The last century in the history of ancient Russian literature has a special character. It is transitional from the Middle Ages to the New Age and is literally woven from contradictions. In literature there is a struggle between the old and the new, so the subject of poeticization can be both a martyrdom for the glory of faith, and love for a woman, for whose sake the hero is able to risk his life and even sell his soul to the devil.
For a long time, the cause of the crisis in medieval literature was seen in the process that had begun Europeanization Russian life, however, the myth about the cultural isolation of Rus' in the 11th–16th centuries. becomes a thing of the past. Russian literature of the Middle Ages always recognized itself as part of the pan-European literary process, was not ashamed of the role of a student, assimilating the artistic experience of more developed countries, for example Byzantium, where Christianity came from. Over time, the European orientation of Rus' changed: from the South Slavic states (Bulgaria, Serbia) it was transferred to the West Slavic states (Poland, Czech Republic); from the traditions of Greek culture to the spiritual heritage of the Latin world. The main reasons for innovations in Russian literature of the 17th century. one must look not so much in the change of influences as in the ones experienced by it internal processes. The huge avalanche of translated products that poured into Rus' did not supplant the works of domestic authors, did not deprive Russian literature of its original character, but stimulated the overdue process of its renewal.
An intense search for ways of development led to the fact that literature turned into an artistic laboratory, where one’s own and someone else’s, traditional and existing at the experimental level, coexisted freely. D.S. Likhachev wrote that never - neither before nor after the 17th century. – Russian literature “was not so variegated in terms of genre.” In it “two literary systems collided: one dying, medieval, the other emerging - the New Age.” In the reading circle of a Russian person of the 17th century. included the life of a saint and a translated knightly novel, a pilgrimage to the Christian East and a secular journey through the countries of Western Europe, historical story and a picaresque novella. The genre range was expanded due to forms coming from folklore, translated books and business writing. The genre system of literature expanded due to the emerging new types of artistic creativity - poetry, drama, satire.
The literature was updated by transformation of traditional genres The Middle Ages, which acquired different functions than before, realizing their internal potentials. Life was reborn into everyday story, if the saint performed a spiritual feat in the world, or in memoir-biographical work, if it was written as a memory of a teacher or close relative. The genre was formed on a hagiographic basis autobiographies, where the images of the author and the hero were traced back to one real person.
Centuries-tested genres of literature in the conditions of the 17th century. received new life, such as the medieval form visions. If earlier the vision existed in the depths of hagiographic, chronicle or legendary historical literature, now it has acquired genre independence. According to N.I. Prokofiev, the genre flourished during the Time of Troubles. Arising from folk legend visions of the early 17th century. had journalistic coloring. Their goal was not to glorify a saint or religious shrine, but to justify, with the help of the authority of a miracle, a particular political idea. As works of propaganda literature, these works were designed for public speaking and reading aloud, as a result of which their authors took care of creating a lyrical atmosphere of the narrative and a rhythmic structure of speech. Of the three plot components of the genre ( transgression – repentance - forgiveness) visions of the Time of Troubles developed predominantly one: almost all art space The works were focused on prayer and repentance, which was supposed to unite the people in the hope of salvation.
Gregory, author "Tales of a Vision" in Nizhny Novgorod in 1611, spoke about a miracle of which he was a witness. “Falling into a light sleep,” he saw how the cover of the temple disappeared and God descended from the sky in a blaze of light, accompanied by a certain “Belorian.” From the dialogue between God and his companion, the “secret viewer” understood that the Russians could count on heavenly help and protection from enemy invasion in the event of nationwide repentance and a three-day fast. The Lord ordered the construction of a new church in Moscow “on Pozhar, near Vasily Blazhennov,” the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir was moved there, and a candle and a blank sheet of paper were left on the throne. On the fourth day, the candle itself will light up from the “heavenly fire” and the name of the Russian Tsar will appear on the sheet. For violating God's will, the Russian state awaits destruction. “The Tale of a Vision” was of a propaganda nature: it warned of the perniciousness of establishing a new impostor on the Russian throne. It is significant that the vision happened in Nizhny Novgorod - one of the centers of formation of the people's militia against the Poles who captured Moscow.
In the 17th century is happening sharp increase in book production, which is associated with the social and geographical expansion of literature. At this time, local literary schools were emerging in the North and Siberia, on the Don and in the Volga region. If earlier literary activity was mainly the prerogative of the clergy, then during the transition period all layers of society practiced writing: from Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, who composed syllabic verses, to runaway serfs - the Cossacks who defended Azov. The democratization of the writing staff led to the emergence Literature Posad, close to the laughter culture of the people. Democratic literature, often anti-church and anti-government in orientation, cultivated genres satires. The object of parody in satire could be the traditional form of secular and liturgical literature, business prose (the life of a saint, petition, church service). Thus, rethinking old forms, satirists created new ones, which destroyed the canonicity and hierarchies of the ancient Russian system of genres.
In the 17th century planned differentiation between the spheres of fiction and scientific literature. If earlier books of the natural history cycle ("Six Days", "Physiologist", "Christian Topography", etc.) were part of literature, since they did not so much satisfy scientific curiosity as glorify the wisdom of the Creator of all things, now culture is becoming secularized, liberating from the tutelage of the church, and knowledge acquires independent value. On the basis of the spiritual writing of the Middle Ages, theological science is formed, necessary for new translations of the Holy Books and conducting theological disputes. The Psalter and Book of Hours, as books by which the ancients learned to read and write, replace alphabets and primers, from the 17th century. firmly included in the repertoire of printed publications. Professionalization of authors and readers leads to the fact that works devoted to the problems of medicine and military affairs, physics and geography, mathematics and astronomy are taken beyond the scope of literature, not only intended for educational reading, but also developing imaginative thinking and aesthetic taste, forming moral concepts. Russian literature of the modern era will inherit only unclear distinction between fiction and historiography, which will clearly appear in the “History of the Russian State” by N. M. Karamzin, where, on the basis of documentary evidence, psychologically reliable portraits of historical figures will be created, and “the legends of deep antiquity” will come to life in fictionalized stories.
