Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy. Life and creative path

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is a great Russian writer, publicist, playwright and public figure. Tolstoy is a classic of world literature; during his lifetime, his works were translated and published in many countries around the world. He worked in literature for more than 60 years, mastering with his work the best traditions of Russian and world literature from ancient times and determining many directions in the development of prose in the 20th century.

Summer 1852 to the editors of the Sovremennik magazine the manuscript of the story arrived "Childhood", Instead of the author's name, signed “L.N.” ON THE. Nekrasov "The story of my childhood." At the same time, in letters to N.A. Nekrasov strongly recommended that the aspiring unknown author, in whom he discovered great talent, not hide behind his initials, but reveal his full name. The young author, without even having time to personally meet the editor, in letters to him strongly objected to changing the title and some corrections in the text of the story, rightly believing that there was less interest in the history of his own childhood than in the description typical conditions for raising a young man of a certain social circle. The name given by the author singled out as the leading one, born in the Pushkin era, who was to live in the middle - second half of the 19th century. This is how the brilliant Russian writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy entered literature.

"The story of yesterday" where the main content should not have been a description of more or less striking events that make up the plot, but an attempt to talk about “ the intimate side of life of one day“- changes in the hero’s thoughts, moods and actions. His first literary experiments remained unfinished, and the aspiring author decisively changed the circumstances of his life, leaving Moscow and the family estate Yasnaya Polyana near Tula and entering volunteer for the army in the Caucasus.

"Four Epochs of Development". The content of the planned novel was to be a description of the gradual formation of a young man’s personality in childhood, adolescence, adolescence and young adulthood. The plan of the work, which Tolstoy corrected more than once, reveals that the young writer’s main attention is drawn to the inner life of his hero, to age-related characteristics psychological state young man. Of the planned tetralogy, Tolstoy realized only the trilogy "Childhood", "Adolescence" (1854), "Youth"(1856) with the last story unfinished.

The appearance of the first works was well received by readers and critics, who praised the author for “ observation and subtlety of psychological analysis", poetry, clarity and grace narratives. N.G. turned out to be more insightful than other critics. Chernyshevsky, who noted that of the “various directions” of psychological analysis, Tolstoy is more attracted to “ the mental process itself, its forms, its laws, dialectic of the soul"(a characteristic feature of Tolstoy’s psychologism).

Simultaneously with work on the trilogy, Tolstoy wrote war stories(“Raid”, “Cutting Wood”, “Demoted”). All these works were written by an eyewitness and participant in the events, who knew military life and felt the nature of war, therefore it is noticeable in them documentary basis. Participation in hostilities expanded Tolstoy's real life experience and set new moral and artistic tasks for him. One of these tasks was to monitor How a person’s personality is revealed under unusual conditions. In war stories, the epic start in the works of Tolstoy. For the first time, the writer tries to compare within one work the fate of an individual And large-scale historical events. + Tolstoy’s assessment of the war: “Is it really cramped for people to live in this beautiful world, under this immeasurable starry sky? Is it really possible that, amidst this charming nature, a feeling of malice, revenge or the passion of exterminating one’s own kind can be retained in a person’s soul?”

Tolstoy continued the military theme in Sevastopol stories(“Sevastopol in December”, “Sevastopol in May”, “Sevastopol in August 1855”), for which the writer served as material from his stay in besieged Sevastopol and participation in the defense of the city. In 1854, Tolstoy submitted a report asking to be transferred to Sevastopol, as he wrote in his diary, “out of patriotism,” when England, France and Turkey landed amphibious forces in the Crimea. The basis of the content of Sevastopol stories is description of the progress of the city's defense, true heroism and patriotism, demonstrated by its defenders who fulfilled their duty to their homeland.

In the Sevastopol cycle, Tolstoy continues to combine a description of an important historical event with stories about specific people.

In November 1855, after the Russian army abandoned Sevastopol, Tolstoy came to St. Petersburg. There he personally met Nekrasov and writers from the Sovremennik circle (Turgenev, Ostrovsky, Grigorovich, Goncharov, Chernyshevsky and others), and plunged into the circle of social problems of that time. In the foreground then there was a question about serfdom And the need to liberate the peasants. Tolstoy very keenly felt the “injustice of the fortress”, treated the peasants with deep respect, throughout his life he carefully monitored the situation of the people, trying to help them and get closer to them.

Having conceived “The Romance of a Russian Landowner” in the Caucasus, the writer continued to work on the work, formatting the completed parts in the form of a story in 1856 "Morning of the landowner."(The main character is the young landowner Prince Nekhlyudov, autobiographical, like Nikolenka Irtenev). “The Romance of a Russian Landowner” could logically complete the previous plan with a story about the life of a young nobleman in the mid-19th century. Like the author (who at that time moved to Yasnaya Polyana and actively took up housekeeping), Nekhlyudov is looking for ways to get closer to his serfs peasants, sincerely trying to understand their needs and help them, however, failures and disappointments await the hero on this path, because between them there is a wall of centuries-old hostility, misunderstanding and mistrust of the landowner on the part of the peasants. Tolstoy also devoted short stories to peasant life in the first decade of his work. “Polikushka” and “Idyll” (“Tikhon and Malanya”), of which only the first work about tragic fate serf Polikeia.

Communicating with the writers of St. Petersburg, Tolstoy experienced an intensified interest in aesthetic issues, including the issue of place of art in life, thinks about the role of the artist, about the possibility bringing them real benefits to people, at one time became close to Druzhinin, Botkin and Annenkov, whom he called the “Priceless Triumvirate.” Works such as "Lucerne" (1857) and " Albert"(1858), depicting true tragic stories known to Tolstoy traveling musician in prosperous Switzerland and drunken violinist Albert, at the same time play the role of a kind of aesthetic treatises in early work writer. The most important issues in these works are the role and place of art in the life of an individual and society, the fate of the artist.

Early years creative life Tolstoy were associated exclusively with magazine "Sovremennik", from which he left in 1858 following other writers who did not share revolutionary democratic positions. Tolstoy did not join not to the Slavophiles(Khomyakov, Aksakov), with whom I met and argued during these years, neither to liberals and Westerners(“The Priceless Triumvirate”, Chicherin), remaining outside literary and socio-political groups.

In the 50s, Tolstoy also wrote a number of works that didn't quite live up to expectations readers and critics, based on the impressions of his first publications. These works, however, laid the foundations for Tolstoy's subsequent work. The problem of education, the story of the moral fall of a young man with noble and high inclinations underlies "Marker Notes"(1856); The incident experienced by the writer himself is described with deep psychological authenticity in “ Blizzards"(1856). A short story about the death of a pitiful and weak lady, a calm man close to nature and a majestic tree reflects Tolstoy's attitude towards harmony of nature, which gives “the highest pleasure of life” and in many ways anticipates the poetics of the writer’s later works (“Three Deaths”, 1858).

Moral portraits of two generations of hussars - father and son Turbins - emerge against the background of the plot of the story "Two Hussars"(1856) as the road to the future heroes of War and Peace. The image of the young heroine of the story, Lisa, is also distinguished by her kindness, conscientiousness, and cheerfulness, which is quite comparable to the best female images of Tolstoy’s works.

Novel "Family Happiness" (1859) - This notes from the perspective of a young woman. The author brought mastery of this form to virtuosity, which served him as a sure guide at the beginning of his literary activity. The novel reveals the psychology of the female soul; for the first time in Tolstoy’s work, the history of the formation of the heroine’s family relationships is shown from the period of dreams and idealization to the time of “a completely different happy life” based on love for children and the children’s father.

