of the story, Well done, he has no name, did not listen to his parents, who said: “Don’t go, child, to feasts and brother’s parties, don’t sit on the seat, don’t drink, child, two spells for one!” so as not to be a beggar. . He “wanted to live as he pleased” and did the opposite, so he fell “into immeasurable nakedness and barefootedness.” And the story draws a parallel between Adam and Eve, who succumbed to temptation, and Well done. The image of a serpent-tempter, a “called brother,” appears, who gets him drunk and then robs him. Further, the parallel runs through the motive of exile - Well done “it’s shameful ... to appear to his father and mother” and he decides to leave “to a foreign country.” There he goes to a feast, where he tells people about everything and asks for help. They help him and give him advice based on Domostroevsky morality. Thanks to them, Well done “from his great intelligence he gained more belly than Starov; I looked for a bride for myself according to custom.” Misfortune-Grief learned about this and appeared to the Well-Behaved in a dream, foreshadowing: “you will be taken away from your bride... of gold and silver, you will be killed.” But the Good Man didn’t believe the dream, then Grief appeared to him in a dream in the form of the Archangel Gabriel, saying that bliss is to be poor and drunk. After this, the Good Man follows the instructions of Grief, but then he realizes his mistake: “I, the good fellow, have been pushed into trouble.” But Grief does not let him go, saying that the Good Man will not go anywhere from him. Having struggled in vain with Grief, “the fine fellow went to the monastery to take monastic vows,” which is how he was saved. The hero of the story is a degraded person, but he worries about it. This is the first image of a tramp in Russian literature, with whom the author sympathizes, but at the same time condemns. The image of Grief is built on folklore principles. Grief makes a man choose Wrong Way, but it is also retribution for his mistakes when it says: “Whoever does not listen to his parents’ teachings to do good, I will teach him, O unfortunate grief.” This work is similar in genre to a parable or a lesson, because... full of morality given by concrete example. Also, the story is very close to folk songs about the Mountain; certain passages are of an epic nature (for example, the arrival of the Well done to the feast and his boast). The work is close to folklore, as can be seen in the comparisons: Well done - “rock dove”, Woe - “Gray hawk”, etc. Based on this, we can say that the story is a fusion of folklore and literature; it goes beyond genre systems, combining many genres and traditions.

45. History of the emergence and repertoire of the court theater. The play "Judith".

The court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich arose in October 1672 and became a new state “fun”. The Tsar hired foreign actors for his theater. Researchers believe that the initiator of the creation of this theater was the boyar Artamon Matveev. He had his own home theater with musicians, and he himself repeatedly acted as an actor. Until 1672, performances were staged in the Izmailovsky Palace, in the Kremlin, in the house of the Tsar’s father-in-law, Boyar Miloslavsky, and in the “comedy choir” at the Aptekarsky Courtyard. The king entrusted the writing of the first play on the biblical story about Esther and her marriage with the Persian king, after which she uncovered the conspiracy and saved her people from extermination, to the pastor of the Moscow German Settlement, Gregory. The main problems of the play: true royal power and mercy, pride and humility, were very popular at that time. On October 17, 1672, its premiere took place. The play consisted of a prologue and 7 acts, divided into phenomena. The performance ran for 10 hours without a break. The performance delighted the king. Thus, the history of the Russian theater began with the court theater, and the history of Russian drama began with the “Artaxerxes Action.” The first plays on the Russian stage were written on subjects from the Bible, lives of saints, history and ancient mythology. The connection of the plays with modernity was emphasized by poetic prefaces. Such plays include the play “Judith”. It tells about the siege of the Jewish city of Bethulia by Assyrian troops under the leadership of the general Holofernes and his murder by the Bethulian Judith. The play has 7 acts, divided into “entry”; pathetic scenes sometimes give way to comic ones; in addition to heroic characters, the play features buffoonish characters. For example, when Judith announces her intention to kill Holofernes, and the situation becomes tense because... everyone is worried, Abra, Judith’s servant, asks: “What are the Asirians like: are they like this, or are they people?” The connection of the play with modernity is evidenced by the appeal to Alexei Mikhailovich, which precedes the text of the play. The first plays of the Russian theater were close in genre to “English” comedies; their artistic specificity was the abundance of bloody, crudely naturalistic scenes and dramatic collisions. For example, Judith showed everyone the bloody head of Holofernes. After this, Judith says to the maid Abra: “Quietly put me into your feast,” and she praises Judith’s courage and utters a comic phrase: “What will that wretched man say when he wakes up, and Judith is gone with his head?” The captured soldier Susakim, a comic character, is subjected to a “mock execution.” Having risen, the hero cannot understand for a long time whether he is alive, and having found clothes and shoes, he pretends to be looking for his head, asking: “Ow, gentlemen! If any of you…hid my head, I humbly ask him…to return it to me.” The “changeability” of life is emphasized by the movement of action in the play. In the play it is transferred from the palace to the military camp of Holofernes, and from there to the besieged city and the house of Judith. The official speech of the courtiers is replaced by the riotous song of drunken soldiers, and the lyrical speeches of the heroine are replaced by choirs. Thus, this play was typical of that time and was a striking example of 17th century drama.