Professionalization of a labor writer- a laborious and lengthy process, emerging in the literature of modern times. In the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern century, when a person’s authority largely depended on the level of education, erudition, depth scientific knowledge, schools were created in the Spassky Monastery and at the Printing Court, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy emerged, where civil and spiritual sciences were taught. The largest centers of book culture are the Moscow Printing Yard and the Ambassadorial Prikaz, from where a whole cohort of writers and translators emerges, for whom literary work becomes an official duty and is of a worldly nature.
The secular principle actively declares its rights in painting, music, architecture, decorative and applied arts. Isographs Simon Ushakov And Joseph Vladimirov in theory and in practice they break with the traditions of ancient icon writing, a flat depiction of a person in the spirit of religious symbolism. They celebrate material beauty and the diversity of life. Polemicizing with supporters of the archaic pictorial manner, Joseph Vladimirov asked: “Where did such an instruction come up, senseless lovers who command that holy faces should be painted using the same form, dark and dark-skinned? Was the entire human race created in one appearance? Were all the saints dark and skinny? "
In Russian architecture of the 17th century. thanks to the influence wooden architecture and the richness of folk imagination creates a deeply original style. The eighth wonder of the world was called by contemporaries the palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye near Moscow, striking with its intricate carvings, play of gilding and bright colors in decor. Many churches built at this time in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and Rostov and lavishly decorated with tiles, painted frames, and stone carving lace are more temples of beauty than prayer. Church rituals are dramatized, and a tradition of dramatic performances and festive processions arises. The process of secularization of religious art leads to the formation of a new secular culture.
In the 17th century The writer’s attitude to reality, literary work, and understanding of man changes. The religious-symbolic worldview, when everything that happens on earth was explained by the struggle between the forces of good and evil in the other world, is being replaced by pragmatic type of thinking. The writer is trying to establish cause-and-effect relationships between historical events, between human character and behavior, without appealing to the “heavenly world” or “Divine Providence”. The image of a person loses the features of medieval abstraction, when the hero was either a righteous man or a sinner, acquires signs of everyday and social reality. A person begins to be perceived as a complex and contradictory nature. The rebellious rights of a literary character are revealed in his conflict with his family and clan, society and fate itself. Happening hero decline, who becomes either a drunken monk, or a hungry peasant or a homeless tramp, and also immersion of the narrative in low life, into the atmosphere of riotous tavern life, wandering in search of happiness along the roads of Russia. At the same time, the author does not hide his sincere sympathy." little man", who has entered into an unequal duel with "grief-misfortune." The writer tries to tune readers into a lyrical wave of empathy for the hero, extremely reducing the distance between them and literary character. The emancipation of the individual affects in literature the hero who leaves parents' house, wanting to live by his own mind, and the author, who, breaking the genre stereotype, expresses his own point of view on what is depicted.
The differentiation of author's styles and the growth of subjective principles in the interpretation of historical events clearly manifested themselves in the works of the Time of Troubles. Among the stories reflecting the events of 1604–1613, there is a story where the interests of the upper strata of society are expressed and the unity with the people of the boyar Tsar Vasily Shuisky in the fight against the “unfrocked and heretic” Grishka Otrepyev is glorified. This view of history is characteristic of "Tales of 1606" and the resulting "Another Legend" written in a traditional book style. To prove the legitimacy of Shuisky's power, the author of "The Tale" traces his family back to to the prince of Kyiv Vladimir Svyatoslavich and contrasts the noble boyar with the ignorant but “nosy” Boris Godunov, who, in his opinion, is the main culprit in the death of Tsarevich Dimitri and all the troubles that befell the Russian land during the Time of Troubles. A different, anti-boyar orientation is inherent "A new story about the glorious Russian kingdom", created at the turn of 1610–1611, when Moscow was captured by the Poles and Novgorod by the Swedes. Its nameless author called on Russians of “all ranks of people” to unite in the fight against enemies, glorified the fortitude of the Smolensk people who courageously defended their city from the “Poles”, and denounced the treacherous policy of the boyars. The style of the “New Tale,” which has the form of a letter-appeal, is pathetically excited and journalistic: “Come, come, Orthodoxy! Come, come, love of Christ! Take courage, and arm yourself, and strive against your enemies, so that you can defeat them and set the kingdom free!”
"The Legend" by Abraham Palitsyn(c. 1550–1626), cellarer of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, presents a broad picture of the “disorders” in the Russian state, including impostor and Polish-Lithuanian intervention, civil strife and famine. There are so many who have died of hunger that their bodies are carried on carts like firewood; people are trying to hide from robbery in the “impenetrable wilds”; In wartime conditions, epidemics are rampant in the country, especially in cities besieged by the enemy. Most of the book is devoted to the heroic defense of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery from the Polish-Lithuanian troops besieging it (1608–1610). With epic scale, cellarer Abraham describes the military exploits of Anania Selevin, the battle between the Russian army and the “Lithuanian hetmans”, but he does not shy away from depicting military everyday life. The author tells how the Poles are undermining and feasting in anticipation of the assault, and “Lithuania” raids the monastery garden.
For Abraham, the Trinity Monastery is an outpost of the Russian land, holding back the attack of the interventionists on the “reigning city.” The writer is not limited to events of local significance, he is concerned about the fate of the entire country, which “guards evil from false kings.” He transfers the action of the “Tale” from the walls of the monastery to the enemy camp, includes in the work a letter written on behalf of Hetman Sapega, and a formal reply from the defenders, according to whom, “a Christian youth of ten years” is laughing at the crazy plan of the Poles, because he is on the side of the besieged.” heavenly army" led by the Mother of God and Saints Sergius and Nikon. The cellarer of the richest Russian monastery will create verbal portraits of his contemporaries, imbuing them with value judgments. The leader of the popular uprising, Ivan Bolotnikov, is “the originator of all trouble,” when “the servant of the Lord wants life.” Boris Godunov was a cruel but wise ruler who tried to strengthen the international prestige of the Russian state through dynastic marriages and kinship with Western European royal courts.
