There is an opinion that painting in impressionism is not so important. important place. But impressionism in painting is the opposite. The statement is very paradoxical and contradictory. But this is only at first, superficial glance.
It is possible that for all the millennia of existence in the arsenal of human visual arts, nothing more new or revolutionary has ever appeared. Impressionism is present in any modern artistic canvas. It can be clearly seen both in the frames of the film of the famous master, and among the gloss of a ladies' magazine. It penetrated into music and books. But once upon a time everything was different.
Origins of Impressionism
In 1901, in France, in the Combarel cave, cave paintings were accidentally discovered, the youngest of which was 15,000 years old. And this was the first impressionism in painting. Because the primitive artist did not set out to read a moral to the viewer. He simply painted the life that surrounded him.
And then this method was forgotten for many, many years. Humanity has invented others, and conveying emotions through the visual method has ceased to be a topical issue for him.
In some ways, the ancient Romans were close to impressionism. But some of their efforts were covered in ashes. And where Vesuvius could not reach, the barbarians came.
The painting was preserved, but began to illustrate texts, messages, messages, knowledge. It has ceased to be a feeling. It became a parable, an explanation, a story. Look at the Bayeux Tapestry. He is beautiful and priceless. But this is not a picture. This is seventy meters of linen comics.
Painting in impressionism: the beginning
Painting has developed slowly and majestically throughout the world over thousands of years. New paints and techniques appeared. Artists learned the importance of perspective and the power of a colorful hand-drawn message to influence the human mind. Painting became an academic science and acquired all the features of monumental art. She became clumsy, prim and moderately pretentious. At the same time, honed and unshakable, like a canonical religious postulate.
The source of subjects for the paintings were religious parables, literature, and staged genre scenes. The strokes were small and unnoticeable. Glazing was introduced to the rank of dogma. And the art of drawing in the foreseeable future promised to become ossified, like a primeval forest.
Life changed, technology developed rapidly, and only artists continued to churn out prim portraits and smoothed-out sketches of country parks. This state of affairs did not suit everyone. But the inertia of society’s consciousness was difficult to overcome at all times.
However, the 19th century was already in the yard, having long since passed its second half. Processes in society that had previously taken centuries now took place before the eyes of one generation. Industry, medicine, economics, literature, and society itself developed rapidly. This is where painting in impressionism showed itself.
Happy birthday! Impressionism in painting: paintings
Impressionism in painting, like paintings, has an exact date of its birth - 1863. And his birth was not without its oddities.
The center of world art then, of course, was Paris. It annually hosted large Parisian salons - world exhibitions and sales of paintings. The jury that selected works for the salons was mired in petty internal intrigues, useless squabbles and stubbornly oriented towards the senile tastes of the academies of that time. As a result, the salon did not include new, bright artists whose talent did not correspond to ossified academic dogmas. When selecting participants for the 1863 exhibition, over 60% of applications were rejected. These are thousands of painters. A scandal was brewing.
Emperor gallerist
And the scandal broke out. The inability to exhibit deprived a huge number of artists of their livelihood and closed access to the general public. Among them are names now known throughout the world: Monet and Manet, Renoir and Pizarro.
It is clear that this did not suit them. And a big fuss began in the press. It got to the point that on April 22, 1863, Napoleon III visited the Paris Salon and, in addition to the exhibition, purposefully inspected some of the rejected works. And I didn’t find anything reprehensible in them. And he even made this statement in the press. Therefore, in parallel with the large Paris Salon, an alternative exhibition of paintings was opened with works rejected by the salon jury. It went down in history under the name “Exhibition of Rejected People”.
Thus, April 22, 1863 can be considered the birthday of all modern art. Art that has become independent from literature, music and religion. Moreover: painting itself began to dictate its terms to writers and composers, getting rid of subordinate roles for the first time.
Representatives of impressionism
When we talk about impressionism, we primarily mean impressionism in painting. Its representatives are numerous and multifaceted. It is enough to name the most famous: Degas, Renoin, Pizarro, Cezanne, Morisot, Lepic, Legros, Gauguin, Renoir, Thilo, Foren and many, many others. For the first time, the Impressionists set the task of capturing not just a static picture from life, but capturing a feeling, an emotion, an inner experience. It was a snapshot, a high-speed photograph of the inner world, the emotional world.
Hence new contrasts and colors that had not previously been used in painting. Hence the large, bold strokes and constant search new forms. There is no former clarity and sleekness. The picture is blurry and fleeting, like a person’s mood. This is not a story. These are the feelings visible to the eye. Look at They are all a little cut off mid-sentence, a little fleeting. These are not paintings. These are sketches brought to brilliant perfection.
The emergence of post-impressionism
It was precisely the desire to bring a feeling to the fore, and not a frozen fragment of time, that was revolutionary and innovative for that time. And here there was only one step left to post-impressionism - an art movement that brought to the forefront not emotion, but patterns. More precisely, the artist’s transmission of his inner, personal reality. This is an attempt to tell not about outside world, but about the inner way of how the artist sees the world. perception.
Impressionism and post-impressionism in painting are very close. And the division itself is very conditional. Both movements are close in time, and the authors themselves, often the same, as a rule, moved from one manner to another quite freely.
And yet. Look at the works of the Impressionists. Slightly unnatural colors. A world familiar to us, but at the same time a little fictitious. This is how the artist saw it. He does not give us a contemporary nature. He just bares his soul a little for us. The soul of Bonnard and Toulouse-Lautrec, Van Gogh and Denis, Gauguin and Seurat.
Russian impressionism
The experience of impressionism, which captured the whole world, did not leave Russia aside. Meanwhile, in our country, accustomed to a more measured life, which does not understand the bustle and aspirations of Paris, impressionism was never able to get rid of its academic nature. He is like a bird that rushed to take off, but froze halfway into the sky.
Impressionism in Russian painting did not receive the dynamism of the French brush. But it acquired a dressed-up semantic dominant, which made it a bright, somewhat isolated phenomenon in world art.
Impressionism is a feeling expressed in the form of a painting. He does not educate, does not demand. He claims.
Impressionism served as the starting point for Art Nouveau and Expressionism, Constructivism and the Avant-Garde. All modern Art, in fact, began its report from the distant April 20, 1863. Impressionist painting is an art born in Paris.