Since 1859, Tolstoy has been actively involved pedagogy. He opens school for peasant children in Yasnaya Polyana and teaches there, reflects on the content and foundations of public education. Familiarization with the organization of public education in Europe was the main goal of one of the writer’s travels abroad. In 1857 and then in 1860, Tolstoy made two trips to Europe, visiting Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy, Belgium and England. The result of pedagogical activity was publication of the magazine "Yasnaya Polyana""(1862-1863), in the twelve published books of which they published and pedagogical articles Tolstoy himself (“On Public Education”, “Progress and Definition of Education”, etc.).

A worthy conclusion first period of creativity Tolstoy can be considered a story published in 1863 in “Russian Bulletin” "Cossacks”, conceived back in the Caucasus in 1852 on the basis of the impressions of life among the Greben Cossacks that were dear to its author.

In 1863. Tolstoy began to implement a new creative plan, work on which continued until 1869 It was an epic novel War and Peace" The new work was published in parts in the magazine “Russian Bulletin”, and in 1868-1869 it was published as a separate publication. While working on this novel, Tolstoy admitted in one of his letters: “I have never felt my mental and even moral powers so free and so capable of work... I am now a writer with all the strength of my soul, and I write and think as never before I didn’t write or think about it.” This period of the writer’s life really was the heyday of his creative and physical powers When the first literary works brought well-deserved success, family life was developing happily, and economic affairs were going well in Yasnaya Polyana.

At the center of the story events of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the fate of the Russian people in this period. For a very long time, literary criticism held the opinion that Tolstoy initially intended to write a family chronicle of several noble families, which is easily confirmed by the choice of prototypes for the main characters of the work. Indeed, among the prototype members of the Rostov and Bolkonsky families there are many relatives of the writer on the maternal (princes Volkonsky) and paternal side, however, already the first completed edition of the novel reveals a completely different approach of the author, in which primacy is given to depicting the nature of historical events. During work I read historical works a lot and enthusiastically, for example, “History of the Russian State” by N.M. Karamzin and “Russian History” by N.G. Ustryalov. This reading was accompanied by serious reflections recorded in diary entries dating back to 1853, where some principles for the artistic depiction of history were defined: “Every historical fact must be explained humanly.” In the same diary there is another significant confession: “I would write the epigraph to History: “I will not hide anything.”

Working on a work that was essentially historical required the writer to deeply study historical sources, on which, during the writing of the novel, he had, by his own admission, accumulated an entire library. While working on Tolstoy's novel also visited the Borodino field in order to study on the spot the course of the main battle of that war.

An early interest in history, the study of sources and materials from the time of the War of 1812 allowed Tolstoy to develop not only an approach to depicting historical events in a work of art, but also your view on these events, their causes, progress and driving forces. Over the course of several years of work on the work, these views were refined and honed. In 1868, in a letter to M.P. Pogodin Tolstoy wrote: “My view of history is not an accidental paradox that occupied me for a moment. These thoughts are the fruit of all the mental work of my life and form an inseparable part of that worldview, which God alone knows by what labors and sufferings it was developed in me and gave me complete peace and happiness.”

The richness of the content and the peculiarities of the poetics of the work could not but entail the destruction of the usual framework of the novel. Contemporaries did not immediately accept the unique form of Tolstoy’s new work. The author himself understood perfectly well genre nature of his work, calling it “ a book"and thereby emphasizing the freedom of form and genetic connection with the epic experience of Russian and world literature: "What is War and Peace? This is not a novel, still less a poem, even less a historical chronicle. War and Peace is what the author wanted and could express in the form in which it was expressed.”

A new period began in the 70s creative life of Tolstoy. After stopping work on War and Peace, the writer for a long time could not find new topic, which would completely absorb his attention. At the turn of the 60s and 70s he was fond of studying epics, read many works of folklore in the collections and publications of P.V. Kireevsky, A.N. Afanasyeva, P.N. Rybnikov, “Collection of Songs” by Kirsha Danilov. Tolstoy was especially attracted to the image of Ilya Muromets; he even wanted to write a novel about Russian heroes.

The same serious hobby of this decade was reading historical works, for example, S.M. Solovyov and the search for a new historical plot. The writer intended to create a novel or drama, whose action would take place in the era of Peter I. This idea especially fascinated Tolstoy; not only as an artist, but also as a historian, he always wanted to understand “where the knot of Russian life is.” Interest in the era of Peter was also supported by the fact that the writer’s ancestor Peter Andreevich Tolstoy, an associate of Peter, who played one of the main and fatal roles in the fate of Tsarevich Alexei, took an active part in the life of that time. Tolstoy, like Pushkin, never ignored the participation of his ancestors in Russian history. Tolstoy began working on a novel from the time of Peter I twice - at the beginning and at the end of the 70s. More than 30 versions of the beginning of this novel have been preserved, comprehensive documentary and historical material was prepared, many plot lines were thought out, but the “energy of delusion” necessary for the successful completion of the plan was not found, and the writer himself admitted that he did not find the right “keys” to the character of Peter.

In 1877-1879, and then in 1884, Tolstoy twice tried to return to the previous plan to write a novel about the Decembrists, which the Russian reading public was eagerly awaiting from the writer. But this intention was abandoned. The writer himself admitted that after War and Peace he could no longer write a historical novel. The reason lay, most likely, not in the author’s fatigue or inability to create a large historical canvas, generalize a huge amount of factual material, but in the fact that the main task for Tolstoy the historian was solved in the epic novel: the answer was found to the question that had occupied him since his youth about the destinies of entire nations, about the role of the people as the main driving force of history. Any other historical work, willingly or unwillingly, based on Tolstoy’s historical views, would repeat this conclusion.

During this period the writer's fatigue after the completion of a grandiose-scale work and deep dissatisfaction general direction of creative work. In March 1872, Tolstoy wrote to his friend N.N. Strakhov: “It’s true that not a single Frenchman, German, or Englishman would think of it unless he’s crazy (Tolstoy’s writing , - EL.), stop in my place and think about whether the methods with which we write and I wrote are not false; A a Russian, if he is not crazy, should think and ask himself: should he continue writing?, quickly transcribe your precious thoughts, or remember that Poor Liza was read with enthusiasm by someone and boasted, and look for other techniques and language. And not because I thought so, but because our current language and methods are disgusting, and involuntary dreams attract to another language and methods (it also happened to be folk).

In 1865, in one of his letters, Tolstoy announced his intention “to write a summary of everything that I know about education and that no one knows, or with which no one agrees.” It was about the writer’s idea of ​​“ ABC", which was supposed to become an educational book for “all children from royals to peasants.” By the writer’s own admission, he spent fourteen years compiling “The ABC,” i.e., he deliberately counted not from the moment he immediately began work on the book (published in 1872), but from the time of his teaching activity at the Yasnaya Polyana school.

For this work, Tolstoy directed truly titanic efforts. It includes information presented in a form accessible to children. information on the basics of all sciences. “ABC” included, in addition to sections aimed at training reading, writing and counting, the so-called Russian and Slavic books to read, and explanatory guidelines for teachers.