"The Legend" by Abraham Palitsyn - shining example self-justification. An intelligent, active, but sometimes unprincipled man, who was in close relations with Vasily Shuisky and sought benefits for the monastery from Sigismund III, he creates the “Legend” in order to rehabilitate himself in the eyes of public opinion, to emphasize his merits in the fight against the invaders and in being elected to throne of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Presenting the events “in a row,” Abraham strives to document the narrative, filling it with the names of the participants in the siege of the Trinity Monastery, precise chronological and geographical calculations, and introducing genres of business writing into the “Tale.”
"Vremennik" by Ivan Timofeev(c. 1555–1631) is also interesting due to the author’s interpretation of the events and persons depicted in it. Clerk Ivan Timofeev, who was in service in Novgorod, became an eyewitness to the capture and occupation of the city by the Swedes (1610–1617). The book was written under the direct impression of the experience, when, according to the author, under the weight of thinking about the reasons for the death “overnight” of beauty ancient city and the all-Russian “ruin,” he “walked around like a madman,” and the thought of the need to capture this on paper “like a finger poked him in the ribs.” He looked at the reasons that gave rise to the Troubles through the prism of religious morality, explaining the “heavenly punishment” by the sinfulness of the Russians. However, the writer interpreted the very concept of sin in a socio-political aspect. This is the “wordless silence” of the people, non-resistance to the criminal authorities, as a result of which either “yesterday’s slaves” like Boris Godunov, or impostors like Grigory Otrepiev, began to encroach on the Russian throne.
The work of Ivan Timofeev covers the period from the reign of Ivan the Terrible to the reign of Vasily Shuisky, representing not a traditional historical story, but gallery of portraits of historical figures of the 16th–17th centuries. The writer strives for objectivity in the depiction, without hiding the royal vices and virtues; tries to find out what caused certain actions of the heroes. This leads to the fact that "the most glorious of all former kings“Under his pen, Ivan the Terrible turns into a “crowned villain”, obsessed with fits of rage, who “intoxicated” the Russian land with the blood of his subjects during the oprichnina and the conquest of Novgorod. Avoiding “untruths,” Ivan Timofeev pays tribute to the “child killer” and “comedian” Boris Godunov : under him, urban planning is expanding, the fight against bribery and “wine drinking” is being waged. The author indifferently weighs the good and evil in the characters of the heroes on the scales of justice; he does not hide from the reader his personal attitude towards the autocrat, his painful thoughts about how the mind can coexist in a person. and cruelty, piety and pride. Creating the image of the ruler, Ivan Timofeev gives it in action, through the actions he committed, surrounded by his relatives, courtiers, and servants. Moreover, the supporting characters help the author highlight certain traits in the character of the main character. , the guardsmen dressed in black inspire the people with the same horror as the “furious” tsar himself, who is contrasted with the bright image of Ivan IV’s wife Anastasia Romanovna.
Ivan Timofeev's style is complex due to its metaphorical nature, active use of allegory, and inclusion of parables in the narrative. Rus', left without a king, is likened to a widow, who in misfortune was abandoned by false friends and robbed by careless slaves. The writer compares the external enemy to a monster who, having come “in secret at night,” tore apart the flesh and “bones of famine.”
The author also departs from a one-sided assessment of a historical figure "Chronicle Book", compiled in 1626 in circles close to the government, and reflecting the official point of view on the events of the Peasants' War and the Polish-Swedish intervention. Scientists turn to the “Chronicle Book,” the creation of which is attributed either to I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky or to S. I. Shakhovsky, when exploring the history of genres verbal portrait And literary landscape. Among the portrait part of the book, the description of Ivan the Terrible, devoid of idealization, is distinguished by its historical authenticity and psychological complexity: “Tsar Ivan is an absurd image, with gray eyes, a long nose, a gag”; he was “a man of wonderful reasoning,” experienced “in the science of book veneration,” but “insolent and implacable to kill.” Drawing the “image” and “character” of the impostor, the writer notes that False Dmitry I was “witty... and pleased with book learning,” brave in battle, but “his face was not of royal property,” he was “bold and eloquent.” ". The high literary skill of the author can be judged by the way he describes the spring awakening of nature, chanting the creative work of man on earth: “the melting snow and the quiet wind blowing,” and “ratai ralom” “draws a sweet ford, and calls upon the fruit-bearer God for help.” . Although the landscape is not completely freed from the traditional symbolic function, a new beginning appears in it - aesthetic admiration of nature. Picture of a jubilant spring nature emphasizes the tragedy of the “disorders” in Russian society, but inspires confidence in the inevitability of changes for the better.
During the Time of Troubles, profound changes occurred in the public and literary consciousness. Historiographers of this time belonged to different social groups, among them were monks, clerks and Rurik princes, they had different levels of education and literary skill, but their writings reflected the general sign of the era - a new attitude to the history of Rus' and state power. The tsar's unshakable authority, his actions and character became the subject of discussion. God's chosen one, "ruler" Russian throne begins to bear the burden of moral responsibility for the fate of his subjects and the country, is subject not only to heavenly, but also earthly court. A distinction is made between the concepts of “service to the sovereign” and “service to the state.”
ABOUT growth of author's self-awareness in the 17th century This is not only evidenced by the development of an individual point of view on history, the relationship between the ruler and the people. Emancipation creative personality It also manifests itself in the strengthening of the sense of authorial ownership and the social significance of the work of the writer, “researcher,” and translator. The principle of anonymity of creativity is being revised. Author's anonymity is preserved in works of fiction and satire, but in order to emphasize the nationality of the work and to avoid conflict with public and secret censorship. "Fables", entertaining stories, translated and original, belonged to mass literature; the process of their creation and distribution in Rus' was uncontrollable.