Nowadays we perceive the masterpieces of impressionist artists in the context of world art: for us they became classics a long time ago. However, this was not always the case. It happened that their paintings were not allowed into official exhibitions, they were criticized in the press, and they did not want to buy them even for a nominal fee. There were years of despair, need and deprivation. And the struggle for the opportunity to paint the world as they saw it. It took many decades for the majority to be able to comprehend and perceive, to see themselves through their eyes. What was it like, the world into which impressionism invaded in the early 1860s, like a vigorous wind bringing transformation?
Social tremors of the end XVIII century, revolutions in France and America, transformed the very essence of Western culture, which could not but affect the role of art in a rapidly changing society. Accustomed to social orders from the reigning dynasty or church, the artists suddenly discovered that they were left without their clients. The nobility and clergy, the main customers of art, experienced serious difficulties. A new era has emerged, the era of capitalism, which has completely transformed the rules and priorities.
Gradually, in the established republics and democratically organized powers, wealthy people grew middle class, as a result of which a new art market began to develop rapidly. Unfortunately, entrepreneurs and traders, as a rule, lacked hereditary culture and upbringing, without which it was impossible to correctly appreciate the variety of plot allegories or skillful performing skills that had long fascinated the aristocracy.
Not distinguished by an aristocratic upbringing and education, representatives of the middle class who became consumers of art were obliged to initially focus on the considerations of newspaper critics and official experts. The old academies of art, being the guardians of the classical foundations, became the central arbiters in matters of artistic gravity. It is not paradoxical that some young and seeking painters, disgusted with conformism, rebelled against the formal dominance of academicism in art.
One of the significant strongholds of academicism of those times were exhibitions of contemporary art, patronized by the authorities. Such exhibitions were called Salons - according to tradition, referring to the name of the hall in the Louvre, where court artists once exhibited their canvases.
Participation in the Salon was one chance attract the attention of the press and clients to your works. Auguste Renoir, in one of his letters to Durand-Ruel, speaks of the current state of affairs as follows: “In all of Paris there are hardly fifteen admirers who are able to recognize the artist without the help of the Salon, and eighty thousand people who will not acquire even a square centimeter of canvas if the artist does not admitted to the Salon."
The young painters had no choice but to appear in the Salons: at the exhibition they could hear unflattering words not only from the jury members, but also from deeply respected painters such as Eugene Delacroix, Gustave Courbet, Edouard Manet, who were the favorites of young people, thereby receiving impetus for further creativity. In addition, the Salon was a unique opportunity to acquire a customer, be noticed, and build a career in art. The Salon's award marked the artist's guarantee of professional recognition. Conversely, if the jury rejected the submitted work, this was tantamount to aesthetic dismissal.
Often the painting proposed for consideration did not correspond to the usual canons, for which the Salon jury rejected it: in the artistic community, this episode caused a scandal and sensation.
One of the artists whose involvement in the Salon invariably created a scandal and caused academicians a lot of concern was Edouard Manet. A big scandal accompanied the demonstrations of his paintings “Lunch on the Grass” (1863) and “Olympia” (1865), created in an unusually harsh manner, containing an aesthetic alien to the Salon. And the painting “An Incident at a Bullfight,” presented at the Salon of 1864, reflected the artist’s passion for Goya’s work. In the foreground, Manet painted the prostrate figure of a bullfighter. The background of the picture was the arena stretching deep into the depths and the rows of discouraged, numb spectators. Such a sharp and defiant composition provoked a lot of sarcastic reviews and newspaper cartoons. Hurt by the criticism, Manet tore his painting into two parts.
It should be noted that critics and caricaturists were not ashamed of choosing words and methods to further insult the artist and push him to take some kind of retaliatory actions. “The Artist Rejected by the Salon” and later “The Impressionist” became favorite targets of journalists profiting from public scandals. The Salon's unabating strife with painters of other concepts and inclinations, who were tired of the strict boundaries of outdated academicism, significantly signaled a serious decline that had matured by that time in the art of the 2nd half of the 19th century. The conservative jury of the 1863 Salon rejected so many paintings that Emperor Napoleon III found it necessary to personally support another, parallel exhibition so that the viewer could compare the accepted works with the rejected ones. This exhibition, which acquired the name “Salon of the Rejected,” became an extremely fashionable place of entertainment - people came here to laugh and be witty.
In order to bypass the academic jury, wealthy painters could establish independent individual exhibitions. The idea for an exhibition of one artist was first announced by the realist artist Gustave Courbet. He submitted a series of his works to the Paris World Exhibition of 1855. The selection committee approved his landscapes, but rejected thematic program paintings. Then Courbet, contrary to tradition, erected a personal pavilion near the World Exhibition. Although Courbet's broad painting style impressed the elderly Delacroix, there were few spectators in his pavilion. During the Universal Exhibition in 1867, Courbet resumed this experiment with great triumph - this time he hung all his works in a separate room. Edouard Manet, following the example of Courbet, opened his own gallery during the same exhibition for a retrospective display of his paintings.
The creation of personal galleries and the private publication of catalogs involved a significant expenditure of resources - incomparably greater than those that artists often owned. However, the cases of Courbet and Manet prompted young painters to plan a group exhibition of artists of new movements that were not accepted by the official Salon.
Except social change for art XIX century had a noticeable effect and Scientific research. In 1839, Louis Daguerre in Paris and Henry Fox Talbot in London demonstrated photographic devices that they had created independently of each other. Soon after this event, photography freed artists and graphic artists from the responsibility of simply immortalizing people, places and incidents. Freed from the duty of sketching an object, many painters rushed to the sphere of conveying their own, subjective, expression of emotions on canvas.
The photograph gave rise to European art other views. The lens, with a different angle of view than the human eye, formed a fragmentary representation of the composition. Changing the shooting angle pushed artists to new compositional visions, which became the basis of the aesthetics of impressionism. One of the main principles of this movement was spontaneity.
In the same year of 1839, when the camera was created, a chemist from the laboratory of the Parisian Gobelin manufactory, Michel Eugene Chevreul, first published a logical interpretation of the perception of color by the human eye. While creating dyes for fabrics, he became convinced of the existence of three primary colors - red, yellow and blue, when mixed, all other colors appear. With the assistance of the color wheel, Chevreul proved how shades are born, which not only wonderfully illustrated a complex scientific idea, but also presented artists with a working concept for mixing colors. American physicist Ogden Rood and German scientist Hermann von Helmholli, for their part, supplemented this invention with developments in the field of optics.