The creation of “The ABC” was associated in Tolstoy’s mind with a new approach to his artistic creativity, with a new look at the development of Russian literature. In 1872, the writer also expressed the idea of ​​a “revival among the people” of literature and poetic creativity. This indicates that he “changed the methods of his writing and language” and that “if there is any merit in the articles of the alphabet, it will lie in simplicity and clarity drawing and stroke, i.e. language" The writer found examples of works that combined poetry, completeness of form, clarity and figurative language in “folk literature,” combining folklore and ancient Russian literature in this concept.

The results of Tolstoy's searches new "writing techniques" fully affected his new work - the novel " Anna Karenina"(1873-1877; published in Russian Bulletin). Breadth of coverage modern reality and depth of problems staged in this novel, turn it into an epic canvas, quite comparable to “War and Peace”, however the novel is different comparative brevity of the narrative and aphoristic capacity of the language.

The main life story unfolded against the broad background of post-reform reality, which in the novel was subjected to the author’s deepest “analysis, refracted through the prism of perception and assessment of one of Tolstoy’s most autobiographical heroes, Konstantin Levin (Levin, as the author called him, raising the hero’s surname to his name). The plot line is an equally important part of the content of the novel.

The narrative was determined two main storylines- some of his contemporaries reproached the author for the fact that his new novel was split into two independent works. To such remarks, Tolstoy replied that, on the contrary, he was proud of “the architecture - the vaults are built in such a way that you cannot notice the place where the castle is. And this is what I tried most of all. The connection of the building is made not on the plot and not on the relationships (acquaintance) of persons, but on an internal connection.” This internal connection gave the novel impeccable compositional harmony and determined its main meaning, emerging “in that endless labyrinth of connections in which the essence of art consists,” as Tolstoy understood it at that time.

Moral Law- there is one semantic center of the novel, which creates a “labyrinth of couplings” in the work. In War and Peace, Tolstoy defined what “real life” is and what is the meaning of life for each individual person. The philosophical meaning of "War and Peace" continues and expands in "Anna Karenina" with the idea that people's lives are held together and held together by fulfillment I eat nr legal law. This idea enriched Tolstoy’s new novel, making it not only socio-psychological, but also philosophical.

Konstantin Levin, whose inner world is in constant development and change, is one of the most complex and interesting images in the writer’s work, continuing the series of his heroes, distinguished by their partially autobiographical character and analytical mindset. Levin's character and storyline are most consistent with the circumstances of life and the way of thinking of the writer himself. While working on the novel, Tolstoy did not keep diaries, since his thoughts and changes in feelings were reflected quite fully in his work on the image of Levin. This hero is entrusted with the author's most precious thoughts., Tolstoy sees through his eyes and through his lips evaluates the post-reform reality in Russia.

In the novel "Anna Karenina" the most important component of the content is depiction of the realities of life in the 70s XIX V. The novel contains descriptions of all the most important events of that era - from issues of life and work of the people, post-reform relations between landowners and peasants to military events in the Balkans, in which Russian volunteers take part. Tolstoy's heroes are also concerned about other everyday problems of their time: zemstvo, noble elections, education, including higher education for women, public discussions about Darwinism, naturalism, painting, and so on. Commentators on the novel Anna Karenina noted that the new parts of the work depicting current events of our time appeared in print when their public discussion in magazines and newspapers had not yet completed. Truly, to list everything that was reflected in the novel, one would have to rewrite it again.

For Tolstoy, the main question among all the pressing issues of the time remains the question of “how will Russian life fit in after the reform of 1861”. This issue concerned not only the public, but also family life of people. Being a sensitive artist, Tolstoy could not help but see that in the current conditions it was the family was the most vulnerable as the most important, complex and fragile form of life, violation of which leads to a violation of the unshakable foundations of existence and general disorder. Therefore, the writer singled out as the main and favorite idea of ​​this novel "family thought."

In the final"Anna Karenina" Konstantin Levin was left by the author not only in a state of deep thought, in the process of painful searches, but also with a barely visible discord in family relationships (he did not share his thoughts with Kitty, remaining silent and deciding that she would not understand them). Levin's condition and Tolstoy's own quest in literary criticism have been compared more than once. There was every reason for this comparison.

Tolstoy's creative crisis in the 70s was accompanied by deep ideological and spiritual crisis. In 1884-1887, Tolstoy began writing, but did not complete the story " Diary of a Madman", the hero of which experiences conditions that are well known to the writer himself: he is overcome by seizures cold melancholy and horror, “spiritual melancholy”, causing a feeling horror, fear of death and "dying life". Tolstoy called this state "Arzamas horror", because experienced it for the first time in Arzamas in 1869, during a period of complete well-being, and was struck by the ultimate hopelessness and purposelessness of his earthly existence. The results of this crisis became obvious after the appearance of Confession (1882). Tolstoy himself called what happened to him at the turn of the 70s and 80s a revolution: “It happened to me coup, which has long been preparing in me and the makings of which have long been in me. What happened to me is that life of our circle- rich, scientists - not only disgusted me, but lost all meaning... Actions working people creating life, seemed to me like one real thing.”

The writer himself admits that the changes that took place were being prepared long before the turn of the 70s and 80s. The direction of movement of Tolstoy's thought can be traced not only from diary entries and letters, but also from the way of thinking and the quest of his heroes. The enduring meaning of life and the true guidelines in it Tolstoy, according to his own testimony in "Confession" searched in the lives of people of his circle, in the “forest of human knowledge between the gaps of mathematical and experimental knowledge,” referring to the works of philosophers, sometimes falling into despair and experiencing bouts of melancholy and despair.

In the second half of the 70s there were attempts Tolstoy penetrate into the basics religious and church life, especially since back in 1855 he wrote in his diary that he felt capable of devoting his life to a great goal - “ founding of a new religion, corresponding to the development of humanity, religion of Christ, But purified of faith and mystery, religion practical- not promising future bliss, but giving bliss on earth" In the second half of the 70s, the writer visited Optina Pustyn, where N.V. visited Gogol and F.M. Dostoevsky, Vl.S. Soloviev, K.N. Leontiev and many other figures of Russian culture, the Kiev-Pechersk and Trinity-Sergius Lavra, talked with many church hierarchs, including in Optina Monastery with the famous Elder Ambrose. At the same time, Tolstoy studied the main world religions.

In one of his letters, Tolstoy admitted: “I worry, rush about and struggle in spirit and suffer; but I thank God for this condition.”

Described in "Confession" the path of quest and experiencing a deep crisis Tolstoy associated with the image a traveler who has lost his way, or a swimmer in a boat carried away by the current, which then found its “shore”. This shore was God and faith. “...faith is knowledge of the meaning of human life, as a result of which a person does not destroy himself, but lives. Faith is the power of life. If a person lives, then he believes in something.” Thus, as a result of the crisis experienced Tolstoy came to a complete revision of his previous life positions and worldview. He not only abandoned the ideals and goals of life of the people of his circle, but recognized the only moral and meaningful life of the simple working people, repented of his former life, having described and condemned it on the pages of “Confession,” turned to faith, recognizing in it the “power of life” that fills human existence with meaning.

To the base Tolstoy's religious beliefs were laid down Christianity, which he admitted himself perfect and moral religion. However, Tolstoy relied only on the moral teaching of Christ, rejecting worship He's like God doubting the very fact of His existence as a historical figure and even seeing a certain advantage in His absence. ...Taking the life of the patriarchal peasantry as the basis for life after the turning point, Tolstoy, from a religious and moral point of view, was closer to the intelligentsia’s “God-seeking” than to the expression of patriarchal peasant views.

