7. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century During the Seven Years' War, Russia's actions brought Prussia to the brink of military disaster, and King Frederick II was preparing to make peace on any terms. He was saved by the death of Elizabeth, which followed on December 25, 1761.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

BRANCH OF A STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY"

IN TOBOLSK

Test

Discipline: History

Topic: Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II.

Introduction

1.1 Agriculture

1.2 Industry

1.4 Finance

1.5 Education

1.6 Book business

1.8 Architecture

1.9 Sculpture

2.3 Provincial reform

3.2 Treaty of Georgievsk

3.3 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Conclusion

Introduction

By the end of the 18th century. The territory of Russia has increased. The increase occurred due to the annexed lands in the southern and western directions from the borders of the state. The following were annexed to Russia: Crimea, the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Right Bank Ukraine, lands between the Bug and Dniester rivers, Belarus, Courland, Lithuania The population of Russia at the end of the 18th century. was 36 million people, which was twice as many as in the middle of the century. By the end of the 18th century. There were 634 cities in Russia, although some of them were called that only formally, due to the fact that they were endowed with administrative powers. Only 4% of the state's population lived in cities. The bulk of the population lived in rural areas.

The reign of Catherine II became a new era in the history of Russia. The young empress took over the state, completely upset palace coups control system. In the first five years of her reign, Catherine II developed practical methods for her activities and selected the desired circle of associates. She undertook a number of trips around Russia, visiting the provinces. This was done with the aim of developing a specific policy that meets the needs of the time. The topic revealed through this test is interesting to me because historians are often contradictory in their judgments, but I think it is true that the contribution that Catherine II made to the development of the Russian State is inexorable. One can evaluate her decisions and actions in different ways, but her merit in the development of Russia is enormous, apparently for this reason historians call the time of her reign “The Golden Age of Catherine II.”

1. Russia in the second half of the 18th century

1.1 Agriculture

During the second half of the XVIII V. The main branch of the Russian economy was agriculture. The territories annexed during this period of time were actively included in the economy of the state. Vast lands from the Black Sea region to the North Caucasus, thanks to their natural and climatic conditions, are gradually becoming the most important agricultural regions of Russia. The development of agriculture in the Urals and Siberia continues. In the second half of the 18th century. In agricultural areas, two essentially different rents were common: quitrent and corvee. Quirk was common in non-chernozem regions and was cash or food rent. In the black earth regions, where agriculture was priority direction economy, corvee was collected. Peasants had to work on the land of the landowner. They often had one day a week to cultivate their plots of land. By the end of the 18th century. Most of the serfs in the agrarian regions of the state were transferred to monthly labor, while their land was taken away, and for a small fee, they had to work all the time for their master. This was largely due to the desire of the landowner to obtain as much surplus product as possible and subsequently sell it. In some landowners' farms, modern technical devices were used, new crops were bred (tobacco, sunflower and others). But for the most part, heavy manual labor of the peasant was used on agricultural land without the use of advanced technologies for growing agricultural products. It is important to note the tightening of serfdom. According to a number of decrees of Catherine II, the rights of serfs were significantly reduced. According to the decree of 1765, a serf could be sent to Siberia for hard labor without trial. In 1767, a decree was issued that prohibited peasants from complaining about their landowners. The result of such a policy in the field of agriculture was, on the one hand, an increase in the economic potential of the state, on the other, this increase occurred due to the unlimited exploitation of peasants and the extensive development of territories.

1.2 Industry

In 1775, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was published. One of its parts, “Craft Regulations,” regulated craft production in cities. A so-called guild system was created, which helped improve the organization of the artisan’s work. As in the first half of the 18th century. Crafts developed rapidly in fishing centers. This contributed to the creation of manufacturing production: in Ivanovo - textile, in Kimry - leather, in Khokhloma - woodworking. There was a tendency for enterprising peasants to organize manufacturing production themselves. At the same time, they remained serfs, and they had to pay a large rent to their landowner.

Only a small part of them were able to redeem their personal freedom over time and become at the base of the emerging bourgeois class. By the end of the 18th century. there was a significant increase in production. This was due to the increase in the number of manufactories from 600 in the middle of the century to 1200 at the end of the 18th century.

The overwhelming majority of workers were serfs. In the second half of the 18th century. civilian workers appear in factories. These are the peasants who were forced to pay a monetary rent to their landowner. All this led to the growth of the free labor market and the emergence of capitalism.

1.3 Domestic and foreign trade

The process of developing an all-Russian market continues. The orientation of individual regions towards specific production has become even clearer. So the black earth provinces were classified as grain regions central Russia and Ukraine, industrial crops were grown in Novgorod and Smolensk, Siberia and the North specialized in the manufacture of fur goods. Sales of manufactured goods took place at fairs: in Nizhny Novgorod, Irbit, Kursk, Arkhangelsk and other cities. An important milestone in the development of domestic trade was the abolition of internal trade customs duties in 1754.

This made it possible to establish unhindered transportation and trade of goods from the most remote regions of the state. Foreign trade was an important item in Russia's budget. The functioning of new ports on the Baltic and Black Seas made it possible to expand Russia's foreign trade relations. Many goods were exported from the state: metal, grain, hemp, timber, leather. Imported: sugar, cloth, metal products, wine, tea. Russia's main trading partner at this time is England. The development of domestic and foreign trade led to an increase in production and contributed to the emergence of capitalist relations.

1.4 Finance

The strengthening of the state led to an increase in expenses for the administrative apparatus, maintenance of the court, and provision of the army. The Russian budget was experiencing an acute shortage of funds - a deficit. One of the measures to bring the state out of the financial crisis was the appearance of paper money in 1769. Now they went along with silver coins. Another measure was the receipt of external loans - foreign loans. In 1769 such a loan was made in Holland. If you look at the Russian budget of this time, it becomes clear that the main source of its income was taxes. Direct taxes - poll tax and indirect taxes - customs duties, sales of wine, salt, and so on. The main items of expenditure were, as noted above, the maintenance of the army and navy, the courtyard, and the state administrative apparatus. Minor funds were spent on education, science and culture. Second half of the 18th century. became the time when classes acquired their clear boundaries. The strengthening of the class system was a deterrent. Each class was closed and had its own rights and privileges. Two charters issued by Catherine II on April 21, 1785, to the nobility and cities, became the starting point in the legal formalization of the class system in Russia.