46. ​​School theater. "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son."

At the end of the 17th century. School theater was born in Rus'. Created based on the plots of the books of the Holy Scriptures, works of school drama consisted of long monologues written in syllabics; they were spoken not only by biblical characters, but also by allegorical images (Mercy, Envy). These plays were staged at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, at the Zaikonospassky school of Simeon of Polotsk, at the Moscow Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy, and the school of Dmitry Rostov. One of the first Russian educators and baroque poets was Simeon of Polotsk. His plays “The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son” and “The Tragedy of King Nebuchadnezzar” brought him fame. The “Comedy” was written on a gospel plot; it contained a conflict typical of that era when “children” did not listen to their parents, were burdened by their care, and left home in dreams of seeing the world. Behavior problem young man was also reflected in stories of the second half of the 17th century, such as “The Tale of Misfortune,” “The Tale of Savva Gruditsin,” and “The Tale of Frol Skobeev.” The play is small in size, its composition is very simple, the setting is conventional, the number of characters is small, and the characters are nameless (for example, Father, Sue the youngest, Son the eldest, Servant of the Prodigal, etc.). There are no allegories in the play, and all this brings the “Comedy” closer to school dramas and ensured its success. The comedy begins with a prologue, which calls for attention to watch this play. Then the first part begins, where the father distributes the inheritance to his sons, for which they thank the father, but the younger one asks for blessings and says: “I want to begin my path. What am I getting in the house? What will I study? I’d rather get richer in my mind while traveling.” In the second part, the youngest son leaves home and talks about his drinking and revelry. The third part consists of only one sentence: “The Prodigal Son comes out hungover, the servants console him in various ways; it's depressing." V~4-<ш_частиговорвтсал его нищете и голоде. В 5-ой части сын возвращается к отцу, а в 6-ой он показан уже одетым и накормленным, восхваляющим Бога. Далее следует эпилог, в котором говорится о назначении пьесы и наставляет^ запомнить её. Из всего этого следует, что стиль пьесы-поучительный. И несмотря на то, что она названа комедией, по сути своей это притча.

47. Poetic originality of the poetry collections of Simeon of Polotsk.

One of the first Russian educators and baroque poets was Simeon of Polotsk. Shortly before his death, he collected his writings and poems into huge collections - “Rhythmologion” and “Multicolored Vertograd”. His intense work was associated with the task of rooting a new verbal culture, baroque in nature, on Russian soil. The “helicopter city” he created amazed the reader with its “multicolors)). The poems were devoted to a variety of topics and were arranged in the collection according to thematic headings, where they were arranged alphabetically by title. In these collections, he denounced what was at odds with his idea of ​​the ideal, and tirelessly praised the king, because. believed that this was his “service” to Russia. Simeon of Polotsk was an experimental poet who turned to the means of painting and architecture to give his poems clarity and to capture the reader’s imagination. In “The Russian Eagle” there is a form of “acrostic poem”, the initial letters of which form the sentence: “Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Lord, grant him many summers,” as well as rebus poems, “echoes” with rhyming questions and answers, and figured poems. This required skill and sharpness of mind from the poet. Baroque poetry also cultivated “multilingual” poems, which was reflected in Polotsky’s poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, and Latin. The Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through the high style, oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a predilection for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by himself: “good-made”, “divinely-inspired”, etc. The things and phenomena he depicted often had an allegorical meaning; they “spoke”, teaching. Sometimes the teaching took the form of an entertaining, satirical story. For example, the poem “Drunkenness” (a drunkard, having come home, saw 4 sons instead of 2, because he saw double; he began accusing his wife of debauchery and orders him to pick up a red-hot piece of iron to prove his innocence. But the wife asks her husband to give her a piece from the oven, after which, having burned himself, he sobers up and understands everything. Everything ends with a moral), “Toads of the obedient” (the toads in the swamp screamed and disturbed the “praying monk.” One of them goes to swamp and says to the toads: “In the name of Christ I command you... not to be such,” after which the toads were no longer heard. At the end, a moral is given where the cry of the toads is compared to the “hugging” of women and it is said that they can be silenced in the same way. ). Scientists identify 3 main trends in Simeon’s work: didactic-educational (“Multicolored Vertograd”), panegric (“Rhythmologion”) and polemical (treatise “The Rod of Government,” directed against schismatics).