In 1841, the American scientist and painter John Rand patented the tin tubes he created for perishable paints. Previously, when an artist went to paint en plein air, he was forced to first mix the paints he needed in the studio and then pour them into glass containers, which often broke, or into bubbles made from the entrails of animals, which quickly leaked. With the advent of Rand tubes, artists had the advantage of taking with them to the plein air all the variety of colors and shades. This discovery greatly influenced the abundance of colors of artists, and in addition convinced them to leave their workshops for nature. Soon, as one wit noted, in the countryside there were more landscape painters than peasants.
The pioneers of plein air painting were the artists of the Barbizon school, which acquired its name from the village of Barbizon near the forest of Fontainebleau, where they created most of the landscapes.
If the older painters of the Barbizon school (T. Rousseau, J. Dupre) in their work were still based on the heritage of the heroic landscape, then representatives of the younger generation (C. Daubigny, C. Corot) endowed this genre with the features of realism. Their canvases depict landscapes that are alien to academic idealization.
In their paintings, the Barbizonians tried to recreate the diversity of states of nature. That is why they painted from life, trying to capture the spontaneity of their perception. However, the use of outdated academic methods and means in painting did not help them achieve what the Impressionists later achieved. Contrary to this, the contribution of the artists of the Barbizon school to the formation of the genre is irrefutable: having left the workshops for the plein air, they offered landscape painting new ways of development.
One of the supporters of painting on location, Eugene Boudin, instructed his young student Claude Monet that it is necessary to create in the open air - among light and air, to paint what you contemplate. This rule became the basis of plein air painting. Monet soon introduced to his friends, Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and Frederic Basil, a new theory: to paint only what you observe at a specific distance and under a specific lighting. In the evenings in Parisian cafes, young painters happily shared their thoughts and passionately discussed their new discoveries.
This is how impressionism appeared - a revolutionary movement in the art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Painters who set out on the path of impressionism tried to capture more naturally and truthfully in their works the world and everyday reality in their endless mobility and impermanence, to express their fleeting sensations.
Impressionism became a response to the stagnation of academicism that dominated art in those years, a desire to free painting from the hopeless situation into which it had fallen due to the fault of the Salon artists. Many progressive-minded people insisted that modern art is in decline: Eugene Delacroix, Gustav Courbet, Charles Baudelaire. Impressionism was a kind of shock therapy for the “suffering organism”.
With the advent of young genre painters Edouard Manet, Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, the wind of change burst into French painting, giving spontaneity of contemplation of life, presentation of fleeting, seemingly unexpected situations and movements, illusory instability and unbalance of forms, fragmentary composition, unpredictable points of view and angles .
In the evenings, when the artists were no longer able to paint their canvases due to poor lighting, they left their studios and sat through passionate debates in Parisian cafes. So the Guerbois café became one of the constant meeting places for a handful of artists united around Edouard Manet. Regular meetings were held on Thursdays, and on other days one could find a group of artists animatedly talking or arguing. Claude Monet described the meetings at the Guerbois café this way: “There could be nothing more exciting than these meetings and the endless clash of views. They sharpened our minds, stimulated our noble and heartfelt aspirations, gave us a charge of enthusiasm that sustained us for many weeks until the idea was completely formed. We left these meetings in high spirits, with a strengthened will, with thoughts more distinct and clear.”
On the eve of the 1870s, impressionism was established in the French landscape: Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley were the first to develop a consistent plein air system. They painted their canvases without sketches and sketches in the open air directly on the canvas, embodying in their paintings sparkling sunlight, a fabulous abundance of colors of nature, the dissolution of the represented objects in the environment, vibrations of light and air, a riot of reflexes. To achieve this goal, they greatly contributed to the coloristic system they studied in all details, in which natural color was decomposed into the colors of the solar spectrum. To create an unusually bright, delicate colorful texture, the artists applied pure color to the canvas in separate strokes, while optical mixing was expected in the human eye. This technique, later transformed and theoretically argued, became central to another outstanding artistic aspiration - pointillism, called “divisionism” (from the French “diviser” - to divide).
Impressionists showed increased interest in the connections between object and environment. The subject of their scrupulous creative analysis was the transformation of the color and character of an object in a changing environment. To achieve this idea, the same object was depicted repeatedly. With the addition of pure color in the shadows and reflections, black paint has almost left the palette.
Critic Jules Laforgue spoke about the phenomenon of impressionism in the following way: “The impressionist sees and conveys nature as it is, that is, only through enchanting vibrations. Drawing, light, volume, perspective, chiaroscuro - all this is a classification that goes into reality. It turns out that everything is determined by the vibrations of color and must be imprinted on the canvas by vibrations of color.”
Thanks to outdoor activities and meetings in cafes, on December 27, 1873, “Anonymous, Sculptors, Engravers, etc.” - this is how the Impressionists first called themselves. The first exhibition of the society took place in the spring of a year later in the Commercial Gallery of Nadar, an experimental photographer who, in addition, sold creations of modern art.
The debut came on April 15, 1874. The exhibition was planned to last a month, visiting hours were from ten to six and, which was also an innovation, from eight to ten in the evening. Admission ticket cost one franc, catalogs could be purchased for fifty centimes. At first, the exhibition seemed to be filled with visitors, but the crowd did little more than jeer. Some joked that the task of these artists could be achieved if the gun was loaded with different tubes of paint, then shot at the canvas and finished with a signature.
Opinions were divided: either the exhibition was not taken seriously at all, or it was criticized to smithereens. The general perception can be expressed in the following article of sarcastic aspiration, “Exhibition of the Impressionists,” signed by Louis Leroy, published in the form of a feuilleton. Here is a dialogue between the author and an academic landscape painter who was awarded medals; together they walk through the halls of the exhibition:
“...The imprudent artist came there without expecting anything bad, he expected to see there the kind of canvases that can be found everywhere, demonstrative and useless, more useless than demonstrative, but not far from certain artistic standards, culture of form and respect for the old masters.
Alas, the form! Alas, old masters! We are not going to honor them any more, my poor friend! We have transformed everything!”