1.5 Education

The strengthening of the economic and military power of Russia during the period of Peter I, the military victories of Russia during the reign of Catherine II, led to growth national identity the Russian people and, as a consequence, to the rise of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. The dominant trend in Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. - early XIX V. becomes classicism. Its ideological basis was the struggle for powerful national statehood and national culture. In the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II carried out reforms in the sphere of management, economics, class organization, and education. But Catherine II attached special importance to educational reform, since she understood that the success of social transformations depended on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability and desire to perceive new things.

1.6 Book business

In connection with the spread of education in the second half of the 18th century. Interest in books is growing in society. To satisfy the demand for printed products, in 1783 Catherine II issued a decree “On Free Printing Houses,” which for the first time granted everyone the right to open printing houses. Private printing houses were opened not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, however, during the period of the struggle of Catherine II and Paul I against the penetration of the ideas of the French Revolution into Russia, all private printing houses were closed. In the second half of the 18th century. the number of libraries at universities, gymnasiums, closed educational institutions. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to operate. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, in which not only students of the Academy, but also anyone could work.

1.7 Production

The development of manufacturing production contributed to the development of technical thought. In 1760, R. Glinkov invented a mechanical engine for spinning machines, which replaced the labor of 9 people. I.I. Polzunov (1728-1766) - a genius, master of the Kolyvanovo-Voznesensk plant in Altai - first put forward the idea of ​​​​using steam power as an engine. In 1765, he designed the world's first universal steam engine. A few days before its launch, I.I. Polzunov died. The machine worked for several months, and only as a result of a minor breakdown it failed. Another self-taught mechanic is I.P. Kulibin (1735-1818) was an unrivaled watchmaker. He created a clock that showed the seasons, months, hours, minutes, seconds, phases of the moon, the time of sunrise and sunset in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He also invented many original devices and instruments, improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments, and created a semaphore telegraph. But these inventions, like the inventions of I.I. Kulibin, also did not have a wide practical application.

1.8 Architecture

The leading direction in architecture of the second half of the 18th century. There was classicism, which was characterized by an appeal to the images and forms of ancient architecture (the order system with columns) as an ideal aesthetic standard. A significant architectural event of the 60-80s. was the design of the Neva embankments. One of the attractions of St. Petersburg was the Summer Garden. In 1771 - 1786 The summer garden from the side of the Neva embankment was fenced with a lattice, the author of which was Yu.M. Felten (1730-1801) and his assistant P. Egorov. Lattice Summer Garden made in the style of classicism: verticality dominates here: vertically standing peaks intersect rectangular frames, evenly distributed massive pylons support these frames, emphasizing with their rhythm the overall feeling of majesty and peace. In 1780 - 1789 designed by architect A.A. Kvasov, granite embankments and descents and approaches to the river were built. The greatest master of Russian classicism was V.I. Bazhenov (1737/38-1799). He grew up in the Moscow Kremlin, where his father was a sexton of one of the churches, and studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. Having graduated from the Academy of Arts in 1760, V.I. Bazhenov went as a pensioner to France and Italy. Living abroad, he enjoyed such fame that he was elected professor at the Roman Academies and a member of the Florence and Bologna Academies. In 1762, upon returning to Russia, he received the title of academician. But in Russia creative destiny the architect's life was tragic. IN AND. Bazhenov was entrusted with the creation of a palace and park complex of buildings in the village of Chernaya Gryaz (Tsaritsyno) near Moscow, where Catherine II decided to build her country residence. Ten years later, all major work was completed. In June 1785, Catherine comes to Moscow and inspects Tsaritsyn’s buildings, then in January 1786 she issues a decree: the palace and all buildings should be demolished, and V.I. Bazhenov should be fired without pay or pension. “This is a prison, not a palace,” is the empress’s conclusion. The legend connects the demolition of the palace with its depressing appearance. Catherine entrusted the construction of the new palace to M.F. Kazakov. But this palace was not completed either.

Another talented Russian architect who worked in the classicist style was M.F. Kazakov (1738-1812). Kazakov was not a pensioner and studied ancient and Renaissance monuments from drawings and models. A great school for him was working together with Bazhenov, who invited him, on the project of the Kremlin Palace. In 1776, Catherine entrusted M.F. Kazakov drawing up a project for a government building in the Kremlin - the Senate. The site allocated for the Senate building was an inconvenient oblong triangular shape, surrounded on all sides by old buildings. So the Senate building received a general triangular plan. The building has three floors and is made of brick. The center of the composition was the courtyard, into which an arched entrance topped with a dome led. Having passed the arched entrance, the one who entered found himself in front of a majestic rotunda, crowned with a mighty dome. The Senate was supposed to sit in this bright round building. The corners of the triangular building are cut off. Thanks to this, the building is perceived not as a flat triangle, but as a solid massive volume. The third largest architect of the second half of the 18th century. - I.E. Starov (1744-1808). He studied first at the gymnasium at Moscow University, then at the Academy of Arts. Starov's most significant building is the Tauride Palace (1782-1789) - a huge city estate of G.A. Potemkin, who received the title Tauride for the development of Crimea. The basis of the composition of the palace is a hall-gallery, dividing the entire complex of interiors into two parts. From the front entrance there is a series of rooms adjacent to the octagonal domed hall. On the opposite side there is a large winter garden. The exterior of the building is very modest, but it hides the dazzling luxury of the interiors. Since 1780, the Italian Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817) has been working in St. Petersburg. His career in Russia was very successful. Architectural creations in Russia represent a brilliant combination of Russian and Italian architectural traditions. His contribution to Russian architecture was that he, together with the Scotsman Charles Cameron, set the standards for the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time. Quarenghi's masterpiece was the building of the Academy of Sciences, built in 1783-1789.