The transition period is marked growing professionalization literary work . The ancient Russian scribe, who, thanks to the genre canon, knew well what and how to write, is being replaced by a writer - the creator of new literary forms and traditions. Collections of author's works, writers' archives and libraries are being formed. Based on the surviving author's editions of the work, one can judge the progress of its creator's plans. Community ideological positions and views on the tasks of literature unites writers in circles and schools. The author of the work gradually abandons the medieval mask of a “thin and sinful” person. So, Fedor Gozvinsky, known as the translator into Russian of Aesop’s “Proverbs, or Fables” (1607), concludes one of his works with verses in his honor:
Glorified in wisdom
And praised in the mind,
Honestly honored by honesty,
Artistically cognizable in his deeds,
Aspiring to hard work
And diligently done,
taught by God himself -
Feodor Kasiyanov son of Gozvinsky,
Greek words and Polish translator.
To Russian history XVII V. came in as a “rebel.” The beginning of the century is called Time of Troubles due to the crisis of royal power that erupted after the death of Fyodor Ivanovich, the last ruler from the house of Kalita, due to impostor and Polish-Swedish intervention. According to the Code of the Zemsky Sobor of 1649, the final enslavement of the peasants took place; the people, as one petition wrote, “have become impoverished and impoverished to the end.” After the suppression of the first peasant war under the leadership of Ivan Bolotnikov, the country was shaken by a series of new unrest: the “plague”, “salt” and “copper” riots were replaced by Cossack and peasant uprisings in the Volga region. In the 1660s–1670s. the second peasant war breaks out under the leadership of Stepan Razin, the Solovetsky uprising occurs; Streltsy riots end the century.
The armed struggle of townspeople and peasants against the feudal lords needed ideological justification. The official church stood guard over the existing world order, preached humility and submission, condemning all forms of resistance to secular and spiritual authority. However, the Russian Church in the 17th century. was no longer united. Church schism of the 1650s. divided it into two warring camps: Old Believers and Nikonians. In the 17th century The church was the only institution of the feudal state, the existence of which violated the principle of centralization of power. The Troubles exposed many vices of Russian life. The Moscow state almost died as a result of internal strife, betrayal of national interests and a sharp decline in morals. The Russian Church realized the need for spiritual renewal, strengthening moral authority in order to consolidate society and resist the attempts of the “kingdom” to subjugate the “priesthood”. Time of Troubles, which forced the monks to take up arms in order to hold the defense of cities and monasteries, developed a new type of ascetic among the Russian clergy - a warrior for the faith. Indomitability of spirit is a trait inherent in the ideologist of the Old Believers Habakkuk, and the patriarch Nikon. It is no coincidence that there are so many similarities in their characters and destinies. Both came from Nizhny Novgorod villages, they began their careers as clergy early, under whose heavy hand the flock sometimes groaned. Both participated in the movement of “zealots of ancient piety,” led by the royal confessor Stefan Vonifatiev. Due to their conflicting character and religious and political convictions, both experienced the severity of disgrace and exile; both went down in the history of Russian literature as writers.
The church reform of Patriarch Nikon was associated with the process of unification of the Great Russian Church with the reunified Ukrainian and Belarusian ones. The reform was inspired by the idea of "Moscow - the third Rome", since by that time in the Orthodox world only the Russian state was sovereign and could become a stronghold in the fight against pagan confrontation in the north and east, with Catholic expansion in the west, Muslim influence in the south, where the Balkan countries were under Turkish rule. To come to the aid of brothers Slavic peoples, it was necessary to emphasize their former unity, to unify the church ritual system, which is why Nikon’s reform was focused primarily on editing books and services according to Greek models, for Christianity was inherited by the Slavs from Byzantium.
In the reform that caused a church schism, one cannot see only an external conflict between the Old Believers and adherents of the renewed church, and the conflict itself cannot be reduced only to how to be baptized (with two or three fingers), what bows to make (to the ground or waist), how to write the name of Christ ( Jesus or Jesus), what rules to follow when creating icons and erecting religious buildings. It is necessary to see in the Old Believers an opposition to unlimited power, secular and ecclesiastical. The Old Believers were against the orientation of the Russian Church towards foreign models; Defending the faith of their fathers and grandfathers, they defended national identity and traditional way of life. Expressing social protest in religious form, the Old Believers saw their ideal in the past, opposed everything new, and tried to prevent the Europeanization of Russian life. Thus, the Russian Old Believers are a complex and internally contradictory phenomenon.
The Old Believers environment was rich in talents. Seeing in Nikon’s “novelties” the seal of the Antichrist, the coming destruction of the world and the Last Judgment, not all Old Believers rushed to take refuge in the forests or undergo purification by fire through self-immolation. Many of them stood in the way of the growing evil in the world by turning to writing. The elder enjoyed exceptional authority among the Old Believers Epiphanius, about whose life and death legends were made. According to one legend, his remains were not discovered after the Pustozersk execution in 1682, and witnesses saw “Father Epiphany being lifted up into the air from the log house by the flames.” Preferring a “desert life,” the elder, after the schism of the church, came to Moscow with books denouncing the Nikonians, began reading them aloud in the cathedral square, and submitted a petition to the tsar, in which he reproached Alexei Mikhailovich: “O tsar, the damned Nikon has lost his Christian faith in Russia ssi, and now you are seeking faith in foreign lands, like a lion prowling."