The exhibition also included a landscape by Claude Monet, showing the morning dawn in a fog-shrouded bay - the painter called it “Impression. Sunrise" (Impression). Here is a comment from one of the characters in Louis Leroy’s satirical article on this painting, which gave the name to the most sensational and known current in 19th century art:
“...- What is drawn here? Take a look at the catalogue. - "Impression. Sunrise". - Impression - that's what I expected. I was just thinking to myself that since I was under the impression, then some kind of impression must be conveyed in it... and what a looseness, what a smooth performance! The wallpaper in its original state of processing is more perfect than this seascape...”
Personally, Monet was in no way against this name for the artistic technique that he used in practice. The main essence of his work is precisely capturing and capturing the fleeting moments of life, which is what he worked on, giving rise to his countless series of canvases: “Haystacks”, “Poplars”, “Rouen Cathedral”, “Gare Saint-Lazare”, “Pond at Giverny” , "London. Parliament Building" and others. Another case is Edgar Degas, who liked to call himself “independent” because he did not participate in the Salon. His harsh, grotesque style of writing, which served as an example for many supporters (among whom Toulouse-Lautrec was especially outstanding), was unacceptable to the academic jury. Both of these painters became the most proactive organizers of subsequent impressionist exhibitions, both in France and abroad - in England, Germany, and the USA.
Auguste Renoir, on the contrary, appearing in the first exhibitions of the Impressionists, did not lose hope of winning the Salon, sending two paintings to its exhibitions every year. He explains the characteristic duality of his actions in correspondence to his comrade and patron Durand-Ruel: “...I do not support the painful opinions that a work is worthy or unworthy depending on the place where it is shown. In short, I don't want to waste time and get angry at Salon. I don't even want to pretend to be angry. I just think that you need to draw as best you can, that’s all. If I were to be accused of being unscrupulous in my art or of renouncing my views out of absurd ambition, I would accept such accusations. But since there is nothing like this even close, there is no need to reproach me.”
Although he did not consider himself officially involved in the Impressionist movement, Edouard Manet considered himself a realist painter. However, the constant close connection with the Impressionists, visiting their exhibitions, imperceptibly transformed the painter’s style, bringing him closer to the impressionistic. In the dying years of his life, the colors in his paintings become lighter, the strokes are sweeping, the composition is fragmentary. Like Renoir, Manet expected favor from official experts in the field of art and was eager to take part in Salon exhibitions. But contrary to his wishes, he became the idol of the Parisian avant-garde artists, their uncrowned king. Despite everything, he stubbornly stormed the Salon with his canvases. Only before his death he was lucky enough to acquire the official location of the Salon. Auguste Renoir also found it.
Describing the key figures of impressionism, it would be rude not to recall at least fragmentarily the man with whose help the repeatedly disgraced artistic movement became a significant artistic achievement of the 19th century and conquered the whole world. The name of this man is Paul Durand-Ruel, a collector, art dealer, who repeatedly found himself on the verge of bankruptcy, but did not give up his attempts to establish impressionism as a new art that would still reach its apogee. He organized exhibitions of impressionists in Paris and London, organized personal exhibitions of painters in his gallery, organized auctions, and simply assisted artists financially: there were times when many of them did not have funds for paints and canvas. Proof of the ardent gratitude and respect of the artists is their letters to Durand-Ruel, of which there are plenty left. Durand-Ruel's personality is an example of an intelligent collector and benefactor.
“Impressionism” is a relative concept. All the painters whom we consider to be part of this movement underwent academic training, which required meticulous attention to detail and a smooth, glossy painting surface. However, they soon preferred paintings in a realistic direction, reflecting real reality and everyday life, to the usual themes and plots prescribed by the Salon. Subsequently, each of them painted in the style of impressionism for a certain time, trying to objectively convey objects in their paintings under different lighting conditions. After this impressionist stage, most of these avant-garde artists moved on to independent research, acquiring the collective name “post-impressionism”; Later, their work contributed to the formation of abstract art of the 20th century.
In the 70s years XIX centuries, Europe became addicted to Japanese art. Edmond de Goncourt writes in his notes: “...Passion for Japanese art... embraced everything - from painting to fashion. At first it was a mania for eccentrics like my brother and me... later impressionist artists joined us.” Indeed, the paintings of the impressionists of that time often depicted the attributes of Japanese culture: fans, kimonos, screens. They also learned stylistic methods and plastic solutions from Japanese engraving. Many Impressionists were keen collectors of Japanese prints. For example, Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Edgar Degas.
In general, the so-called impressionists organized 8 exhibitions at irregular intervals from 1874 to 1886; half of the 55 painters who belonged to the Anonymous Society, due to various circumstances, appeared only in the 1st. An exceptional participant in all 8 exhibitions was Camille Pissarro, who had a calm, peaceful disposition.
In 1886, the final exhibition of the Impressionists took place, but as an artistic method, it continued to exist. The painters did not give up their hard work. Although the former camaraderie and unity were no longer there. Everyone trampled their own path. The historical confrontations were over, ended in the triumph of new views, and there was no need for a unification of forces. The illustrious unity of impressionist artists split, and could not help but split: they were all too dissimilar, not only in temperament, but also in their views and artistic convictions.
Impressionism, as a movement consistent with its time, did not fail to leave the borders of France. Painters in other countries asked similar questions (James Whistler in England and the USA, Max Lieberman and Lovis Corinth in Germany, Konstantin Korovin and Igor Grabar in Russia). Impressionism’s passion for instant movement and fluid form was also adopted by sculptors (Auguste Rodin in France, Paolo Trubetskoy and Anna Golubkina in Russia).
Having carried out a revolution in the views of their contemporaries, expanding their worldview, the Impressionists thereby prepared the ground for the subsequent development of art and the emergence of new aesthetic aspirations and ideas, new forms that were not long in coming. Emerging from impressionism, neo-impressionism, post-impressionism, fauvism, subsequently also stimulated the formation and emergence of new aesthetic trends and directions.
fr. impression - impression) - a direction in art of the last third of the 19th century - the beginning. 20th century, whose representatives began to paint landscapes and genre scenes directly from life, trying to convey the glare of the sun, the blow of wind, the rustle of grass, and the movement of the city crowd with very pure and intense colors. The impressionists sought to capture the real world in its mobility and variability in the most natural and unbiased way, and to convey their fleeting impressions.