At the end of the 70s, the architect Charles Cameron (1743-1812), a Scot by birth, came to Russia. Raised on European classicism, he was able to feel all the originality of Russian architecture and fall in love with it. Cameron's talent manifested itself mainly in exquisite palace and park country ensembles. The last architect of the 18th century. Vincenzo Brenna (1747-1818) is rightfully considered the favorite architect of Paul and Maria Feodorovna. After ascending the throne in 1796, Paul I removed Charles Cameron from the post of chief architect of Pavlovsk and appointed V. Brenna in his place. From now on, Brenna manages all buildings in Pavlovsk and participates in all significant buildings of Pavlovsk’s time.

1.9 Sculpture

In the second half of the 18th century. the real flourishing of Russian sculpture begins, which is associated, first of all, with the name of F.I. Shubin (1740-1805), fellow countryman M.V. Lomonosov. Having graduated from the Academy with a large gold medal, Shubin went on a retirement trip, first to Paris (1767-1770), and then to Rome (1770-1772). Abroad in 1771, not from life F.I. Shubin created a bust of Catherine II, for which, upon returning to his homeland in 1774, he received the title of academician. At the same time, the French sculptor Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716-1791; in Russia - from 1766 to 1778) worked in Russia. Falconet worked at the court of the French king Louis XV, then at the Paris Academy. In his works, Falcone followed the rococo fashion that prevailed at court. His work “Winter” (1771) became a true masterpiece. The image of a sitting girl, personifying winter and covering the flowers at her feet with smoothly falling folds of her robe, like a snow cover, is full of quiet sadness. But Falcone always dreamed of creating monumental work, he managed to realize this dream in Russia. On the advice of Diderot, Catherine commissioned the sculptor to create an equestrian monument to Peter I. In 1766, Falconet arrived in St. Petersburg and began work. He depicted Peter I riding a rearing horse. The emperor's head is crowned with a laurel wreath - a symbol of his glory and victories. The Tsar's hand, pointing to the Neva, the Academy of Sciences and the Peter and Paul Fortress, symbolically denotes the main goals of his reign: education, trade and military power. The sculpture rises on a pedestal in the form of a granite rock weighing 275 tons. At Falconet’s suggestion, a laconic inscription is carved on the pedestal: “To Peter the First, Catherine the Second.” The opening of the monument took place in 1782, when Falcone was no longer in Russia. Four years before the opening of the monument, E. - M. Falcone had disagreements with the empress, and the sculptor left Russia. In the mid-90s, upon returning to his homeland, the most fruitful period in Kozlovsky’s work began. main topic his works are from antiquity. From his works young gods, cupids, and beautiful shepherdesses came to Russian sculpture. These are his “Shepherdess with a Hare” (1789, Pavlovsk Palace Museum), “Sleeping Cupid” (1792, State Russian Museum), “Cupid with an Arrow” (1797, Tretyakov Gallery). In the statue “The Vigil of Alexander the Great” (second half of the 80s, State Russian Museum), the sculptor captured one of the episodes of the future commander’s training of will (material). The most significant and a major work The artist became a monument to the great Russian commander A.V. Suvorov (1799-1801, St. Petersburg). The monument does not have a direct portrait resemblance. This is rather a generalized image of a warrior, a hero, whose military costume combines elements of the weapons of an ancient Roman and a medieval knight. Energy, courage, nobility emanates from the entire appearance of the commander, from his proud turn of his head, the graceful gesture with which he raises his sword. Another outstanding work by M.I. Kozlovsky became the statue “Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion” - central in the Great Cascade of Peterhof fountains (1800-1802). The statue was dedicated to Russia's victory over Sweden in the Northern War. Samson personified Russia, and the lion represented defeated Sweden. The powerful figure of Samson is given by the artist in a complex turn, in tense movement.

russia ekaterina reign education

2. "Golden Age" of Catherine II the Great (1762 - 1796)

Of all the women who reigned in Russia in the 18th century, only Catherine II ruled independently, delving into all matters of domestic and foreign policy. She saw her main tasks in strengthening the autocracy, reorganizing the state apparatus in order to strengthen it, and strengthening Russia’s international position. To a large extent, she succeeded, and her reign is one of the brilliant pages of Russian history. Catherine II immediately began to fight against the pro-German orientation of Peter III. All Germans were removed from the ruling circles. Russian nationalism becomes the ideology of the state.

2.1 Domestic policy and reforms of Catherine II

Catherine II declared herself the successor of Peter I. Already at the beginning of her reign, she concentrated all legislative and administrative power in her hands. The legislative body was the Senate. In 1763, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, each with certain powers and competence. Thus, she weakened it as a legislative body. 1764, in order to suppress the desire for secession in Ukraine, Catherine II abolished the hetmanate (autonomy). In 1654, Ukraine became part of Russia with the rights of the broadest autonomy. But independent tendencies flared up from time to time in Ukraine, and the situation here was constantly unstable. Catherine II believed that for internal strength, a multinational empire should be governed according to uniform principles. In the fall of 1764, she accepted the resignation of Hetman K.G. Razumovsky and appointed Prosecutor General P.A. to Ukraine. Rumyantseva. At the very beginning of her reign, Catherine II decided to regulate relations between the Church and secular authorities. Since the time of Peter I, the Church has been subordinate to the state. The financial situation in the country was difficult, and the Church was a major owner in the state. Catherine II was Orthodox, performed all Orthodox rituals, but she was a pragmatic ruler. To replenish the state treasury, in 1764 she carried out secularization (the state converted church property into secular property) of church lands. 500 monasteries were abolished, and 1 million peasant souls were transferred to the treasury. Due to this, the state treasury was significantly replenished. This made it possible to ease the financial crisis in the country and pay off the army, which had not received a salary for a long time. The influence of the Church on the life of society has decreased significantly.