What was happening to Tolstoy at this time was reflected in “Confession”, it wasn't just his personal business(the 70s as a time that clearly showed the contradictions of post-reform reality). These contradictions could not help but cause crisis states in thinking and creatively gifted people, reassessment of views or, on the contrary, convinced adherence to traditional moral values. “Confession” was a reflection of a certain level of the spiritual state of society.

Tolstoy's new ideological and religious position became the basis of his understanding of the world around him and his attitude towards it. Although in the late period of creativity, which is usually counted since the appearance of "Confession"", Tolstoy took upon himself the role of the preacher the truth revealed to him, he remained first and foremost an artist, for whom the most organic and natural way of expression was his works.

After the crisis, the nature of Tolstoy’s work changes significantly: it occupies a much larger place journalism, works of art appear that are addressed to certain social strata of readers. A change in ideological position, reliance on a pronounced religious consciousness required the writer to create all the main forms of literary works capable of revealing and promoting the foundations of his new worldview: in addition to works of art, Tolstoy creates philosophical, religious, aesthetic treatises and articles, own translations and adaptations of the Gospel and so on. As a result, in his later work a logically complete system of genres emerged, very reminiscent medieval genre system with its balanced relationship and interaction between genres of theological, religious-didactic, journalistic, secular literature and business writing.

Late period in Tolstoy's work marked by the emergence of significant works of art different genres: novels, short stories, dramatic works, novel "Resurrection". All of them, to one degree or another, preserving the previous features of Tolstoy’s poetics, bear great didactic load, revealing a new author's vision of life, being addressed to intelligent readers.

The central place in Tolstoy’s artistic work of the late period rightfully belongs to the stories of the 80-90s, which largely determine the character of the Russian story of this time, which actually takes on the functions of the novel. Almost all of the writer’s stories are, to one degree or another, interconnected on the basis of ideological and thematic similarity and common poetics. Among Tolstoy's unfinished plans, a small one stands out. sketch - "Notes of a Madman". His hero comes to the conclusion that " that men want to live just like us, that they are people - brothers. That was the beginning of the madness." This condition upset the life of the hero, who felt alienated from his usual environment. " Diary of a Madman"are considered in Tolstoy's works as a unique approach to the theme of the story « Death of Ivan Ilyich"(1881-1886), which in turn appears in unity with a peculiar artistic and journalistic diology "Kreutzer Sonata""(1887-1889) and "Devil"(1889-1890). (more details, respectively, question No. 50)

The story “Kholstomer” (1863-1864, 1885) was conceived and begun while working on “War and Peace”, and received its final design in the late period of the writer’s work, ideologically and thematically joining other works of that time.

In Tolstoy's later stories he is as subtle a psychologist as before, but he pays his main attention to not consistently developing “dialectics of the soul”, and the main turning points in the lives of heroes, full of drama and often changing its usual course. The intellectually searching hero with a pronounced individuality is being replaced by ordinary person, unremarkable kind of an anti-hero", Necessarily experiencing a moral crisis, forcing him to decisively rethink his past life. Features of the plot development ( violation of the natural chronology of events while maintaining the narrative of the entire sequence of the hero’s life) and the mandatory situation " breakthrough-epiphany" seem to encourage Tolstoy's heroes to confessionality, which led the writer, as at the beginning of his creative career, to use forms of memoir literature. The heroes of the stories also tend to generalize their life experience, in their judgments, a significant place is occupied by social criticism and exposure of almost all aspects of post-reform life, all social institutions, which leads to the appearance of pronounced journalistic pathos in some stories.

After the crisis and turning point, Tolstoy also created outstanding dramatic works, continuing the best traditions of Russian classical drama and anticipating the dramaturgy of Chekhov and Gorky (the drama “The Power of Darkness, or the Claw Got Stuck, an Abyss for Every Bird” (1886) and the comedy “The Fruits of Enlightenment” (1890), in 1900-1904 the drama “The Living Corpse”). more details question No. 51

Back in the late 80s, Tolstoy wrote the first edition of the future novel "Resurrection"(published in Niva in 1899 with censorship exceptions and abroad in its entirety), then called "Konevskaya story" since the plot was based on a true story told to Tolstoy by the famous lawyer A.F. Horses.

In Tolstoy's new novel they are firmly connected social themes and moralistic tendency. ... Unlike Tolstoy’s previous novels, novels of “broad breathing” that reflected the picture of the world in its entirety, in the new novel there is no place for any other Russia other than the one depicted on the pages of the novel. In "Resurrection" appears a bleak picture of life, built on universal deceit, the meaningless activities of some and the hard labor of others. According to the novel, there were no bright sides of life. Everything bright was suppressed, tortured, deceived or imprisoned. Enormous accusatory power.

The novel "Resurrection" is considered to be one of Tolstoy's greatest creations, but this one of his most complex works and one of the most complex phenomena of Russian classical literature. This is a kind of document reflecting the state of the writer himself and his vision of the world during this period. On the pages of the novel, Tolstoy himself is present everywhere, but in the role of a stern moralist, expressing his comments on every issue and often thereby giving the work a journalistic sound.

Combining in one work religious-moralistic and highly social content, Tolstoy could not help but fall into obvious contradictions. The social novel genre required merciless exposure and analysis of the causes of the current situation. A religious-spiritual or religious-moralistic novel by its nature is focused on showing not what exists, but what “should” be, which is generally hardly possible to achieve within the framework of realistic literature. Tolstoy tried to combine the incompatible within the framework of his understanding of life.

The appearance of the novel is directly related most important event in Tolstoy's life. In 1901, the definition of the Holy Synod on the fall of Leo Tolstoy, who is “in the deception of his proud mind”, from the Church, which stated the fact of the heretical error of the writer and warned about the danger of such a path. Contrary to widespread and established opinion, Tolstoy was not excommunicated from the Church with the prescribed anathema tradition.

IN last years During his life, the writer created several more striking works of art, written in the “old manner”: the stories “For What?”, “After the Ball”, a number of unfinished stories, for example, “Posthumous Notes of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich” and others, among which he stands out and has significance a kind of artistic testament is the story “Hadji Murat” (1896-1904). Tolstoy's artistic creativity in the late period was not homogeneous, intended only for an intelligent reader. Tolstoy's most cherished desire was the desire to write in such a way that he would be understood by a “50-year-old, well-literate peasant" Late creativity presents a number of works intended for the so-called people's reader. In 1884, on the initiative of Tolstoy and with the assistance of his like-minded people and followers, it was founded publishing house "Posrednik" the purpose of which was to distribute among the people books of artistic and scientific content worthy of them. For this publishing house was intended cycle folk stories , which are the best examples of Tolstoy’s works for the people.

Certain distinctive features of folk stories and their artistic method as a whole were formed under the influence of the traditions of “folk literature.” Tolstoy did not create a stylization of ancient literature and folklore, but combined a direct way of depicting reality ( real life pictures contemporary peasantry) showing an ideal world, ideal relationship and "ought". Some stories are dominated by folklore motives(“Worker Emelyan and the Empty Drum”, “The Tale of Ivan the Fool...”), others go back to literary sources (“Where there is love, there is God”, “How people live”), others show a kind of synthesis both began (“Godson”).