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IMPRESSIONISM
French impressionnisme, from impression - impression), a direction in the art of con. 1860 – early 1880s Most clearly manifested in painting. Leading representatives: C. Monet, O. Renoir, C. Pissarro, A. Guillaumin, B. Morisot, M. Cassatt, A. Sisley, G. Caillebotte and J. F. Bazille. E. Manet and E. Degas exhibited their paintings with them, although the style of their works cannot be called completely impressionistic. The name “Impressionists” was assigned to a group of young artists after their first joint exhibition in Paris (1874; Monet, Renoir, Pizarro, Degas, Sisley, etc.), which caused furious indignation among the public and critics. One of the presented paintings by C. Monet (1872) was called “Impression. Sunrise” (“L’impression. Soleil levant”), and the reviewer mockingly called the artists “impressionists” - “impressionists.” The painters performed under this name at the third joint exhibition (1877). At the same time, they began to publish the Impressionist magazine, each issue of which was dedicated to the work of one of the group members.
The impressionists sought to capture the world around them in its constant variability and fluidity, and to impartially express their immediate impressions. Impressionism was based on the latest discoveries in optics and color theory (the spectral decomposition of a solar ray into seven colors of the rainbow); in this he is in tune with the spirit of scientific analysis characteristic of con. 19th century However, the impressionists themselves did not try to determine theoretical basis of his art, insisting on the spontaneity and intuitiveness of the artist’s creativity. Artistic principles the impressionists were not united. Monet painted landscapes only in direct contact with nature, in the open air (en plein air), and even built a workshop in a boat. Degas worked in the workshop from memories or using photographs. Unlike representatives of later radical movements, artists did not go beyond the Renaissance illusory-spatial system based on the use of direct perspective. They firmly adhered to the method of working from life, which they elevated to the main principle of creativity. Artists sought to “paint what you see” and “the way you see.” The consistent application of this method entailed the transformation of all the foundations of the existing pictorial system: color, composition, spatial structure. Pure paints were applied to the canvas in small separate strokes: multi-colored “dots” lay side by side, mixing into a colorful spectacle not on the palette or on the canvas, but in the viewer’s eye. The Impressionists achieved an unprecedented sonority of color and an unprecedented richness of shades. The brushstroke became an independent means of expression, filling the surface of the painting with a living, shimmering vibration of color particles. The canvas was likened to a mosaic shimmering with precious colors. In previous paintings, black, gray, and brown shades predominated; In the paintings of the Impressionists, the colors shone brightly. The Impressionists did not use chiaroscuro to convey volumes; they abandoned dark shadows, and the shadows in their paintings also became colored. Artists widely used additional tones (red and green, yellow and violet), the contrast of which increased the intensity of the sound of color. In Monet's paintings, colors lightened and dissolved in the radiance of rays of sunlight, local colors acquired many shades.
The impressionists depicted the world around us in perpetual motion, transition from one state to another. They began to paint a series of paintings, wanting to show how the same motif changes depending on the time of day, lighting, weather conditions, etc. (cycles “Boulevard Montmartre” by C. Pissarro, 1897; “Rouen Cathedral”, 1893– 95, and "Parliament of London", 1903–04, C. Monet). Artists found ways to reflect in their paintings the movement of clouds (A. Sisley. “Loing in Saint-Mamme”, 1882), the play of glare of sunlight (O. Renoir. “Swing”, 1876), gusts of wind (C. Monet. “Terrace in Sainte-Adresse", 1866), streams of rain (G. Caillebotte. "Hierarch. The Effect of Rain", 1875), falling snow (C. Pissarro. "Opera Passage. The Effect of Snow", 1898), rapid running of horses (E. Manet . "Racing at Longchamp", 1865).
The Impressionists developed new principles of composition. Previously, the space of a painting was likened to a stage; now the captured scenes resembled a snapshot, a photographic frame. Invented in the 19th century. photography had a significant influence on the composition of impressionistic paintings, especially in the work of E. Degas, who himself was a passionate photographer and, in his own words, sought to take the ballerinas he depicted by surprise, to see them “as if through a keyhole,” when their poses, body lines natural, expressive and authentic. Creating paintings in the open air, the desire to capture rapidly changing lighting forced artists to speed up their work, painting “alla prima” (in one go), without preliminary sketches. Fragmentation, “randomness” of the composition and dynamic painting style created a feeling of special freshness in the paintings of the Impressionists.
The favorite impressionistic genre was landscape; the portrait also represented a kind of “landscape of a face” (O. Renoir. “Portrait of the Actress J. Samary”, 1877). In addition, the artists significantly expanded the range of painting subjects, turning to topics previously considered unworthy of attention: folk festivals, horse races, picnics of artistic bohemia, the backstage life of theaters, etc. However, their paintings do not have a detailed plot or detailed narration; human life is dissolved in nature or in the atmosphere of the city. The impressionists painted not events, but moods, shades of feelings. The artists fundamentally rejected historical and literary themes, avoided depicting the dramatic, dark sides of life (wars, disasters, etc.). They sought to free art from the fulfillment of social, political and moral tasks, from the obligation to evaluate the depicted phenomena. Artists sang the beauty of the world, being able to turn the most everyday motif (room renovation, gray London fog, smoke of steam locomotives, etc.) into an enchanting spectacle (G. Caillebotte. “Parquet Boys”, 1875; C. Monet. “Gare Saint-Lazare” , 1877).
In 1886, the last exhibition of the Impressionists took place (O. Renoir and C. Monet did not participate in it). By this time, significant disagreements had emerged between group members. The possibilities of the impressionist method were exhausted, and each of the artists began to look for their own path in art.
Impressionism as a whole creative method was a phenomenon of predominantly French art, but the work of the Impressionists had an impact on all European painting. The desire for renewal artistic language, brightening the colorful palette, exposing painting techniques have now firmly entered the arsenal of artists. In other countries, J. Whistler (England and the USA), M. Lieberman, L. Corinth (Germany), and H. Sorolla (Spain) were close to impressionism. Many Russian artists experienced the influence of impressionism (V. A. Serov, K. A. Korovin, I. E. Grabar, etc.).
In addition to painting, impressionism was embodied in the work of some sculptors (E. Degas and O. Rodin in France, M. Rosso in Italy, P. P. Trubetskoy in Russia) in the living free modeling of fluid soft forms, which creates a complex play of light on the surface of the material and a feeling of incompleteness of the work; the poses capture the moment of movement and development. In music, the works of C. Debussy ("Sails", "Mists", "Reflections in Water", etc.) are close to impressionism.