2.2 Politics of enlightened absolutism

In her politics, Catherine II began to rely on the nobility. The nobility was the support of the throne and carried out the most important functions: the nobles were organizers of production, commanders, major administrators, and courtiers. Catherine II began to pursue the so-called policy of enlightened absolutism. The policy of enlightened absolutism was characteristic of countries with a monarchical form of government and with a relatively slow development of capitalist relations. Enlightened absolutism, on the one hand, pursued policies in the interests of the nobility (they retained their political rights and economic privileges), on the other hand, in every possible way contributed further development capitalist relations. In particular, such a policy was pursued by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, the Prussian King Frederick II, the Swedish King Gustav III, and others. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine II began to strive to achieve the internal structure of the state. She believed that injustices in the state could be eradicated with the help of good laws. And she decided to adopt new legislation instead of the Council Code of Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649, which would take into account the interests of all classes. For this purpose, the Legislative Commission was convened in 1767. 572 deputies represented the nobility, merchants, and Cossacks. The leading role in the Commission was played by noble deputies - 45%. Catherine II tried to implement the ideas of Western European thinkers about a fair society into the new legislation. Ekaterina reworked the works outstanding thinkers Sh.L. Montesquieu, C. Beccaria, J.F. Bielfeld, D. Diderot and others and compiled the famous “Order of Empress Catherine” for the Commission.

The "Mandate" consisted of 20 chapters, divided into 526 articles. In general, it was a solid work that spoke about the need for a strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society, about the rule of law, about the relationship between law and morality, about the harm of torture and corporal punishment. At the fifth meeting, the Commission presented the Empress with the title of “Great, Wise Mother of the Fatherland.” The commission worked for more than two years, but its work was not crowned with success, since the nobility, as well as deputies from other classes, stood guard only for their rights and privileges. The work of the Legislative Commission showed that the nobility could not become a spokesman for the interests of all classes. In Russia there was no force other than the monarchy capable of rising above its narrow selfish interests and acting in the interests of all classes. Catherine II's attempt to transfer Western European liberal ideas to Russian soil ended in failure. The commission was dissolved. However, the work of the Statutory Commission had important, since the empress was able to get acquainted with the opinions and wishes of Russian society, which she took into account in her future policies. Catherine II's attitude to serfdom. Catherine II was a European-educated woman and shared the views of Western European thinkers on serfdom as an inhumane phenomenon. But by the time she ascended the throne, she had thoroughly studied the country and society that she now ruled. She understood that there was a huge difference between the abstract reasoning of Western European enlighteners about freedom and Russian reality. About half of the landowner peasants were in the position of slaves. The entire landowner's economy was based on serfdom. Serfdom became a familiar, everyday occurrence, a natural state for peasants. In addition, Catherine II was convinced that the Russian people were not yet ready to take care of themselves. For such radical changes in fate as the abolition of serfdom, it must be prepared gradually over a long time. Russia was not ready for a new social system, and it could not raise the question of the abolition of serfdom in Russia. Peasant war led by E.I. Pugacheva (1773 - 1775). In the 60s - 70s. A powerful wave of protests by peasants, Cossacks, and working people swept across the country. The empress was especially concerned about the performances of the Cossacks. Since the time of Ivan the Terrible, settlements of free people - Cossacks - began to form on the outskirts of the empire. Over time, the Cossacks began to consolidate into a special layer of Russian society, living according to their own laws. The Cossacks caused a lot of trouble to the authorities, since robbery played a significant role in their lives. Trying to achieve stability on the borders of the state, Catherine II launched an offensive against the Cossacks. Cossack self-government was limited, the government began to introduce army regulations in Cossack units. In particular, the Yaik (Ural) Cossacks were deprived of the right to duty-free fishing and salt production. Then the Yaik Cossacks refused to obey the authorities. In 1775, Catherine II liquidated the Zaporozhye Sich. The Zaporozhye Cossacks asked the empress to leave them as Cossacks. Catherine II resettled the Cossacks to develop the newly annexed Kuban, giving them certain privileges. This is how the story began Kuban Cossacks.

2.3 Provincial reform

In order to further prevent peasant uprisings, Catherine II decided to carry out a local government reform. In 1775, a clearer territorial division of the empire was carried out. The territory began to be divided into administrative units with a certain number of taxable (who paid taxes) population. The largest territorial and administrative unit was the province. Each province was supposed to have a population of 300-400 thousand souls of the male tax-paying population. The governor was at the head of the province. He was appointed personally by the empress and was directly subordinate to her. The governor in the province had full power. He controlled the activities of all institutions and all officials. In order to ensure order in the provinces, all military units and commands were subordinated to the governor. By the mid-1790s. There were 50 provinces in the country. The provinces were divided into districts of 20 - 30 thousand people. All control in the counties was given to the nobles. The nobles elected a captain - police officer (head of the district) and assessors of the Lower Zemstvo Court for 3 years. The police captain and the Lower Zemstvo Court were the main authorities in the district. The city was an independent administrative unit. The mayor ruled the city. He was appointed by the government from retired nobles. The city was divided into parts of 200 - 700 houses, headed by a private bailiff, and into blocks of 50 - 100 houses, headed by a quarter warden. Catherine II separated the judicial authorities from the executive. All classes, except serfs, had to take part in local government. Each class received its own court. After the provincial reform, all collegiums ceased to function, except for the most important ones - Foreign, Military, Admiralty. Their functions began to be carried out by provincial bodies. Formation of the class system. During the reign of Catherine II, the final formation of the class system in Russia took place. On April 21, 1785, on her birthday, the Empress issued a “Charter of Commitment to the Nobility,” which was a code, a collection noble privileges, formalized by law. From now on, the nobility was sharply separated from other classes. The freedom of the nobility from paying taxes and from compulsory service was confirmed. Nobles could only be tried by a noble court. Only nobles had the right to own land and serfs. Catherine II prohibited the subjecting of nobles to corporal punishment. She believed that this would help the Russian nobility get rid of the servile mentality and acquire personal dignity. The nobles were given the title of "noble class".

2.4 Letter of commendation to cities

In 1775, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was published. It determined the rights and responsibilities of the urban population and the management system in cities. The entire urban population was entered into the City Book of Philistines and was divided into 6 categories:

· nobility and clergy;

· merchants, divided depending on their capital into three guilds (merchants of the 1st guild - the richest - had the preferential right to conduct internal and external trade; below were the merchants of the 2nd guild, they had the right to large-scale internal trade; merchants of the 3rd guild were engaged in small county and city ​​trade);

· guild artisans;

· foreigners who permanently lived in cities;

· eminent citizens and capitalists;

· townspeople (those who lived by crafts).