Old Believers writers tried to capture the feat of the new martyrs for the faith, resorting to the traditional form of life, but filling it with new content. Under the pen of the “fiery” Avvakum, it turned into the history of the first years of the schism, into the autobiography of a man who “laid down his life” for the ideals that he passionately preached. Elder Epiphanius, spiritual teacher Avvakum, created an autobiographical work of a different type, focusing on the inner life of a person on the path to spiritual perfection. Life of Epiphanius considered a monument to self-absorbed loneliness, close to folk spiritual poetry and penitential literature. Despite all the dissimilarity of the worlds in which the heroes of the lives of Avvakum and Epiphanius exist, they have one common feature- closeness to the sacred world. In Habakkuk it is revealed in the abundant quotation of Scripture with the aim of bringing his martyr’s life closer to the feat of Christ. The sanctification of the hero in Epiphanius comes through the active entry of higher powers into his living space through miraculous icons and visions of the Mother of God. Thus, Old Believer literature was not literature of one theme and one form. Autobiography, which manifested itself most clearly in hagiography, permeated all the writings of the Old Believers, penetrating even the pages of theological treatises on the essence of the Trinity, the dual nature of Christ, and the form of the sign of the cross.
Created in hagiographic traditions "The Tale of the Life of Boyarina Morozova", where the element of religious fiction is weakened and the heroic character of the Russian woman becomes the main miracle. Fedosya Prokopyevna Morozova, the spiritual daughter of Avvakum, belonged to one of the most noble families, was close to the royal court and after the death of her husband became the owner of a huge fortune. Defending her religious beliefs, she courageously endures arrest and torture, separation from her beloved son, his premature death, and in 1675 she dies of hunger in the Borovsk earthen prison, joining the ranks of new Russian martyrs for the faith.
Among the Old Believers were poets (monk Abraham) and travel writers (Ivan Lukyanov), brilliant preachers (Ivan Peronov) and publicists (Archpriest Avvakum). For propaganda purposes, they turned to the genres of polemical treatises and messages. In order to increase the ranks of fellow believers, to find a way to the heart of a simple worker, they developed a special style of writing, close to the folk language element. Avvakum called this style “blathering” and contrasted it with refined book speech, decorated with “philosophical verses.” “You, Mikhailovich, are a Russian, not a Greek,” he addressed the tsar. “Speak in your natural language; do not disparage him in church, at home, or in proverbs.” The struggle for the national character of literature and its language led the Old Believer
Avvakum to the rejection of both Greek and Latin directions in the development of Russian culture. The style of the works of both Epiphany Slavinetsky and Simeon of Polotsk - “sheep-like wolves” and “evil figures” - was alien to him.
The high level of self-awareness of the Old Believer, who challenged the official ideology and was ready to die for a single “az” in the text of the prayer, is best evidenced by the vision of Avvakum, which he spoke about in a message to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich: after many days of fasting, he dreamed that the Lord had placed in him and heaven, and earth, and all creation. Man as the center of all things, whose mind soars and embraces the whole world, a man free to express his feelings and choose the form of self-expression - this is the new ideal, hard-won by the Old Believers and which has become the property of modern literature.
The struggle of ideas in the 17th century, which reached its climax in the literature of the period of Troubles and church schism, was due to the growth national identity and the choice of the historical path of Russia. The Old Believers tried to revive “Holy Rus'”, believing in the self-sufficiency of Russian culture. The Nikonians raised the concept of “Moscow – the third Rome”, dreaming of restoring the Orthodox community of the Greco-Slavic world. However, it was not the “Russians” and not the “Grecophiles” who won this dispute, but the “Latinists,” who offered Russia a path of rapprochement with Western countries and further integration into European culture.
Changes in public life predetermined the beginning of a new stage in development literature. It was literature, like no other sphere of culture, that most fully and vividly reflected the contradictions of social life, all those new trends and phenomena that characterize the development of all culture in
There was, in the words of Academician D.S. Likhachev, “a significant social expansion of literature.” The written word began to serve the social lower classes, whose interests and moods were reflected not only in folklore, but also in written literature. This formed and developed a democratic, secular direction in it, i.e. led to the “secularization” of literature.
The gap between folklore and writing was bridged. It was by the 17th century. include the first recordings of works of oral folk art - historical songs, epics, proverbs, spells. Oral folk art with its anti-feudal and anti-church motives was the basis for the development of the democratic trend in literature; it had a noticeable impact on written literature both ideologically and artistically.
The influence of folk art on literature was expressed in the convergence literary language with a living folk language, in the emergence of new genres, and above all - democratic satire, in the enrichment of the arsenal of artistic means.
An important step in the development of literature, indicating a break with medieval traditions and canons, was transition from historical literary heroes to fictional ones, towards the creation of generalized literary images. The heroes of literary works were not outstanding historical figures, but representatives of the democratic strata of the population, ordinary people from the townspeople and peasants, from the lower strata of the nobility. Like all culture, the literature of this time is characterized by the discovery of the value of the human personality, the diversity, complexity and inconsistency of human characters. It was not the exploits of the “pleasers of God,” but the lives and deeds of ordinary people that began to attract more and more attention from the reader.
Traditional forms could not accommodate new content without undergoing significant deformation. This also applies to such a stable genre of medieval literature as hagiography, which gradually turns into biographical story. An example is “The Tale of Uliana Osorina,” written by the Murom nobleman Druzhina Osorin, the son of Uliana. This is the first biography of a noblewoman in Russian literature. The author creates the image of an energetic and intelligent Russian woman, an exemplary wife and housewife. And although the story still uses stereotypes of the hagiographic genre, in general it is dominated by everyday narrative elements.
An outstanding monument of Russian literature has become autobiographical story one of the leaders and ideologists of the Old Believers, Archpriest Avvakum "Life". Avvakum the writer differs sharply from Avvakum the apologist of the Old Believers. This work is conservative in its main idea, but deeply innovative in its artistic form, unique in his individual style of writing. A passionate defender of antiquity, a fierce opponent of everything new, opposed to realistic trends in painting, against secular education and the dissemination of scientific knowledge, Avvakum showed extraordinary innovation in literary activity, abandoning the conventions and traditions of medieval writing. Turning to the traditional genre of hagiography, he destroyed its ossified forms, becoming the founder of a new genre - confessional autobiography. He boldly introduced popular vernacular into the book language. Realistic depiction of twists and turns own life, Russian life, figurative language, passionate denunciation of social injustice, arbitrariness of authorities and church orders - all this made Avvakum’s work one of the most striking and significant monuments of Russian democratic literature.