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Impressionism in painting
Origins
Origin of the name
The first important exhibition of the Impressionists took place from April 15 to May 15, 1874 in the studio of the photographer Nadar. 30 artists were presented there, with a total of 165 works. Monet's canvas - “Impression. Rising Sun " ( Impression, soleil levant), now in the Marmottin Museum, Paris, written in 1872, gave birth to the term “Impressionism”: the little-known journalist Louis Leroy, in his article in the magazine “Le Charivari”, called the group “Impressionists” to express his disdain. Artists, out of defiance, accepted this epithet; later it took root, lost its original negative meaning and came into active use.
The name “impressionism” is quite meaningless, unlike the name “Barbizon school”, where at least there is an indication of the geographical location art group. There is even less clarity with some artists who were not formally included in the circle of the first impressionists, although their technical techniques and means are completely “impressionistic” Whistler, Edouard Manet, Eugene Boudin, etc.) Moreover technical means Impressionists were known long before the 19th century and they were (partially, to a limited extent) used by Titian and Velazquez, without breaking with the dominant ideas of their era.
There was another article (by Emil Cardon) and another title - “Rebel Exhibition”, which was absolutely disapproving and condemning. It was precisely this that accurately reproduced the disapproving attitude of the bourgeois public and criticism towards artists (Impressionists), which had prevailed for years. The Impressionists were immediately accused of immorality, rebellious sentiments, and failure to be respectable. At the moment, this is surprising, because it is not clear what is immoral in the landscapes of Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, everyday scenes of Edgar Degas, still lifes of Monet and Renoir.
Decades have passed. And the new generation of artists will come to a real collapse of forms and impoverishment of content. Then both criticism and the public saw the condemned impressionists as realists, and a little later as classics of French art.
Specifics of the philosophy of impressionism
French impressionism did not raise philosophical problems and did not even try to penetrate under the colored surface of everyday life. Instead, impressionism focuses on superficiality, the fluidity of a moment, mood, lighting, or angle of view.
Like the art of the Renaissance (Renaissance), impressionism is built on the characteristics and skills of perceiving perspective. At the same time, the Renaissance vision explodes with proven subjectivity and relativity human perception, which makes color and shape autonomous components of the image. For impressionism, it is not so important what is depicted in the picture, but how it is depicted is important.
Their paintings presented only the positive aspects of life, without affecting social problems, including such as hunger, disease, death. This later led to a split among the Impressionists themselves.
Advantages of Impressionism
The advantages of impressionism as a movement include democracy. By inertia, art even in the 19th century was considered a monopoly of aristocrats and the upper strata of the population. They were the main customers for paintings and monuments, and they were the main buyers of paintings and sculptures. Stories from hard work peasants, the tragic pages of modern times, the shameful aspects of wars, poverty, social unrest were condemned, disapproved, and not bought. Criticism of the blasphemous morality of society in the paintings of Theodore Gericault and Francois Millet found response only among supporters of the artists and a few experts.
The Impressionists took quite a compromise, intermediate position on this issue. Biblical, literary, mythological, and historical subjects inherent in official academicism were discarded. On the other hand, they fervently desired recognition, respect, even awards. Indicative is the activity of Edouard Manet, who for years sought recognition and awards from the official Salon and its administration.
Instead, a vision of everyday life and modernity emerged. Artists often painted people in motion, during fun or relaxation, presented the appearance of a certain place under certain lighting, and nature was also the motive of their works. Subjects of flirting, dancing, being in a cafe and theater, boating, on beaches and in gardens were taken. Judging by the paintings of the Impressionists, life is a series of small holidays, parties, pleasant pastimes outside the city or in a friendly environment (a number of paintings by Renoir, Manet and Claude Monet). The Impressionists were among the first to paint in the air, without finishing their work in the studio.
Technique
The new movement differed from academic painting both technically and ideologically. First of all, the Impressionists abandoned the contour, replacing it with small separate and contrasting strokes, which they applied in accordance with the color theories of Chevreul, Helmholtz and Rud. Sunbeam is split into components: violet, blue, cyan, green, yellow, orange, red, but since blue is a type of blue, their number is reduced to six. Two colors placed next to each other enhance each other and, conversely, when mixed they lose intensity. In addition, all colors are divided into primary, or basic, and dual, or derivative, with each dual color being complementary to the first:
- Blue - Orange
- Red Green
- Yellow - Violet
Thus, it became possible not to mix paints on the palette and obtain the desired color by correctly applying them to the canvas. This later became the reason for refusing black.
Then the impressionists stopped concentrating all their work on canvases in the studios; now they prefer plein air, where it is more convenient to capture a fleeting impression of what they saw, which became possible thanks to the invention of steel paint tubes, which, unlike leather bags, could be closed so that the paint did not dry out.
Also, artists used opaque paints, which do not transmit light well and are unsuitable for mixing because they quickly turn gray; this allowed them to create paintings without “ internal", A " external» light reflected from the surface.
Technical differences contributed to the achievement of other goals, first of all, the impressionists tried to capture a fleeting impression, the smallest changes in each object depending on lighting and time of day; the highest embodiment was the cycles of paintings by Monet “Haystacks”, “Rouen Cathedral” and “Parliament of London”.
In general, there were many masters working in the Impressionist style, but the foundation of the movement was Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, Alfred Sisley, Camille Pissarro, Frédéric Bazille and Berthe Morisot. However, Manet always called himself an “independent artist” and never participated in exhibitions, and although Degas participated, he never painted his works en plein air.
Chronology by artist
Impressionists
Exhibitions
- First exhibition(April 15 - May 15)
- Second exhibition(April )
Address: st. Lepeletier, 11 (Durand-Ruel Gallery). Participants: Basil (posthumously, the artist died in 1870), Beliard, Bureau, Debutin, Degas, Caillebotte, Cals, Lever, Legros, Lepic, Millet, Monet, Morisot, L. Otten, Pissarro, Renoir, Roir, Sisley, Tillo, Francois
- Third exhibition(April )
Address: st. Lepeletye, 6. Participants: Guillaumin, Degas, Caillebotte, Cals, Cordey, Lever, Lamy, Monet, Morisot, Moreau, Piette, Pissarro, Renoir, Roir, Cezanne, Sisley, Tillo, Francois.