Residents of the city elected a self-government body every 3 years - General city ​​council, city mayor and judges. The adopted documents completed the formalization of the estate system in Russia: the entire population of Russia was divided into estates. From now on, they began to represent closed groups that had different rights and privileges. Class affiliation began to be inherited, and the transition from one class to another was extremely difficult. The formation of the class system at that time played a positive role in society, since belonging to a class provided the opportunity for development within the class.

3. Foreign policy under Catherine II

Foreign policy of Catherine II. Foreign policy issues were paramount for Catherine II. Peter I won access to the Baltic sea for Russia. But for the development of trade, to protect the borders in the south of Russia, the shores of the Black and Azov Seas were needed. This would inevitably lead to a clash with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the ruler of the Black Sea. The rise of Russia worried major European countries- England, Austria, France, and they began to make efforts to push Russia and the Ottoman Empire into conflict and thereby weaken both.

3.1 Russian-Turkish War 1768 - 1774

In 1768, Turkey, supported by France, began military operations against Russia in Ukraine and the Caucasus. The first Russian-Turkish war began during the reign of Catherine II. In 1770, on the tributaries of the Prut River - Larga and Kagul - commander P.A. Rumyantsev defeated Turkish army. Brilliant victories were won at sea. Russia did not have its own fleet on the Black Sea. A small Russian squadron under the leadership of Admiral G.A. Spiridova left the Baltic, circled Europe and entered the Mediterranean Sea. Here A.G. took over the leadership of the fighting. Orlov. The Russian command resorted to military cunning. In 1770, the entire Turkish fleet was lured into the cramped Chesme Bay, locked up and set on fire at night. The Turkish fleet burned in Chesme Bay overnight. In 1771, Russian troops occupied all the main centers of Crimea. (Crimea had been under the protection of Turkey since 1475. For Russia, Crimea was a “nest of robbers” and posed a great danger.) In 1772, the Crimean Khan Shagin-Girey proclaimed the independence of Crimea from Turkey. This was the first stage of the annexation of Crimea to Russia. Türkiye recognized the independence of Crimea; - Russia received the right of unhindered navigation in the Black Sea and the right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits; - Russia received the right to have its own fleet in the Black Sea; - Georgia was freed from the heaviest tribute by young men and women sent to Turkey; - the rights of Orthodox peoples in the Ottoman Empire (Moldavians, Greeks, Romanians, Georgians, etc.) expanded. In 1783, Russian troops entered Crimea without any warning. The Turkish Sultan could not do anything. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated, Crimea became part of Russia. Vast territories of the northern Black Sea region were transferred to Russia. They received the name Novorossiya. The most talented favorite of Catherine II, G.A., was appointed governor of New Russia. Potemkin. He took up the development of this region and the construction of the Black Sea Fleet.

3.2 Treaty of Georgievsk

In the 90s XVIII century Russia's position in Transcaucasia and the Caucasus began to strengthen. Türkiye and Persia also intensified their expansion into Georgia. Georgia at that time was experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation and was not a unified state. Kakheti and Kartalinia under the rule of Erekle II united into Eastern Georgia. The Georgian principalities in the west - Imereti, Mengrelia, Guria - each had their own kings or sovereign princes. Türkiye and Persia carried out devastating raids on Georgian lands. Kakheti and Kartaliniya paid a shameful tribute with beautiful girls to the Persians, and Imereti, Mengrelia, Guria paid the same tribute to the Turks. The principalities were in constant hostility among themselves. The small Georgian people, in order to preserve their identity, needed a strong patron. On July 24, 1783, in the fortress of Georgievsk (North Caucasus), an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king of Eastern Georgia (Kakheti and Kartalinia) Irakli II and Russia on patronage. The Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Eastern Georgia, exhausted under the blows of the Turks, came under the protection of Russia while maintaining autonomy. Russia guaranteed territorial integrity and inviolability of borders to Eastern Georgia. Fearing military clashes with Turkey, Russia refused to conclude the same agreement with the western Georgian principalities. In 1787, Catherine II decided to visit Novorossiya, accompanied by a brilliant retinue. For 4 years, the tireless G.A. Potemkin turned Novorossiya into a flourishing land. He founded the cities of Kherson, Nikolaev, Ekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk), Nikopol, and Odessa. G.A. Potemkin introduced agriculture, crafts, and created industry. He invited immigrants from other countries and attracted them with low taxes. The first ships of the Black Sea Fleet were built in Kherson. Construction of Sevastopol, the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, began in the convenient Akhtiar Bay. Later, for his work for the benefit of the Russian state, he received the title of His Serene Highness Prince and an honorary addition to his surname - Potemkin - Tavrichesky. (Tavrida is the ancient name of Crimea). In Turkey, Catherine II's travel was regarded as Russia's desire to further expand Russia's borders in the south at the expense of Turkish territories. In 1787, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. The second Russian-Turkish war began during the reign of Catherine II.

Military talent A.V. Suvorov had blossomed by this time. In July 1789 he defeated the Turks at Focsani, and in August 1789 - on the Rymnik River. Victory was close, but it was impossible without the capture of Ishmael. Ishmael - Turkish fortress, built shortly before by the French, with walls 25 meters high, was considered impregnable and was the pride of the Turkish Sultan. In 1790 A.V. Suvorov received an order to take Izmail. At Ishmael his military fate: A.V. Suvorov was already 60 years old. Commandant of Izmail A.V. Suvorov wrote: “24 hours to think is freedom, my first shot is already bondage; assault is death.” In the early morning of December 11, 1790, Russian troops launched an assault on the fortress. In 6 hours. Ishmael was taken. The way to Istanbul was opened for Russian troops. Brilliant victories were also won at sea. Commander of the young Black Sea Fleet F.F. Ushakov in 1791 defeated the Turkish fleet at Cape Kaliakria. The Turks hastened to sit down at the negotiating table. In 1791, a peace treaty was concluded in Iasi. According to the Treaty of Jassy: - Ottoman Empire recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia; - Russia included the territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers, as well as Taman and Kuban; - Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