In the literature of the 17th century. a new genre emerged and developed - democratic satire, reflecting the mood of the masses and exposing the injustice of the social system. The anti-feudal orientation brought satire closer to oral folk art, from which it drew its plots and artistic and visual means. In turn, many satirical stories became the property of folklore.
Various aspects of the life of feudal-serf society and important state institutions were subjected to merciless denunciation. Thus, in “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court” and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich” the order of the feudal court with its chicanery, red tape, corrupt judges and biased decisions was exposed. In "Service to the Tavern", written in the form of a parody of a church service, the state system of soldering the people through the "tsar's tavern" is exposed. The parody “The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man,” which tells with caustic irony about the hard life of the urban poor, is distinguished by its social acuity. In “The Tale of Thomas and Erem,” noble children who are incapable of any work are ridiculed.
The object of satire was often the church, which indicated a decline in its authority mainly due to the unseemly behavior of clergy. The hypocrisy and greed of the clergy are castigated in “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox” and “The Tale of Priest Sav and His Great Glory.” Monastic orders and morals are ridiculed in the Kalyazin Petition. In it, in the form of a petition to the bishop of Tver, the complaints of monks accustomed to a dissolute life are set out against the “dashing” archimandrite, who decided to demand compliance with the strict monastic rules. “The Tale of Hawk Moth” is particularly poignant, in which it wittily proves that Hawk Moth has no less rights to the “kingdom of heaven” than the “saints,” and the “saints” turn out to be no less sinners than Hawk Moth. Here there is already a skeptical attitude towards the official cult of saints.
The changes that took place in the consciousness, morality and life of people, the struggle between the “old” and the “new”, which permeated all spheres of personal and public life, were clearly reflected in everyday story. During this turning point, when “old customs have become shaky,” it became relevant topic relationships between old and young generations, "fathers and sons". ABOUT tragic fate young man, who tried to break with the old forms of family life, with Domostroevsky morality, is told in “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune.” The main conflict of the story is the clash of two worldviews: the older generation, who stood guard over traditional social and family morality, the old way of life, and younger generation, striving for independence, prone to initiative and personal activity. The author shows the doom of the hero, who cannot oppose anything to the traditional way of life, hallowed by centuries, except the desire to live according to his own will. As a result, he collapses and goes into a monastery. This reflected the Russian reality of the 18th century, when the old was still much stronger than the new and attempts to live differently ended tragically. The plot of the story echoes gospel parable about the prodigal son. However, the hero of the story, unlike the “prodigal son,” does not show repentance, and rather than returning to his parents’ home with his old way of life, he prefers self-imprisonment in a monastery, the last and forced refuge.
The same theme of the conflict between the older and younger generations is revealed in “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn.” As in “The Tale of Misfortune,” its hero is a merchant’s son who violated the precepts of antiquity and was punished for it. Finding yourself in trade affairs far from her parents' home, Savva Grudtsyn indulges in debauchery, begins to lead a riotous life and sells her soul to the devil. Fleeing from his father's wrath, he flees the city, ends up among the soldiers, and, with the help of the devil, performs miraculous feats during the Smolensk War. In the end, with the help miraculous icon he is freed from the power of the devil, goes to a monastery and dies there. The story is distinguished by its entertaining intrigue and lively spoken language. It expressively describes real pictures Russian life of that time: townsman life, customs of the merchants, events of the Russian-Polish war of 1632-1634, soldier’s life. Wide historical and everyday background, a large number characters, a depiction of the fate of a common man, a story about his love, experiences, mental struggle - all this allows modern researchers to consider this work one of the first Russian novels.
At the end of the 17th century, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev” appeared. Its distinguishing feature is the absence of religious didactics. The artistic nobleman Frol Skobeev, a rogue and an adventurer, does not disdain any means to achieve his own well-being, nothing is sacred to him, he does not even remember the Old Testament morality of his fathers. You can already feel the spirit in this new era. Energy, intelligence, everyday practicality - these are the qualities that lead the hero to achieve his goal. The story reflected what began in the second half of the 17th century. the process of decline of the old nobility and the rise of a new, energetic nobility.
New in literature was the appearance syllabic versification, based on the ordering of the number of syllables in a verse:
equal number of syllables per line, pause in the middle of the line and feminine rhyme, i.e. stress on penultimate syllable last word. The founder of Russian syllabic versification was Simeon of Polotsk. His poems are combined into two large collections - “Rhythmologion” and “Multi-colored Vertograd”. A significant part of them are panegyric poems dedicated to members royal family, as well as written about various events of court life. S. Polotsky also wrote satirical poems. The main thing in his work is the substantiation of the idea of an enlightened monarchy. In 1680, S. Polotsky translated the psalter into poetry - “The Rhyming Psalter,” which was a great success among readers. The book was used for a long time as a teaching aid. S. Polotsky’s work was continued by his students Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin.
Became popular translated fiction, its character changed: works with an entertaining plot attracted more and more attention - a chivalric romance, a burgher's everyday and picaresque short story, an adventure story, humorous stories and anecdotes. This literature was subjected to significant processing, sometimes filled with purely Russian content and strongly influenced by Russian folklore. Some works, having turned into oral tales, became the property of folklore.
These works included “The Tale of Bova the Prince,” which originated from a French chivalric romance and attracted readers with an adventurous plot close to a fairy tale. Other knightly novels were also translated: “The Story of the Brave Knight Peter of the Golden Keys and the Beautiful Princess of Naples Magilena” - from a French knightly courtly novel. XV century; “The Tale of Vasily Goldhair” came from the Czech Republic; With Polish language"The Tale of Otgon the Roman Caesar" and others were translated. The central theme of all these works was the theme of earthly love, constancy and fidelity.