Origins and poetic originality of the Baroque style in Russian literature.

Baroque is one of the first European styles presented in Russian culture. Italy is considered the birthplace of Baroque, the country where it reached its apogee is Spain. Baroque came to Rus' from Poland through Ukraine and Belarus. In Russia, it replaced the Middle Ages and became a kind of Renaissance of Russian culture. This led to the loss of the religious and philosophical self-absorption of the Baroque and its promotion of the secularization of culture. Therefore, the Baroque in Russian culture acquired an optimistic pathos, without developing the philosophical motives of the “frailty of life,” and proclaimed human life as continuous pleasures and exciting journeys. This idea of ​​​​the “variegation” of the world formed in literature a new type of hero - the hunter of Fortune, an inquisitive and enterprising person who enjoys life. Baroque in its Russian version affected mainly the culture of the upper classes; it was not large-scale, because was limited in time. It glorified science, education and reason. In Baroque poetry, sophistication and learning were valued, “multilingual” poems were welcomed, which was reflected in Polotsky’s poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, and Latin. The Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through the high style, oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a predilection for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by himself: “good-working,” “God-inspired, flower-bearing,” etc. Despite all its elitism, the Baroque was addressed to the people and served the purposes of their education and upbringing. Filled with scientific and journalistic material, historical and geographical information, Baroque poetry sought to go beyond the boundaries of literature. The discoveries of the Baroque include a new look at a person, whose image is devoid of Renaissance harmony. The intricate plot forced the characters to actively move in space, and an abundance of landscapes and portraits appeared in the work. The world of Baroque amazed with its whimsical forms, diversity and polyphony. And the Russian version of Baroque, unlike the European one, was distinguished by moderation. In the Russian tradition, interest in naturalistic scenes of love and death and descriptions of the afterlife was also weakened. Baroque rooted poetry in Russian literature, enriching it with new poetic forms. Their range is very wide: from poetic transcriptions of liturgical texts to epigrams, from panegric greetings addressed to the king to inscriptions for images of alphabets. Baroque liberated the poet, giving him freedom to choose the form of his work, and this search often led to the destruction of boundaries between genres, different types of art, and art and science. Poems could take the form of a dialogue, become part of a pictorial composition, etc. form began to prevail over content: poets composed acrostics, figure verses, created labyrinths with a repeatedly read phrase, “echo.” “Leoninsky” poems with rhyming hemistiches are coming into fashion. Although the literature of Russian Baroque seems far from strict norms and canons, it had its own pattern, which led to the emergence of stable images and phraseological units: Tsar - “eagle”, “sun”, Russia - “sky”. Later, these formulas, ideas and techniques were adopted and modified in the literature of Russian classicism.

Peeva M.V. The role of ancient Russian literature in modern literary education of schoolchildren // D.S. Likhachev and Russian culture: materials of regional scientific readings dedicated to the 100th anniversary of academician D.S. Likhachev, Kemerovo, November 9, 2006 / ed. E.L.Rudnevoy.-Kemerovo: Publishing House KRIPKiPRO, 2007.

The role of ancient Russian literature in modern literary education of schoolchildren

Appreciating the beautiful in the past, protecting it, we thereby seem to follow the behest of A.S. Pushkin: “Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery...”. This quote fully reveals the role of ancient Russian literature in modern education of schoolchildren.

“Monuments of ancient Russian literature influence the formation of our primary ideas about Ancient Rus' and the sources of knowledge of Russian culture. They effectively influence in general the formation in our young - school - years of our artistic taste, concepts of artistic values, general aesthetic concepts of what a perfect work of literature is, helps us to understand how important it is for us today to turn to a very long-standing cultural heritage" 1 .