3.3 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793, 1795). At this time, the situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth worsened. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth arose in 1569 from the unification of Poland and Lithuania. The King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was elected by the Polish nobility and was largely dependent on them. The right to make laws belonged to the Sejm - an assembly of people's representatives. To pass the law, the consent of all those present “liberum veto” was required, which was extremely difficult. Even one vote “against” prohibited the decision. The Polish king was powerless before the nobility; there was always no agreement at the Sejm. Groups of the Polish nobility were constantly at odds with each other. Often, acting in selfish interests and not thinking about the fate of their state, Polish magnates resorted to the help of other states in their civil strife. This led to the fact that by the second half of the 18th century. Poland turned into an unviable state: no laws were issued in Poland, rural and urban life were stagnant. The idea of ​​the division of Poland, as an unpredictable state that caused a lot of trouble to its neighbors, appeared in international politics at the beginning of the 18th century. in Prussia and Austria. During the time of Catherine II, the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth could be expected any day now. The Prussian king again put forward a plan for the dismemberment of Poland and invited Russia to join him. Catherine II considered it expedient to preserve a united Poland, but then decided to take advantage of Poland’s weakness and return those ancient Russian lands that were captured by Poland during the period of feudal fragmentation. In 1772, 1793, 1795 Austria, Prussia, and Russia made three divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1772, the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place. The eastern part of Belarus along the Western Dvina and Upper Dnieper was transferred to Russia. Polish nobles tried to save Poland. In 1791, a Constitution was adopted that abolished the election of the king and the right of “liberum veto”. The Polish army was strengthened, and the third estate was allowed into the Sejm. In 1793, the second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place. Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine were transferred to Russia. On March 12, 1974, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko rose in rebellion to try to save the doomed Polish state. Catherine II sent troops to Poland under the command of A.V. Suvorov. On October 24, troops of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed.T. Kosciuszko was arrested and sent to Russia. This predetermined the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In 1795, the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place. Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volyn, and Courland went to Russia. The Poles lost their statehood. Until 1918, Polish lands were part of Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Thus, as a result of the three divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia returned all the ancient Russian lands, and also received new territories - Lithuania and Courland. Ethnically Polish areas were not annexed to Russia. During the time of Catherine II, Russian explorers began to develop the northwestern part North America. Thus, the foreign policy of Catherine II significantly expanded the territory of the Russian state. In those days, the formation of state territories and the consolidation of borders were just underway. All states sought to expand their influence in the outside world. European powers actively built their colonial empires. Russia also followed the dominant logic of political thinking of that time. The active construction of the Russian Empire was underway. On November 6, 1796, Catherine II died. The German princess went down in Russian and world history as one of the greatest Russian rulers.

Conclusion

The reign of Catherine II is called the "Golden Age" because... The German princess restored the Russian monarchy to its former glory, for which she was nicknamed the Great. In foreign policy after the conquests of Catherine II, all European states sought the alliance and support of Russia as a state with real and political power. The head of Russian foreign policy under Catherine II, Chancellor A.A. Bezborodko said at the end of his career to young diplomats: “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us, not a single cannon in Europe dared fire without our permission.” To summarize, we can say that thanks to the reign of Catherine II, by the end of the 18th century, Russia received a great impetus in political, state, spiritual, and economic development.

Thus, in the second half of the 18th century. - in the age of “Reason and Enlightenment” a unique, economic, political and in many ways unique artistic culture. This culture was alien to national limitations and isolation. With amazing ease she absorbed and creatively processed everything valuable that was created by the work of artists from other countries. New types and genres of art, new artistic directions, and bright creative names were born.

List of used literature

1.Zaichkin I.A., Pochkaev I.N. Russian history from Catherine the Great to Alexander II. - M., 1994.

2.Russian history. From ancient times to beginning of the XXI century / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M., 2003.

.Russian history. From ancient times to the end of the twentieth century: In 3 books. / Edited by A.N. Sakharova, A.P. Novoseltseva. - M., 1996

.Fedorov V.A. Russian history. 1861-1917: Textbook for universities. Ed. 2nd. - M., 2004.

.Berezovaya L.G., Berlyakova N.P. History of Russian culture: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M., 2002

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The time of Catherine II (1762-1796) was the “golden age” of the nobility. His privileges and influence reach their apogee - the queen, who came to power illegally, needed his support. The closest circle helping the queen in solving public affairs are her favorites G. G. Orlov, G. A. Potemkin and others. In 1767, the Legislative Commission was convened to develop a new set of laws. Various reform projects arose, including easing the situation of peasants (for the first time in Russian history). Since 1768, the commission was almost never convened in order to avoid excessive freethinking. In 1764, the secularization (transfer to the state) of church lands began and the autonomy of Ukraine was eliminated. In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out, which streamlined local government (division into provinces and districts). The “charter granted to the nobility” (1785) guaranteed its exclusive right to own land and peasants, freedom of nobles from corporal punishment, and established noble assemblies with the right to petition the monarch. The charter to cities determined the order of self-government in cities. In the economy, as under Elizabeth, a policy is being pursued of further abolition of petty regulation of production and trade. The number of serfs leaving to work is growing; some are starting their own enterprises. However, the people's dissatisfaction with the arbitrariness of officials and landowners is great. In 1771, a “plague riot” broke out in Moscow, and in 1772, a Cossack uprising in the Yaitsky town. In 1773, a peasant war began, led by the impostor “Peter III” - Emelyan Pugachev. It covers the Urals and the Volga region, but in 1774 Pugachev was defeated and extradited by his accomplices, and in 1775 he was executed. In 1796-1801 Paul I ruled. He tried to ease the situation of the people (amounting arrears, banning corvée on weekends), but infringed on the nobles - he reduced the rights of noble meetings, strengthened censorship, and carried out repressions. In 1801, Pavel was killed by conspirators.