“The Tale of Eruslan Lazarevich”, which came from the East and dates back to Ferdowsi’s poem “Shah-name”, became very popular. The “Story of the Seven Wise Men”, which came from Poland, dates back to the ancient Indian legend; it consists of 15 short stories united by a single plot frame. Collections of moralizing stories "Roman Acts" and "The Great Mirror", a collection of anecdotes and sayings of ancient philosophers "Apothegmata" were translated from Polish. The repertoire of translated literature testified to the changing interests and tastes of the Russian reader.
What is unique about Russian literature of the 17th century?
Answer
The 17th century was the last century of chronicle writing in Rus'. “The New Chronicler” describes events from the reign of Ivan the Terrible until the end of the “Troubles.” “The New Chronicler” clearly, concisely and logically substantiates the rights of the Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.
The main role in the literature of the 17th century was played by works of historical themes. A feature of books on historical subjects of the 17th century was their vivid journalism. The largest and most famous historical literary work of the 17th century is “The Legend of the Cellarer to the Trinity - Sergeyev Lavra by Abraham Palitsyn.” In this work, the author tells his understanding of the Time of Troubles, discusses the causes of the “Troubles” and its events.
In Russian literature of the 17th century, a great, lively interest in history is manifested. Historical works of a general nature appear. In the 70s of the 17th century, the first historical book “Synopsis” (review) appeared. It was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisela. Gisel's work told the stories of Russia and Ukraine from the very beginning, from the moment of the formation of Kievan Rus. In the 17th-18th centuries, the book “Synopsis” was used as a textbook on Russian history.
There were several more valuable handwritten works in the literature of the 17th century. The book “Scythian Stories”, authored by A.I. Lyzlov, describes the struggle of the Russian people and Europeans with the “Scythians”. The author classified the Mongol-Tatars and Turks as “Scythians”. The value of Lyzlov’s work lies in the fact that in the book he skillfully combined the knowledge of Russian and European sources, creating a fairly truthful and clear picture of what was happening.
The literature of the 17th century included not only historical narratives of the distant past. In this century, events took place that deserved the attention of modern writers. “The Tale of the Azov Siege” tells about the Azov campaigns. The basis of the story was the capture of a Turkish fortress by the Don Cossacks. The author of this remarkable work has not been identified, but there is a possibility that it is the head of the military chancellery, Fyodor Poroshin. This is the riddle that the literature of the 17th century left us.
Books with moral content also occupied their niche in the literature of the 17th century. The Lives of the Saints became widespread. The autobiography of the Old Believers ideologist Avvakum, “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum,” was also very popular.
In the literature of the 17th century, new genres for Russian literature were actively emerging. Satirical stories and book poetry appear. Subsequently, these genres occupied their own special niche in Russian literature.
Society, having inherited from the previous century an ardent belief in the power of words, in the power of conviction, strives to literary works promote certain ideas, achieving specific, actionable goals.
"The Tale of 1606" is a journalistic work created by a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The story actively supports the policies of the boyar tsar Vasily Shuisky, tries to present him as the people's chosen one, emphasizing Shuisky's unity with the people.
Subsequently, "The Tale of 1606" was reworked into "Another Legend". Defending the position of the boyars, the author portrays him as the savior of the Russian state from adversaries.
This group of works is opposed by stories that reflect the interests of the nobility and the townspeople's trade and craft layers of the population.
"A NEW STORY ABOUT THE GLORIOUS KINGDOM OF RUSSIAN..."
She sharply denounced the treacherous policy of the boyar authorities, which, instead of being the “land holder” of their native land, turned into a domestic enemy, and the boyars themselves into “land eaters”, “creepers”.
A characteristic feature of the story is its democracy, a new interpretation of the image of the people - this “great... waterless sea.”
The people in the story do not yet act as an effective force.
The general pathetic tone of the presentation is combined in the “New Tale” with numerous psychological characteristics. For the first time in literature, there appears a desire to discover and show contradictions between a person’s thoughts and actions. This increasing attention to the revelation of a person’s thoughts that determine his behavior lies literary significance"New story".
"CRY ABOUT THE CAPTURE AND FINAL RUIN OF THE MOSCOW STATE."
". The author seeks to find out the reasons that led to the “fall of the highest Russia,” using the form of an edifying short “conversation.” In an abstract and generalized form, he talks about the responsibility of the rulers for what happened “over the highest Russia.” However, this work does not call to fight, but only grieves and urges to seek consolation in prayer and hope in God’s help.
"CHNICAL BOOK" ATTRIBUTED TO KATIREV-ROSTOVSKY.
reflected the official government point of view on the recent past.
A characteristic feature of the "Chronicle Book" is the desire of its author to introduce into the historical narrative landscape sketches, which serve as a contrasting or harmonizing background to ongoing events.
For the first time, there appears a desire to depict the internal contradictions of character and to reveal the reasons by which these contradictions are generated. Straightforward characteristics of a person begin to be replaced by a deeper depiction of the contradictory qualities of the human soul.
All this indicates an intensification of the process of “secularization” of culture and literature, i.e. its gradual liberation from the tutelage of the church and religious ideology.
The process of “secularization” of ancient Russian literature affected the transformation of such a stable genre as hagiography. Its canons are being destroyed by the invasion of everyday realities and folklore legends since the 15th century, as evidenced by the lives of John of Novgorod and Mikhail Klopsky. the process of destruction of canonical hagiographic genres. Pious ascetic monk - central character life is replaced by a secular hero, who begins to be depicted in a real everyday situation. Genres of historical narration (historical tale, legend) in the 17th century. are undergoing significant changes. Their content and form are being democratized. Historical facts are gradually being replaced by artistic fiction,
An entertaining plot, motifs and images of oral folk art begin to play an increasingly important role in the narrative.
"THE STORY ABOUT THE AZOV SIEGE OF THE DON COSSACKS."