- Fourth exhibition(April 10 - May 11)
Address: Avenue Opera, 28. Participants: Bracquemont, Madame Bracquemont, Gauguin, Degas, Zandomeneghi, Caillebotte, Cals, Cassatt, Lebourg, Monet, Piette, Pissarro, Roir, Somm, Tillo, Foren.
- Fifth exhibition(April 1 - April 30)
Address: st. Pyramid, 10. Participants: Bracquemont, Madame Bracquemont, Vidal, Vignon, Guillaumin, Gauguin, Degas, Zandomeneghi, Caillebotte, Cassatt, Lebourg, Lever, Morisot, Pissarro, Raffaelli, Roir, Tillo, Foren.
- Sixth exhibition(2 April - 1 May)
Address: Boulevard Capucines, 35 (studio of photographer Nadar). Participants: Vidal, Vignon, Guillaumin, Gauguin, Degas, Zandomeneghi, Cassatt, Morisot, Pissarro, Raffaelli, Roir, Tillo, Foren.
- Seventh exhibition(March )
Address: Faubourg-Saint-Honoré, 251 (At Durand-Ruel). Participants: Vignon, Guillaumin, Gauguin, Caillebotte, Monet, Morisot, Pissarro, Renoir, Sisley.
- Eighth exhibition(May 15 - June 15)
Address: st. Laffitte, 1. Participants: Madame Braquemont, Vignon, Guillaumin, Gauguin, Degas, Zandomeneghi, Casset, Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Lucien Pissarro, Redon, Roir, Seurat, Signac, Tillo, Forain, Schuffenecker.
Impressionism in literature
In literature, impressionism did not develop as a separate movement, but its features were reflected in naturalism and symbolism.
First of all, it is characterized by the expression of the author’s private impression, the rejection of an objective picture of reality, the depiction of every moment, which should have entailed the absence of plot, history and the replacement of thought with perception, and reason with instinct. The main features of the impressionist style were formulated by the Goncourt brothers in their work “Diary”, where the famous phrase “ Seeing, feeling, expressing - this is all art" has become a central position for many writers.
In naturalism, the main principle was truthfulness, loyalty to nature, but it is subject to impression, and therefore the appearance of reality depends on each individual person and her temperament. This is most fully expressed in the novels of Emile Zola, his detailed descriptions of smells, sounds and visual perceptions.
Symbolism, on the contrary, demanded a rejection of the material world and a return to the ideal, but the transition is possible only through fleeting impressions, revealing the secret essence in visible things. A striking example poetic impressionism - Paul Verlaine's collection “Romances without Words” (). In Russia, Konstantin Balmont and Innokenty Annensky were influenced by impressionism.
Also, these moods affected dramaturgy (impressionist drama), passive perception of the world, analysis of moods, mental states invade the plays, the whole composition breaks up into a number of scenes filled with lyricism, and fleeting, scattered impressions are concentrated in dialogues. The drama becomes a one-act drama, designed for intimate theaters. These signs have found their total reflection in the work of Arthur Schnitzler.
Impressionism in music
Musical impressionism was one of the movements of musical modernity. Characterized by the transmission of fleeting impressions, moods, and subtle psychological nuances.
The founder of impressionism in music is the French composer Erik Satie, who published “Three Melodies” in 1886, and “Three Sarabandes” in 1887, which carry all the main features of the new style. The bold discoveries of Erik Satie five and ten years later were picked up and developed by two of his friends, the brightest representatives of impressionism, Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel.
Literature
- Jean-Paul Crespel. Everyday life Impressionists 1863-1883, Moscow "Young Guard",
- Maurice Serulle and Arlette Serulle. Encyclopedia of Impressionism, Moscow "Republic",
- “Impressionism”, Brodskaya.N.V St. Petersburg, Aurora, 2002 (254 pp., 269 ill., 7 original sheets of text)
Links
- Impressionism, N.V. Brodskaya, published by Aurora 2010
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Synonyms:French-impression): an artistic movement that arose in France in the 60s and 70s of the 19th century. and received the most vivid embodiment in easel fine arts. The impressionists developed new painting techniques - colored shadows, color mixing, highlighted color, as well as the decomposition of complex tones into pure tones (overlaying them on the canvas with separate strokes generated their optical mixing in the eyes of the viewer). They sought to convey the beauty of the fleeting states of nature, the variability and mobility of the surrounding life. These techniques helped convey the feeling of sparkling sunlight, vibrations of light and air, and created the impression of the festivity of life and the harmony of the world. Impressionistic techniques were also used in other forms of art. In music, for example, they contributed to the transmission of the most subtle emotional movements and fleeting moods.