Russian foreign policy in the 18th century

In 1686, Russia, according to the Eternal Peace with Poland, secured Kyiv and entered into an anti-Turkish coalition. In 1687 and 1689 V.V. Golitsyn went to Crimea twice, but did not reach it. In 1695-1696 After two campaigns, the troops of Peter I took Azov with the help of a specially built fleet. In 1697-1698 Peter traveled abroad (“Great Embassy”), looking for allies to continue the war with Turkey, but found allies only against Sweden - Poland, Saxony, Denmark. The Northern War with Sweden began (1700-21). Having suffered defeat at Narva, Peter I reorganized the army and achieved a number of successes. In 1707, King Charles XII of Sweden invaded Russia, but in 1709 he was defeated near Poltava. In 1714, the Russian fleet won a victory at Gangut. In 1721, according to the Treaty of Nis-Tadt, Russia received for a large sum Estonia, Latvia and almost all of Karelia. In 1711, a war broke out with Turkey. Peter began the Prut campaign in Moldova, which ended unsuccessfully. Russia lost Azov. In 1722-1723 Peter took the southern and western shores of the Caspian Sea from Iran. In 1726 Russia entered into an alliance with Austria. In 1734, she took part in the War of the Polish Succession and placed her protege on her throne. In 1732-1735 Russia returned Azerbaijan to Iran. In 1735-1739 She fought with Austria against Turkey. The army of B. Kh. Minich ravaged the Crimea and won a victory at Stavuchany. As a result, Russia received Azov, and the Crimean raids stopped. In 1730-1740 Russian power was recognized by the Junior and Middle Kazakh zhuzes. In 1741-1743 The Russian-Swedish war was going on. Russian troops led by P. Lasi defeated the enemy near Vilmanstrand. As a result of the war, the Russian border moved to the northwest. In the 1740s. European countries finally recognized the imperial title for Russian monarchs.

Second half of the 18th century

During the reign of Elizabeth in 1756, Russia entered the Seven Years' War on the side of Austria and France against a dangerously strengthened Prussia. Russian troops captured East Prussia, in 1759, together with the Austrians, won a victory at Kunersdorf over Frederick II, in 1760 they took Berlin, but after the death of Elizabeth in 1761, Peter III, an admirer of Prussia, left the war. Russia's successes raised its prestige. In 1768, Russia intervened in the unrest in Poland, and in 1768-1774. There was a Russian-Turkish war for influence in Poland and southern Russian lands. P. A. Rumyantsev defeated the Turks at Larga and Kagul in 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of G. A. Spiridonov and A. G. Orlov won a victory at Chesma in 1770, A.V. Suvorov and M.F. Kamensky in 1774 - under Kozludzha. The lands in the Black Sea region and a number of fortresses went to Russia. In 1783, she annexed Crimea and, at the request of Irakli II, took Eastern Georgia under her protection. In 1787-1791 Russia, together with Austria, again defeated Turkey (A.V. Suvorov’s successes at Focsani, Rymnik, the capture of Izmail, N.V. Repnin at Machin, F.F. Ushakov at sea at Tendra and Kaliakria). Russia secured the Northern Black Sea region. In 1788-1790 Russia fought with Sweden to no avail. In 1772, 1793, 1795 together with Prussia and Austria, carried out the divisions of Poland, receiving Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania. In 1780-1783 Russia supported the future USA against England. In 1793, Russia broke off relations with revolutionary France and prepared for war with it. In 1798, she joined the 2nd anti-French coalition. Ushakov's squadron made a trip to the Mediterranean Sea and captured the Ionian Islands. Suvorov carried out the Italian and Swiss campaigns. Considering Austria and England to be dishonest allies, Paul I withdrew from the war and concluded (after Napoleon I came to power) an alliance with France against England, prepared a campaign to India, but was soon killed.

Russian culture of the 18th century

Under Peter I, Western trends actively penetrated into culture and everyday life. This leads to a fruitful synthesis. The main artistic movement in the era of Peter the Great was classicism. Painting. Prominent portrait painters under Peter I were Nikitin and Matveev. The heyday of painting - under Catherine II: A. P. Losenko, G. I. Gloomy ( history painting), F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, I. P. Argunov (portrait). Sculpture. Until the 18th century there was no art of sculpture in Russia. Its founder is the Italian B. Rastrelli. Masters 2nd floor. XVIII century – M.I. Kozlovsky, F.I. Shubin, Frenchman E. Falcone. Architecture. In the beginning. XVIII century The Naryshkin baroque (Menshikov Tower) is still alive. Regular urban development begins (primarily St. Petersburg). V. Rastrelli (son) erects Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Peterhof, Catherine palaces in the suburbs of the capital, I. E. Old - Tauride Palace. In Moscow, M.I. Kazakov is building the Senate building, V.I. Bazhenov is building the Pashkov house. Theater and music. Under Peter I, the first public theater was created. The first Russian drama troupe was created in Yaroslavl by F. G. Volkov. Theaters were created in Moscow (Petrovsky) and St. Petersburg (Kamenny). Known chamber music D. S. Bortnyansky and operas by E. I. Fomin. Literature. Master of satire in the 1st half. XVIII century was A.D. Kantemir. V.K. Trediakovsky carried out a reform of versification, M.V. Lomonosov formulated the theory of three “calms”. The most prominent poets are G. R. Derzhavin, M. M. Kheraskov, A. P. Sumarokov. The science. Lomonosov made outstanding discoveries in the fields of physics, chemistry, and astronomy. E. R. Dashkova, head of the Academy of Sciences, did a lot to organize research. I.P. Kulibin created a semaphore telegraph, a screw elevator, a 300-meter single-arch bridge, I.I. Polzunov created the world's first steam engine. M. M. Shcherbatov wrote “Russian History” in 7 volumes.

Foreign policy Tsarist Russia in the second half of the 18th century was dictated by the interests of the ruling class of nobles and the developing bourgeoisie and had as its main goal the strengthening of the feudal-absolutist state. Determined by the interests of the ruling class, the foreign policy of tsarism was very active and was accompanied by the annexation of a number of territories to Russia.

Numerous and lengthy wars waged by Tsarist Russia in the second half of the 18th century were associated with these foreign policy objectives.

But for all its class orientation, the foreign policy of tsarism solved the most important historical tasks facing Russia in this period: consolidation on the shores of the Baltic, access to the Black Sea and the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands with Russia. Nominated historical development countries, these tasks in the second half of the 18th century. purchased great importance and became the main content of Russian foreign policy.

In the middle of the 18th century. Russia's international position has strengthened significantly, and its influence among European countries has increased. Evidence of Russia's increased power was its participation in Seven Years' War (1756-1763), in which she played a leading role. As you know, the coalition of powers that opposed Prussia included Russia, Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony. England acted on the side of Prussia.