The focus on “folk literature” was reflected in the characteristic selection of subjects dating back to the ancient literary sources(“Two Brothers and Gold”, “Two Old Men”), in the emphasized didacticism that determines the general pathos of the works and the peculiarity of the author’s position, in the traditional function of “demonic” characters, in the peculiarities of the language and methods of quoting gospel texts, in the laconicism of the stories. Poetics folk stories sharply differs from all previous artistic work of the writer in the absence of a psychologically subtle image of the inner world heroes who are here characterized through their actions and actions. With an abundance of appeals to the ancients literary traditions and folklore in the literature of that time (Leskov, Garshin, Korolenko, Saltykov-Shchedrin, etc.), Tolstoy’s stories were a unique phenomenon, since the writer managed to create original and independent genre.

In the late period, in parallel with his artistic creativity, Tolstoy paid great attention to journalism and social activities , communication with like-minded people and followers. The role he took on as a “teacher of life,” combined with the passion of a preacher of truth, provided for the writer’s indifferent attitude to all manifestations of reality: he was looking for a way out, Firstly, from social contradictions life. Tolstoy spoke against private property, injustice, against death penalty (“I can’t be silent”) and use of violence(“Thou shalt not kill”). Ideas for equitable distribution of land were seriously considered and discussed by them. Tolstoy works during the census in Moscow in the early 90s, struck by disasters caused by crop failure and famine, he works to organize soup kitchens for starving peasants. These actions are reflected in his articles “On the census in Moscow”, “On famine”,“Hunger or not hunger?”

As a means of correcting the situation, the writer often called for forgiveness, non-resistance to evil by violence, To moral improvement each individual person, while decisively rejecting and debunking all existing state and public institutions (for example, in the treatise “The Kingdom of God is within you”).

A characteristic feature of Tolstoy’s legacy of the late period is interpenetration of journalism and artistic creativity. The basis of the writer’s journalistic heritage is a kind of tetralogy that reveals the foundations of his new worldview. It includes "Confession", "A Study in Dogmatic Theology", "What is My Faith?" And " So what should we do? These works are united into a tetralogy by the logically developing sequence of Tolstoy’s thoughts. " Confession" talks about the path he followed in search of the meaning and main purpose of his life. His disagreement with the canonical teaching of the church and his criticism from the standpoint of “ common sense"The writer stated in "Studies in Dogmatic Theology". A break with church teaching required a statement of his position in the treatise “ What is my faith? In the last part, Tolstoy reflects on the specific problems of his contemporary society, revealing the imperfections of its socio-economic structure, denouncing social injustice and trying to awaken in his contemporaries not only compassion for the unfortunate, but also a desire to do everything possible for a more just reconstruction of the world.

The basis of Tolstoy's journalistic works is always the sequence of development of thought for the sake of which an article or treatise is written. Tolstoy saw in art a power capable of capturing a person, “infecting” him with the feelings expressed by the artist, and uniting many people in a single feeling. He attached great importance to the moral content and impact of artistic works. If earlier in his aesthetic views in the first place were such concepts as beauty, truth, goodness, but now the main thing turned out to be the image of the “should” and the most merciless truth. The truth was transformed under the influence of the “ought”, and the beautiful perfection of the artistic form was verified by tastes and the demands of the common people and their aesthetic ideas.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TOLSTOY'S PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY

The desire to put into practice what is preached life, abandoning his own exceptional conditions of existence, the desire to unwind and become closer to the life of the common people, the deep misunderstanding that developed between Tolstoy and his loved ones prompted the writer in 1910 to leave Yasnaya Polyana. A serious illness that began on the way forced Tolstoy to stop at the Astapovo station of the Moscow-Kursk Railway, where he died. Tolstoy came to an inherently tragic end to his life. His tragedy was expressed not only in the tragic disorder of family life and the circumstances of his death. Having “fallen away” from the church, to which the majority of religious people belonged, especially the patriarchal peasantry, which he deeply revered, proclaiming his “faith” and unconditionally criticizing the contemporary structure of society, Tolstoy called, in essence, for the destruction of those institutions that ensured the very possibility of life for the people and in this he united with the most destructive forces of his time. The artist, who saw the main task and ability of art in uniting all people in one, good feeling, found himself at the end of his life separated from most of them.

The great life of the writer, which began in the Pushkin era, ended just a few years before the turning points in Russian history. All processes of spiritual, intellectual and cultural life of almost an entire century were, voluntarily or involuntarily, perceived, realized and refracted in the consciousness and creativity of the writer. Largely brought up in his youth by the people and cultural traditions of the 18th century, Tolstoy represented the 19th century, in his later life becoming the bearer of the “outgoing” culture of this century and his class, which was aggravated by his belonging to the so-called penitent nobility. At the same time he determined many of the trends in the development of Russian and world literature of the 20th century. These personality traits of the writer made his position in the history of Russian culture unique. Combined with a genius talent and a penchant for preaching, they contributed to the fact that It was Tolstoy who became one of the spiritual leaders and exponent of many of the leading trends of his era.

34. “Eras of personality development” in the trilogy of L.N. Tolstoy.

In the summer of 1852 to the editor Sovremennik magazine The manuscript of the story has arrived Childhood"(in the accompanying letter there was a request: if the story suits - don't change anything and send the fee, otherwise do not print at all), instead of the author’s name, signed “L.N.” ON THE. Nekrasov, who was then the editor-in-chief of the magazine, published it in the September issue under the title "The story of my childhood." At the same time, in letters to N.A. Nekrasov strongly recommended the aspiring unknown author, in whom he discovered great talent, do not hide behind initials, but reveal your full name. The young author, without even having time to meet the editor personally, wrote in letters to him strongly objected to changing the title and some corrections in the text of the story, rightly believing that in history his own childhood less interesting than in the description typical conditions for raising a young person certain social circle. The name given by the author highlighted as leading the theme of raising a young nobleman , born in Pushkin's era, who was to live in the middle - second half of the 19th century. This is how the brilliant Russian writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy entered literature.

The appearance of the printed work was preceded by Tolstoy's first literary experiments. These were attempts to write short works, including "The story of yesterday" where the main content should not have been a description of more or less striking events that make up the plot, but an attempt to tell about "the intimate side of life of one day"- changes in the hero’s thoughts, moods and actions. The first literary experiments remained unfinished, and the aspiring author decisively changed the circumstances of his life, leaving Moscow and the family estate Yasnaya Polyana near Tula and volunteering for the army in the Caucasus.

Living in the Caucasus, L.N. Tolstoy conceived a great work - a novel consisting of four stories, called "Four eras of development." The content of the planned novel was to be description of the gradual formation of a young person’s personality V childhood, adolescence, adolescence and youth. Tolstoy adjusted the plan of his work several times; in one of the versions of the plan, he defined his main task: “Sharply define characteristics of each era of life:

in childhood - warmth And loyalty feelings;

in adolescence - skepticism, voluptuousness, self-confidence, inexperience and (the beginning of vanity) pride;

in youth- beauty feelings, development vanity And uncertainty in oneself;

in young age- eclecticism in feelings, takes the place of pride and vanity pride, getting to know your prices and purposes, versatility, frankness."

This plan finds the young writer's main attention drawn To internal life his hero, to age-related characteristics of the psychological state young man. Of Tolstoy’s planned tetralogy, only trilogy“Childhood”, “Adolescence” (1854), “Youth” (1856) with the last unfinished story.