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Impressionism
from French impression - impression) A movement in art that arose in France in the last third of the 19th century. The main representatives of I.: Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, as well as Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas and some other artists who joined them. The development of a new style of I. took place in the 60-70s, and for the first time, as a new direction, opposing itself to the academic Salon, the Impressionists announced themselves at their first exhibition in 1874. In particular, the painting by C. Monet “Impression” was exhibited at it . Soleil levant" (1872). Official art criticism reacted negatively to the new movement and mockingly “christened” its representatives “impressionists,” recalling the painting by Monet that particularly irritated them. However, the name reflected the essence of the direction, and its representatives accepted it as the official designation of their method. As an integral movement, art did not exist for long - from 1874 to 1886, when the impressionists organized 8 joint exhibitions. Official recognition by art connoisseurs and art criticism came much later - only in the mid-90s. I. had, as became obvious already in the next century, a huge impact on all subsequent development of fine art (and artistic culture in general). In fact, it fundamentally began with him new stage artistic culture, which led to the middle. XX century to POST-culture (see: POST-), i.e. to the transition of Culture into some fundamentally different quality. O. Spengler, who extended the concept of history to culture, considered it one of the typical signs of the “decline of Europe,” that is, the destruction of the integrity of the worldview, the destruction of the traditionally established European culture. On the contrary, avant-garde artists (see: Avangard) of the early 20th century. They saw in I. their forerunner, who opened new horizons for art, freeing it from extra-artistic tasks, from the dogmas of positivism, academicism, realism, etc., with which one cannot but agree. The Impressionists themselves, as pure painters, did not think about such a global significance of their experiment. They did not even strive for a special revolution in art. They simply saw the world around them somewhat differently than the official representatives of the Salon saw it, and tried to consolidate this vision by purely pictorial means. At the same time, they relied on the artistic discoveries of their predecessors - first of all, French painters XIX century Delacroix, Corot, Courbet, "Barbizonians". On K. Monet, who visited London in 1871, strong impression produced works by W. Turner. In addition, the Impressionists themselves name among their predecessors the French classicists Poussin, Lorrain, Chardin, and Japanese color engraving of the 18th century, and art critics see similarities to the Impressionists in the English artists T. Gainsborough and J. Constable, not to mention W. .Turner. The impressionists absolutized a number of painting techniques of these very different artists and created a holistic style system on this basis. In contrast to the “academicists,” the impressionists abandoned the thematic premise (philosophical, moral, religious, socio-political, etc.) of art, and thoughtful, pre-conceived and clearly drawn plot compositions, i.e., they began to fight the dominance of “literaryism” in painting, focusing the main attention on specifically pictorial means - color and light; they left the workshops for the open air, where they tried to start and finish work on a specific work in one session; they refused dark colors and complex tones (earth, “asphalt” colors), characteristic of the art of the New Age, switching to pure bright colors (their palette was limited to 7-8 colors), often laid on the canvas in separate strokes, consciously counting on their optical mixing already in the psyche of the viewer how the effect of special freshness and spontaneity was achieved; following Delacroix, they mastered and absolutized the colored shadow, the play of color reflexes on various surfaces; dematerialized the object of the visible world, dissolving it in the light-air environment, which was the main subject of their attention as pure painters; they actually abandoned the genre approach in fine art, focusing all their attention on the pictorial transmission of their subjective impression of a randomly seen fragment of reality - more often landscapes (like Monet, Sisley, Pissarro), less often plot scenes (like Renoir, Degas). At the same time, they often sought to convey the impression with almost illusionistic accuracy of matching the color-light-air atmosphere of the depicted fragment and the moment of visible reality. The randomness of the angle of view on a fragment of nature illuminated by the artistic vision, attention to the pictorial environment, and not to the subject, often led them to bold compositional decisions, sharp unexpected angles of view, cuts that activate the viewer’s perception, etc. effects, many of which later were used by representatives of various avant-garde movements. I. has become one of the directions " pure art"in the 19th century, whose representatives considered the main thing in art to be its artistic and aesthetic principle. The impressionists felt the inexpressible beauty of the light-color-air environment of the material world and tried to capture it on their canvases with almost documentary accuracy (for this they are sometimes accused of naturalism, which is hardly legitimate in the grand scheme of things). In painting they are a kind of optimistic pantheists, latest singers carefree joy of earthly existence, sun worshipers. As the neo-impressionist P. Signac wrote with admiration, “sunlight floods the whole picture; the air sways in it, the light envelops, caresses, scatters forms, penetrates everywhere, even into the shadow area.” The stylistic features of art in painting, especially the desire for a refined artistic depiction of fleeting impressions, the fundamental sketchiness, the freshness of direct perception, etc., turned out to be close to representatives of other types of art of that time, which led to the extension of this concept to literature, poetry, and music. However, in these types of art there was no special direction of I., although many of its features are found in the works of a number of writers and composers of the last third of the 19th - early. XX century Such elements of impressionistic aesthetics as vagueness of form, fixation of attention on bright but random fleeting details, understatement, vague hints, etc., are inherent in the work of G. de Maupassant, A.P. Chekhov, the early T. Mann, and the poetry of R.- M. Rilke, but especially to the brothers J. and E. Goncourt, representatives of the so-called “psychological I>, and partially to K. Hamsun. M. Proust and the “stream of consciousness” writers relied on impressionistic techniques and significantly developed them. In music, French composers C. Debussy, M. Ravel, P. Duke and some others are considered impressionists, who used the stylistics and aesthetics of I. in their work. Their music is filled with direct experiences of the beauty and lyricism of the landscape, almost imitating the game sea waves or the rustle of leaves, the bucolic charm of ancient mythological scenes, the joy of momentary life, the jubilation of earthly existence, the pleasure of the endless play of sound matter. Like painters, they blur many traditional musical genres, filling them with different content, increase attention to purely aesthetic effects musical language, significantly enriching the palette of expressive and visual means of music. “This applies primarily,” writes musicologist I.V. Nestyev, “to the sphere of harmony with its technique of parallelism and whimsical stringing of unresolved colorful consonances-spots. The Impressionists significantly expanded the modern tonal system, opening the way for many harmonic innovations of the 20th century. (although they noticeably weakened the clarity of functional connections). The complication and swelling of chord complexes (non-chords, undecimated chords, alternative fourth harmonies) are combined with simplification, archaization of modal thinking (natural modes, pentatonic, whole-tone complexes). The orchestration of impressionist composers is dominated by pure colors and capricious highlights; Woodwind solos, harp passages, complex string divisi, and con sordino effects are often used. Purely decorative, uniformly flowing ostinat backgrounds are also typical. The rhythm is sometimes unsteady and elusive. Melodics are characterized not by rounded constructions, but by short expressive phrases-symbols and layers of motifs. At the same time, in the music of the Impressionists, the meaning of each sound, timbre, and chord was unusually enhanced, and the limitless possibilities of expanding the scale were revealed. Particular freshness was given to the music of the Impressionists by the frequent use of song and dance genres, the subtle implementation of modal and rhythmic elements borrowed from the folklore of the peoples of the East, Spain, early forms Negro jazz" (Musical Encyclopedia. T. 2, M., 1974. Stb. 507). By placing the visual and expressive means of art at the center of the artist’s attention and focusing on the hedonistic-aesthetic function of art, I. opened up new perspectives and opportunities for artistic culture, which she took full advantage of (and sometimes even excessively) in the 20th century. Lit.: Venturi L. From Manet to Lautrec. M., 1938; Rewald J. History of impressionism. L.-M., 1959; Impressionism. Letters from artists. L., 1969; Serullaz M. Encyclopedie de limpressionnisme. P., 1977; Montieret S. Limpressionnisme et son epoque. T. 1-3. P., 1978-1980; Kroher E. Impressionismus in der Musik. Leipzig. 1957. L.B.