A distinctive feature of the story is its hero. This is not an outstanding historical personality of the ruler of the state, a commander, but a small team, a handful of brave and courageous daredevils-Cossacks who accomplished a heroic feat not for the sake of personal glory, not for self-interest, but in the name of their homeland - the Moscow state, which is “great and spacious, shining it is bright in the midst of all other states and hordes of Busormansikhs, Persian and Hellenic, like the sun in the sky.”
The process of awakening the consciousness of the individual is reflected in what appeared in the second half of the 17th century. a new genre - the everyday story.
His appearance is associated with a new type of hero.
The everyday story vividly reflected the changes that took place in the consciousness, morality and way of life of people, the struggle between “oldness” and “newness” of the transitional era, which permeated all spheres of personal and public life.
Historical personality is being replaced in literature by fictional hero, whose character typifies the traits of an entire generation of the transitional era.
"THE TALE ABOUT CARP SUTULOV". This story is a connecting link in the genre of everyday and satirical stories. In this work, satire begins to occupy a predominant place.
One of the most remarkable phenomena of literature of the second half XVII century is the design and development of satire as an independent literary genre, which is due to the specifics social life of that time.
Historical stories
Stories about the beginning of Moscow
Having lost historicism, the genres of historical literature in the 17th century. acquires new qualities: they develop artistic fiction and entertainment, the influence of genres of oral folk art increases, and history itself becomes an independent form of ideology, gradually turning into science.
The hero was close and understandable to the Russian reader, who saw in him a reflection of his ideal person.
Due to the changes that have taken place in the lives, everyday life and consciousness of people, the nature of translated literature is changing. Works of predominantly secular content are translated. However, translators still do not set themselves the goal of conveying the original with maximum accuracy, but adapt it to the tastes and needs of their time, sometimes filling it with purely Russian content, using achievements and discoveries in the depiction of human character made by the original literature.
The beginning of the 17th century remained in the memory of the Russian people as the “time of troubles”:
Literature of the 17th century - historical background
- The murder of Tsarevich Dmitry,
- the difficult political situation in the country and the willfulness of the boyars,
- unstable position of the Moscow kingdom on the world stage
led to neighboring countries trying to take advantage of the weakness of a huge power. During this period, Russian literature began to serve the interests of its country, and it was the word that helped to promote the consolidation of a fragmented society.
Genres and themes of Russian literature of the 17th century
1. Journalistic
At this time, literature containing:
- thoughts about politics,
- fiery calls to fight the invaders,
- glorifying the courage of heroes
- and strengthening the authority of the new royal dynasty.
These ideas were central to such works as “The Tale of 1606”, “The Tale of the Death and Burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky”, “Annalistic book”, “New story about the glorious Russian kingdom and the great state of Moscow”.
And who knows, statehood would have been preserved in Russia if not for the fiery speeches of Patriarch Hermogenes and others like him, sent out in the form of letters throughout the kingdom. After all, it was after receiving such a charter that the Novgorodians Minin and Pozharsky gathered the people’s militia and in 1612 liberated Moscow from the Poles.
2. Historical story in the 17th century
Such a genre as a historical story, at this time is transformed.
Now stories describe not only specific events of national significance, but also facts from the lives of individual people, use fiction, and develop storyline and a system of images. The Don Cossacks, who on their own initiative captured the Azov fortress and opened access to the sea, become the main characters of the “Tale of the Azov Seat of the Don Cossacks” . At the center of the story are simple in origin, but brave and courageous heroes who risked their lives for the good of the Fatherland.
Such a seemingly important topic for the state as the founding of Moscow, in “ Stories about the beginning of Moscow" presented in the form of a love-adventure novella.
The writer’s focus is not only on a significant event, but also on the personal lives of the characters, their psychological portrait, love affair . Other examples of the emergence of fiction based on historical stories in Russian literature of this period are:
- “The Tale of the Founding of the Tver Youth Monastery” (lyrical plot added),
- “The Tale of Suhana” (the plot from the epic is processed).
3. Genre of life
Traditional life as a genre at this time it also absorbs worldly motives.
Transformation of the genre of hagiography in the 17th century
The life mentions facts from everyday life and traces a connection with folklore. All this turns it into an autobiographical confession. This can be said about the lives of John of Novgorod and Michael of Klopsky. They are already more reminiscent of everyday stories than strictly canonized church works. And “The Tale of Juliania Lazarevskaya” for the first time describes the facts of the biography of a Russian noblewoman, her character and moral traits.
4. Household stories
In the second half of the 17th century. appear everyday stories(“The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, “The Tale of Grief and Misfortune”, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, etc.).
Universal human motives, the struggle between the new and the old, and the sincerity of the author himself are manifested in the generalized story about the fate of the younger generation - “The Tale of Woe and Misfortune.” Its hero, who comes from a merchant family, is trying to find his way in life. And although Well done is a figment of the author’s imagination, he personifies the tragic situation of the entire young generation, which is trying to break out of the established framework. Some people don’t succeed, others, like Frol Skobeev, on the contrary, achieve success. The fate of a particular person, his search and life path become a theme for other everyday stories.
Features of literature of the 17th century in Russia
Thus, in the 17th century in Russian literature:
- genres have transformed, which used to be traditional(life, historical story);
- at the center of the story were people with their dissimilar characters and problems;
- the foundations were laid for the further development of fictional prose(plot, composition, images);
- attention was paid to oral folk art;
- Satire emerged as an independent literary genre.
Dramatic satire in the literature of the 17th century is represented by the following stories: “The Tale of Karp Sutulov”, “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich son Shchetinnikov”, “The ABC of a Naked and Poor Man”. The authors of that time began to look more boldly at the events taking place and, ridiculing, denounced evil. The objects of satire were the entire feudal-serf society, and the social inequality that prevailed in it, and the unfair trial, and the hypocrisy of the clergy.
It was in satire that, for the first time in Russian literature, the wretched life of the poor and hungry was depicted.