All three stories underwent more than one edition before the author achieved the desired result - stories are not so much about life events your hero, how much about the richness and complexity of change happening outwardly inconspicuously in the inner world of man. Such a task could only be solved by a writer who penetrates deeply into the inner world of his hero. Hero of Tolstoy's stories Nikolenka Irtenev is largely autobiographical, the young writer was helped to understand it by his wealth of experience introspection and introspection, reinforced by constant reference to management diary entries(As we remember, Tolstoy, with his penchant for analyzing everything, began early to keep diaries, which later contributed to the development of his own style; when T. in the Caucasus began to write his first story “Childhood” he was a little over 20- then he realized that can write about himself, because due to his age he still doesn’t know anything). Knowledge of the recesses of the human soul, based on his own experience, allowed the writer to endow his characters with autobiographical traits, which was manifested not so much in the similarity of events and actions, but in similarity between the state of the author’s inner world and his characters. That is why with the maturity and maturity of Tolstoy himself, his heroes, their thoughts and aspirations changed.

Nikolenka Irtenev occupies a special place among the main characters Tolstoy's works: he opens this gallery, without him it is impossible to correctly understand either the characters of subsequent characters or the author himself (Actually, one of the advantages of the story: it is deduced a very typical Tolstoy hero: A) autobiographical, b) intellectual). The source of the story was also the entire way of noble estate life of the era of Tolstoy’s childhood, the writer’s family environment and the literary and everyday traditions preserved by the noble intelligentsia of the first half of the 19th century V. Of these, the epistolary culture of his circle and the widespread custom of conducting diaries, notes, being literary forms, one way or another related to memoirs. It is in the circle of these literary and everyday forms that the writer felt most familiar and confident, which psychologically could support him at the beginning of his creative path.

First edition " childhood" was written in traditional memoir form, moving away from which Tolstoy, as it were, combined in his story two views on the past : sensitive receptivity and observation little Nikolenka and intelligence, a penchant for analysis, the thought and feeling of an adult “author” (The adult, as it were, stands nearby and analyzes the situation a little).

The time and events described in the first story ( course of events: 1. Estate 2. Moscow 3. Estate: death of mother), barely enough for a story with an energetically developing plot, but readers one gets the impression what they witnessed several years of life hero ( action of the story"Childhood" takes place during less than three days). The mystery of such a perception of artistic time lies in the fact that Tolstoy correctly describes features of children's perception(the child lives in a closed world) when everything the impressions are bright and voluminous, and most of the hero’s described actions are those that are repeated daily: waking up, morning tea, classes. In “Childhood” they unfold before us living pictures of the life of a noble family of the Pushkin era(included other people's stories, there are both serfs and servants here. + general way of life). The hero is surrounded those who love him and the people he loves, including parents, brother, sister, teacher Karl Ivanovich, housekeeper Natalya Savishna and others. This environment, the sequence of activities with rare memorable events of a hunt or the arrival of the holy fool Grisha constitute flow of life, embracing Nikolenka and allowing him, much time later, to exclaim: “Happy, happy, irrevocable time of childhood! How can one not love, not cherish memories of her? (quote: “Will that freshness, carefreeness, need for love and the power of faith that you possess in childhood ever return? What time can there be better than that when the two best virtues are innocent gaiety and boundless need for love- were the only motives in life?)

The happiness of childhood is replaced "barren desert" adolescence , who expanded the boundaries of the world for the hero and placed before him intractable issues , which caused painful discord with others And disharmony inner world. “Thousands of new, unclear thoughts” led to a revolution in the consciousness of Nikolenka, who felt the complexity of life around us and yours loneliness in it. In adolescence, under the influence of his friend Dmitry Nekhlyudov, the hero also learns “his direction” - “enthusiastic adoration of the ideal of virtue and the conviction that man’s destiny is to constantly improve.” At that time " it seemed very easy and simple to correct oneself, learn all the virtues and be happy...". This is how Tolstoy ends the second story of the trilogy (Tolstoy is always either a hero in the making(?) or is in a state of searching).

If childhood is a happy, irrevocable time, adolescence is a “desert”, a time when a person is not happy with himself, then in his youth Nikolai is already completely different. On time youth Irtenev is trying find your way, find the truth. This is how for the first time in Tolstoy’s work it is defined type of searching hero striving for self-improvement. In his youth it meant a lot to Irtenyev friendship, communication with people of a different social circle. Many of his aristocratic prejudices (the belief in the universal significance of the principle of sotte il faut for a decent person) do not stand the test of life. It is not for nothing that the story ends with a chapter with the significant title “I’m Failing.” Everything experienced in his youth is perceived by the hero as the most important moral lesson for him..

Library
materials

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy

1828-1910

Plan:

Tolstoy.

The scale of personality and the global significance of the writer’s work.

“Family Thought” in an epic novel.

Stages of spiritual formation of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov.

Natasha Rostova and female characters in the novel.

The problem of personality in history: Napoleon and Kutuzov. Condemnation of the cruelty of war in the novel.

"People's Thought" in the novel. The problem of the people and the individual.

Platon Karataev: Russian picture of the world.

Tested by the era of “defeat and shame.” The theme of true pseudo-patriotism.

Moral and philosophical results of the novel.

1 Vital and creative path, philosophy Tolstoy

Count, Russian writer, corresponding member (1873), honorary academician (1900) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Starting with the autobiographical trilogy "Childhood" (1852), "Adolescence" (1852 - 54), "Youth" (1855 - 57), the study of the "fluidity" of the inner world, the moral foundations of the individual became the main theme of Tolstoy's works. A painful search for the meaning of life, a moral ideal, hidden general patterns existence, spiritual and social criticism, revealing the “untruth” of class relations, run through all of his work.

Born on August 28 (September 9 n.s.) in the Yasnaya Polyana estate, Tula province. By origin he belonged to the oldest aristocratic families in Russia. Received home education and upbringing.

After the death of his parents (his mother died in 1830, his father in 1837), the future writer with three brothers and a sister moved to Kazan, to live with his guardian P. Yushkova. As a sixteen-year-old boy, he entered Kazan University, first at the Faculty of Philosophy in the category of Arabic-Turkish Literature, then studied at the Faculty of Law (1844 - 47). In 1847, without completing the course, he left the university and settled in Yasnaya Polyana, which he received as property as his father's inheritance.

The future writer spent the next four years in search: he tried to reorganize the life of the peasants of Yasnaya Polyana (1847), lived a social life in Moscow (1848), took exams for the degree of candidate of law at St. Petersburg University (spring 1849), decided to serve as a clerical employee in the Tula Noble Society parliamentary meeting (autumn 1849).

In 1851 he left Yasnaya Polyana for the Caucasus, the place of service of his older brother Nikolai, and volunteered to take part in military operations against the Chechens. Episodes of the Caucasian War were described by him in the stories "Raid" (1853), "Cutting Wood" (1855), and in the story "Cossacks" (1852 - 63). Passed the cadet exam, preparing to become an officer. In 1854, being an artillery officer, he transferred to the Danube Army, which operated against the Turks.

In the Caucasus, Tolstoy began to seriously engage in literary creativity, writing the story "Childhood", which was approved by Nekrasov and published in the magazine "Sovremennik". Later the story "Adolescence" (1852 - 54) was published there.

Soon after the outbreak of the Crimean War, Tolstoy, at his personal request, was transferred to Sevastopol, where he participated in the defense of the besieged city, showing rare fearlessness. Awarded the Order of St. Anna with the inscription "For bravery" and medals "For the defense of Sevastopol". In "Sevastopol Stories" he created a mercilessly reliable picture of the war, which made a huge impression on Russian society. During these same years, he wrote the last part of the trilogy - "Youth" (1855 - 56), in which he declared himself not just a "poet of childhood", but a researcher of human nature. This interest in man and the desire to understand the laws of mental and spiritual life will continue in his future work.