The Prussian king Frederick II pursued a policy of conquest, seeking to expand the territory of his state. The intrigues of Frederick II in Turkey and Sweden against Russia, his claims to Poland and Courland worried the Russian government. Therefore, in St. Petersburg it was recognized that it was necessary to weaken the forces of Frederick II in order to make him “fearless and carefree” for Russia.

At the same time, it was planned to expand the Russian borders towards Poland so as to return the lands of Belarus and Ukraine lost in the past, annex Courland to Russia and thus “connect the commerce of the Baltic Sea” with the Black Sea. They hoped to compensate Poland by transferring to it the Baltic lands that Prussia owned.

But under Peter III, who ascended the royal throne after the death of Elizaveta Petrovna, a radical revolution took place in Russian foreign policy. Regardless of state interests, Peter III and his entourage completely abandoned the implementation of those foreign policy? goals that were set by the Russian government at the beginning of the war. Peace was concluded with Prussia, Frederick II received back free of charge all the territory conquered by Russian troops during the Seven Years' War.

However, the victories won by the Russian army in this war were important. The security of Russia's western borders has strengthened, and its international authority in Europe has noticeably increased.

At that time in Russia, an influential group of diplomats (Korf, Panin) came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a coalition of states in the north of Europe (with the participation of England) - the so-called “Northern System”. In addition to Russia and England, it was supposed to include Prussia, Denmark, and Poland. Sweden and Saxony. This coalition aimed to create a new balance of international forces in Europe and was directed against France and its ally Austria. Russia's participation in the “Northern System” and its expected leading role in this system would facilitate the solution of the main tasks of Russian foreign policy. Although such a coalition could not be organized, Russia entered into treaties of alliance with Prussia (1764) and Denmark (1765), securing a promise of assistance from them in the event of a war with Turkey; a trade agreement was also signed with England (1766).

The urgent need to resolve the Black Sea problem in the 60s of the 18th century. was dictated for the ruling class primarily by economic interests. In the second half of the 18th century, in connection with the development of industry and trade, the landowner economy, while maintaining the feudal-serf basis, increasingly increased the production of agricultural products for sale. The interest of nobles in land increased sharply, especially in acquiring lands located in the south of the country. But a significant part of the fertile Black Sea steppes belonged to Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khan.

Crimean Tatars from the open steppes of the Northern Black Sea and Azov regions they carried out frequent predatory raids on Ukraine. This deprived landowners of the opportunity to systematically develop the territories adjacent to the border and increase the profitability of their estates. In addition, the lack of access to the Black Sea prevented trade by sea with the countries of Southern Europe and the Middle East.

The border Russian and Ukrainian populations also suffered incalculable damage for centuries from the devastating raids of the Crimean hordes. Invading the territory of Ukraine, the Crimean Tatars plundered and destroyed everything in their path, driving tens of thousands of inhabitants into slavery. Thus, for centuries the productive forces in the south were destroyed. It was necessary to put an end to these predatory raids and strengthen the Russian-Turkish border. Consequently, the struggle in the south also had a national character.

The struggle to resolve the Black Sea problem is associated with two long-term Russian-Turkish wars(1768-1774 and 1787-1791), which were conducted in a difficult international situation. The first of them, started by Turkey under the direct influence of France and Austria, was accompanied by an intense military-diplomatic struggle and ended with the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty of 1774, which was beneficial for Russia. Under this treaty, Russia received access to the Black Sea and the right of free passage of merchant ships through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey, and in 1783 it was incorporated into the Russian Empire by a unilateral act. During the preparation and course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. England and Prussia provided strong opposition to Russia. In this war, Austria took the side of Russia, but it did not provide significant assistance and therefore the entire burden lay on the Russian army.

Russia's position was complicated by the fact that at that time its state interests in the Baltic Sea and the Baltic states were threatened by Sweden. In 1788, the Swedish king Gustav III, incited by England and Prussia, began a war against Russia. In this war, he wanted to capture St. Petersburg and all the territories lost to Sweden under the Nystadt and Abo peace treaties, and oust Russia from the Baltic states. However, in the war with Russia, Sweden was defeated and was forced to make peace on the basis of the pre-war situation. Having repulsed the Swedish attack, Russia thereby consolidated its position on the shores of the Baltic Sea and strengthened the defense of its northwestern borders.

It ended successfully for Russia and war with Turkey. According to the Treaty of Iasi in 1791, Russia acquired Ochakov with the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers; In addition, Türkiye recognized the annexation of Crimea to Russia.

It should be noted that the government of Catherine II did not intend to limit itself only to consolidation on the northern shores of the Black Sea. At this time, tsarism was developing plans for widespread conquests on the Danube and the Balkans, the expression of which was the well-known “Greek project”.

But regardless of the class goals of Russian tsarism, the annexation of the Black Sea lands to Russia had progressive significance. It contributed to their economic development and the development of Black Sea trade. Wars between Russia and Turkey in the second half of the 18th century. put an end to the centuries-long predatory raids of the Crimean Tatars and Turks on Ukrainian and Russian lands; they weakened the rule of the Turkish feudal lords over the oppressed peoples of the Balkans and the Caucasus and had a great influence on the development of the national liberation movement of these peoples.

The solution to the Black Sea problem was accompanied by the solution to another important historical task - the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples with the fraternal Russian people. It was then that Belarus and most of the Right Bank Ukraine, which were under the rule of gentry Poland, became part of Russia.

At the same time, the reactionary role of Tsarist Russia in relation to Poland was manifested in the fact that it (along with Prussia and Austria) participated in the liquidation of Poland as an independent state. It should be noted, however, that initially Russia did not agree to the division of Poland, preferring to have on its western borders the weak Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was completely dependent on it, and not at all aggressive Prussia or Austria. But during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, in the conditions of the then difficult international situation for Russia, the Russian government, under strong pressure from Prussia and Austria, decided to partition Poland

These were the main events of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. An outstanding role in the implementation of this policy, in achieving the major victories of Russia won during the period under review, belongs to Russian diplomacy, the Russian army and commanders A.V. Suvorov and P.A. Rumyantsev.