“The amazing thing is that already in the texts of the 16th century. we discover features typical of the great Russian classical literature, and elements of thinking that seem to anticipate our modern train of thought, historicism with a rare breadth of chronological, as well as spatial-geographical range, the richest, at the same time very specific and symbolically - refined associativity, the idea of “sign” - a historically specific image, which is at the same time a symbolic image. In the brilliant monument of literature of the 12th century, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” we already see a synthetic perception and reflection in the relationship of man and nature, the lyrical and the epic, that is, the beginning of that line of development of great literature that dates back to L. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” 2 . According to Tolstoy, the great texts of the distant past open up a new world for a person, making him “without knowledge... fall in love with knowledge.” “Each of these books learns for the first time all the beauty of the epic in its inimitable simplicity and power.”

In this regard, the educational literature of Ancient Rus', which was subordinate to the tasks of moral description and moral teaching, plays a large role in the formation of the unlimited moral improvement of man. “Her etiquette and “good manners” in life are closely related. For example, “Reading about the life and death of Boris and Gleb,” studied at school, is permeated from beginning to end with a heightened sense of etiquette. “The blessed one fell down and bowed down to his father and kissed his nose with honor, and then stood up and wrapped his neck in his arms, kissing him with tears” (Reading about the life and destruction of Boris and Gleb). Thus, a special, national ideal of beauty is revealed to students. First of all, this is spiritual, inner beauty, the beauty of a Christian merciful and loving soul.

It is especially important that in the literature of Ancient Rus' there is no place for hatred and contempt for other peoples (which is usual for many other works of the Middle Ages); it fosters not only patriotism, but, in modern terms, internationalism.

“Stable etiquette features are composed in literature into hieroglyphic signs, into emblems. The emblem is close to an ornament. “Weaving of words”, which has widely developed in Russian literature since the end of the 14th century, is a verbal ornament. We can graphically depict the repeating elements of the “weaving of words”, and we will get an ornament close to the ornament of handwritten headpieces - the so-called “braiding” 5.

Here is an example of a relatively simple “weaving” from the “Tale of the Coming of Khan Temir Aksak to Moscow,” which was part of the chronicles. The author strings together long rows of parallel grammatical constructions and synonyms - not in a narrow linguistic sense, but more broadly - in a logical and semantic sense. News comes to Moscow about Temir Aksak, “how he is preparing to fight the Russian Land and how he boasts of going to Moscow, although taking it, and captivate the Russian people, and destroy holy places, and eradicate the Christian faith, and persecute the Christians, torment, torture, caves and and cut off the swords..." By focusing their attention on such examples, students absorb a sense of harmony and unity of literature, preparing to study the solemn, lofty word of M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina, A.S. Pushkin, etc.

“The study of a specific word in ancient Russian literature also plays an important role. The word appears here not only in its sound essence, but also in its visual image. It is also “timeless” to some extent.

The cultural horizon of the world is constantly expanding, and in modern society there is a decline in morals. The desire to switch to a Western perception of the world destroys the national worldview system and leads to the forgetting of traditions based on spirituality. Fashionable imitation of the West is destructive for Russian society, and, therefore, needs “treatment” through history. Thanks to her, the unity of the world becomes more and more tangible. Distances between cultures are shrinking, and there is less and less room for national enmity. This is the greatest merit of the humanities. One of the urgent tasks is to introduce into the circle of reading and understanding of the modern reader the monuments of the verbal art of Ancient Rus', in the great and unique culture of which fine art and literature, humanistic and material culture, broad international connections and a clearly expressed national identity are closely intertwined. If we preserve our culture and everything that contributes to its development - libraries, museums, schools, universities - if we preserve our unspoiled, rich language, literature, art, then we, of course, are a great nation. That is why it is so important that a school teacher is worthy of his subject of teaching.

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1 Schmidt S.O. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the formation and development of the concept of a cultural monument” // Monuments of the Fatherland. - No. 1. - 1986, p. 160.

2 Schmidt S.O. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the formation and development of the concept of a cultural monument” // Monuments of the Fatherland. - No. 1. - 1986, p. 160.

3 Likhachev D.S. Selected works: In 3 volumes. T. 1. – L.: Khudozh. lit., 1987, p. 286.

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