In 1855, having arrived in St. Petersburg, Tolstoy became close to the staff of the Sovremennik magazine and met Turgenev, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, and Chernyshevsky.

In the fall of 1856 he retired (“A military career is not mine...” he writes in his diary) and in 1857 he went on a six-month trip abroad to France, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.

In 1859 he opened a school for peasant children in Yasnaya Polyana, where he himself taught classes. Helped open more than 20 schools in surrounding villages. In order to study the organization of school affairs abroad in 1860 - 1861, Tolstoy made a second trip to Europe, inspecting schools in France, Italy, Germany, and England. In London he met Herzen and attended a lecture by Dickens.

In May 1861 (the year of the abolition of serfdom) he returned to Yasnaya Polyana, took office as a peace mediator and actively defended the interests of the peasants, resolving their disputes with the landowners about land, for which the Tula nobility, dissatisfied with his actions, demanded his removal from office. In 1862, the Senate issued a decree dismissing Tolstoy. Secret surveillance of him began from Section III. In the summer, the gendarmes carried out a search in his absence, confident that they would find the secret printing house that the writer allegedlyacquired after meetings and long conversations with Herzen in London.

In 1862, Tolstoy’s life and his way of life were streamlined for many years: he married the daughter of a Moscow doctor, Sofya Andreevna Bers, and patriarchal life began on his estate as the head of an ever-increasing family.The Tolstoys raised nine children.

The 1860s - 1870s were marked by the publication of two works by Tolstoy, which immortalized his name: "War and Peace" (1863 - 69), "Anna Karenina" (1873 - 77).

In the early 1880s, the Tolstoy family moved to Moscow to educate their growing children. From this time on, Tolstoy spent winters in Moscow. Here in 1882 he took part in the census of the Moscow population and became closely acquainted with the life of the inhabitants of the city slums, which he described in the treatise “So what should we do?” (1882 - 86), and concluded: “...You can’t live like that, you can’t live like that, you can’t!”

Tolstoy expressed his new worldview in his work “Confession” (1879㭎 ), where he spoke about the revolution in his views, the meaning of which he saw in a break with the ideology of the noble class and a transition to the side of the “simple working people.” This turning point led Tolstoy to the denial of the state, the state-owned church and property. The awareness of the meaninglessness of life in the face of inevitable death led him to faith in God. He bases his teaching on the moral commandments of the New Testament: the demand for love for people and the preaching of non-resistance to evil through violence constitute the meaning of the so-called “Tolstoyism,” which is becoming popular not only in Russia, but also abroad.

During this period, he came to a complete denial of his previous literary activity, took up physical labor, plowed, sewed boots, and switched to vegetarian food. In 1891 he publicly renounced copyright ownership of all his works written after 1880.

Under the influence of friends and true admirers of his talent, as well as personal need for literary activity, Tolstoy changed his negative attitude towards art in the 1890s. During these years he created the drama "The Power of Darkness" (1886), the play "The Fruits of Enlightenment" (1886 - 90), and the novel "Resurrection" (1889 - 99).

In 1891, 1893, 1898 he participated in helping peasants in starving provinces and organized free canteens.

In the last decade, as always, I have been engaged in intense creative work. The story "Hadji Murat" (1896 - 1904), the drama "The Living Corpse" (1900), and the story "After the Ball" (1903) were written.

At the beginning of 1900, he wrote a number of articles exposing the entire system of public administration. The government of Nicholas II issued a resolution according to which the Holy Synod (the highest church institution in Russia) excommunicated Tolstoy from the church, which caused a wave of indignation in society.

In 1901, Tolstoy lived in Crimea, was treated after a serious illness, and often met with Chekhov and M. Gorky.

In the last years of his life, when Tolstoy was drawing up his will, he found himself in the center of intrigue and contention between the “Tolstoyites,” on the one hand, and his wife, who defended the well-being of her family and children, on the other. Trying to bring his lifestyle into line with his beliefs and being burdened by the lordly way of life on the estate. Tolstoy secretly left Yasnaya Polyana on November 10, 1910. The health of the 82-year-old writer could not withstand the journey. He caught a cold and, falling ill, died on November 20 on the way at the Astapovo station of the Ryazan-Ural Railway.

He was buried in Yasnaya Polyana.

2 The scale of personality and the global significance of the writer’s work

The great Russian writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is one of the most remarkable artistic geniuses that humanity has ever known. For three quarters of a century, his name has been shrouded in lasting, unfading worldwide fame. His works are read and studied in all corners of the earth.

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is an extraordinary and amazing writer, whose work is inextricably linked with Russia. In his works, every person can find something of their own, see their soul, their problems, their pain. That is why his books are read and respected not only here, but are also widely distributed abroad. He wrote about really important things that remain relevant to this day. I believe that a Herculean effort must be made to ensure that creations are recognized and loved after so many years of death throughout the world.
Of course, the work of L.N. Tolstoy is of great importance. Of enormous global significance. His books are unique and sparkle with genius.

Fate gave this amazing man a long, difficult and wonderful life. Born three years after the Decembrist uprising and more than thirty years before the fall of serfdom, he witnessed the first people's revolution in Russia. Time has no power over his immortal creations, which capture the unique personality of a brilliant artist and great thinker. Tolstoy is one of the most read and revered classics not only in his homeland, but throughout the world. Nowadays, Tolstoy's works have been translated into 98 languages ​​of the peoples of our country and foreign countries.

3 The history of the conception and creation of the novel “War and Peace.”

One of the most fundamental and highly artistic prose works in the history of Russian literature is the epic novel “War and Peace.” The high ideological and compositional perfection of the work is the fruit of many years of work. The history of the creation of Tolstoy's War and Peace reflects the hard work on the novel from 1863 to 1870.

The work is based on the Patriotic War of 1812, its reflection on the destinies of people, the awakening of moral and patriotic feelings, and the spiritual unity of the Russian people. However, before starting to create a story about the Patriotic War, the author changed his plans many times. For many years he was concerned about the topic of the Decembrists, their role in the development of the state and the outcome of the uprising.

Tolstoy decided to write a work reflecting the story of the Decembrist, who returned in 1856 after a 30-year exile. According to Tolstoy, the beginning of the story should have begun in 1856. Later, the author decides to begin his story in 1825 in order to show what reasons led the hero to exile. But having plunged into the abyss of historical events, the author felt the need to depict not only the fate of one hero, but the Decembrist uprising itself, its origins.
The work was conceived as a story, and later as a novel “The Decembrists,” on which he worked in 1860–1861. Over time, the author is not satisfied with only the events of 1825 and comes to the understanding that it is necessary to reveal in the work earlier historical events that formed the wave of the patriotic movement and the awakening of civic consciousness in Russia. But the author did not stop there either, understanding the inextricable connection between the events of 1812 and their origins, which date back to 1805. Thus, the idea of ​​creative recreation of artistic and historical reality is planned by the author into a half-century large-scale picture reflecting events from 1805 to the 1850s.

The author called this idea of ​​​​recreating historical reality “Three Times”. The first of them was supposed to reflect the historical realities of the 19th century, personifying the conditions for the formation of the young Decembrists. The next time is the 1820s - the moment of formation of civic activity and the moral position of the Decembrists. The culmination of this historical period, according to Tolstoy, was a direct description of the Decembrist uprising, its defeat and consequences. The third period was conceived by the author as a recreation of the reality of the 50s, marked by the return of the Decembrists from exile under an amnesty due to the death of Nicholas I. The third part was supposed to personify the time of the onset of long-awaited changes in the political atmosphere of Russia.

Such a global plan of the author, which consists in depicting a very wide time period filled with numerous and significant historical events, required enormous effort and artistic strength from the writer. The work, in the finale of which the return of Pierre Bezukhov and Natasha Rostova from exile was planned, did not fit into the framework of not only a traditional historical story, but even a novel. Understanding this and realizing the importance of a detailed recreation of the pictures of the War of 1812 and its starting points, Lev Nikolaevich decides to narrow the historical scope of the planned work.

In the author’s final plan, the extreme time point turns out to be the 20s of the 19th century, which the reader learns about only in the prologue, while the main events of the work coincide with historical reality from 1805 to 1812. Despite the fact that the author decided to convey the essence historical era more succinctly, the book never quite fits into any of the traditional historical genres. The work, combining detailed descriptions of all aspects of war and peacetime, resulted in a four-volume epic novel.

Despite the fact that the author established himself with the final version of the artistic concept, work on the work was not easy. Over the seven-year period of its creation, the author repeatedly abandoned work on the novel and returned to it again. The peculiarities of the work are evidenced by numerous manuscripts of the work, preserved in the writer’s archive, numbering more than five thousand pages. It is through them that the history of the creation of the novel “War and Peace” can be traced.

The archive contained 15 draft versions of the novel, which indicates the author’s utmost responsibility for working on the work, a high degree of introspection and criticism. Realizing the importance of the topic, Tolstoy wanted to be as close as possible to true historical facts, philosophical and moral views of society, and civic sentiments of the first quarter of the 19th century. To write the novel “War and Peace,” the writer had to study many memoirs of eyewitnesses of the war, historical documents and scientific works, and personal letters. “When I write history, I like to be faithful to reality down to the smallest detail,” Tolstoy asserted. As a result, it turned out that the writer unwittingly collected a whole collection of books dedicated to the events of 1812.

In addition to working on historical sources, for a reliable depiction of the events of the war, the author visited the sites of military battles. It was these trips that formed the basis for the unique landscape sketches that transform the novel from a historical chronicle into a highly artistic work of literature.

The title of the work, chosen by the author, personifies the main idea. Peace, which consists of spiritual harmony and the absence of military action in native land, can make a person truly happy. L.N. Tolstoy, who at the time of creating the work wrote: “The artist’s goal is not to undeniably resolve the issue, but to make one love life in its countless, never-exhaustible manifestations,” undoubtedly succeeded in realizing his ideological plan.

4 “Family Thought” in an epic novel

The novel “War and Peace” by Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy is considered a historical novel. It describes the real events of the military campaigns of 1805-1807 and the Patriotic War of 1812. It would seem that apart from battle scenes and discussions about the war, nothing should worry the writer. But Tolstoy prescribes the central plot line of the family as the basis of all Russian society, the basis of morality and ethics, the basis of human behavior in the course of history. Therefore, the “family thought” in Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” is one of the main ones.

L.N. Tolstoy introduces us to three secular families, which he shows for almost fifteen years, reveals family traditions and the culture of several generations: fathers, children, grandchildren. These are the Rostov, Bolkonsky and Kuragin families. The three families are so different from each other, but the fates of their pupils are so closely intertwined.

One of the most exemplary families of society presented by Tolstoy in the novel is the Rostov family. The origins of family are love, mutual understanding, sensual support, harmony of human relationships. Count and Countess Rostov, sons Nikolai and Peter, daughters Natalya, Vera and niece Sonya. All members of this family form a certain circle of living participation in each other’s destinies. The elder sister Vera can be considered a certain exception; she behaved somewhat colder. “...beautiful Vera smiled contemptuously...” Tolstoy describes her manner of behaving in society; she herself said that she was raised differently and was proud that she had nothing to do with “all sorts of tenderness.”

Natasha has been an eccentric girl since childhood. Childhood love for Boris Drubetsky, adoration for Pierre Bezukhov, passion for Anatoly Kuragin, love for Andrei Bolkonsky - truly sincere feelings, absolutely devoid of self-interest.

The manifestation of true patriotism of the Rostov family confirms and reveals the importance of “family thought” in “War and Peace.” Nikolai Rostov saw himself only as a military man and enlisted in the hussars to go defend the Russian army. Natasha gave up carts for the wounded, leaving behind all her acquired property. The Countess and Count provided their home to shelter the wounded from the French. Petya Rostov goes to war as a boy and dies for his homeland.

In the Bolkonsky family, everything is somewhat different than in the Rostovs. Tolstoy does not say that there was no love here. She was there, but her manifestation did not carry such a tender feeling. The old prince Nikolai Bolkonsky believed: “There are only two sources of human vices: idleness and superstition, and that there are only two virtues: activity and intelligence.” Everything in their family was subject to strict order - “the order in his way of life was brought to the utmost degree of precision.” He himself taught his daughter, studied mathematics and other sciences with her.

Young Bolkonsky loved his father and respected his opinion, he treated him worthy of a princely son. When leaving for war, he asked his father to leave his future son to be raised, since he knew that his father would do everything with honor and justice.

Princess Marya, Andrei Bolkonsky's sister, obeyed the old prince in everything. She lovingly accepted all her father's strictures and cared for him with zeal. To Andrey’s question: “Is it difficult for you with him?” Marya answered: “Is it possible to judge my father?.. I am so pleased and happy with him!”

All relationships in the Bolkonsky family were smooth and calm, everyone minded their own business and knew their place. Prince Andrei showed true patriotism by giving his own life for the victory of the Russian army. Until the last day, the old prince kept notes for the sovereign, followed the progress of the war and believed in the strength of Russia. Princess Marya did not renounce her faith, prayed for her brother and helped people with her entire existence.

This family is presented by Tolstoy in contrast to the previous two. Prince Vasily Kuragin lived only for profit. He knew who to be friends with, who to invite to visit, who to marry children to in order to get a profitable life. In response to Anna Pavlovna’s remark about his family, Sherer says: “What to do! Lavater would say that I don’t have the lump of parental love.” The secular beauty Helen is bad at heart, the “prodigal son” Anatole leads an idle life, in revelries and amusements, the eldest, Hippolytus, is called a “fool” by his father. This family is incapable of loving, empathizing, or even caring for each other. Prince Vasily admits: “My children are a burden to my existence.” The ideal of their life is vulgarity, debauchery, opportunism, deception of people who love them. Helene destroys the lives of Pierre Bezukhov, Anatole interferes in the relationship between Natasha and Andrei.

We are not even talking about patriotism here. Prince Vasily himself constantly gossips in the world about Kutuzov, now about Bagration, now about Emperor Alexander, now about Napoleon, without having constant opinion and adapting to circumstances.At the end of the novel “War and Peace” L.N. Tolstoy creates a situation of mixing of the Bolkonsky, Rostov and Bezukhov families. New strong, loving families connect Natasha Rostova and Pierre, Nikolai Rostov and Marya Bolkonskaya. “As in every real family, in the Lysogorsk house there lived together several completely different worlds, which, each maintaining its own peculiarity and making concessions to one another, merged into one harmonious whole,” says the author. The wedding of Natasha and Pierre took place in the year of the death of Count Rostov - the old family collapsed, a new one was formed. And for Nikolai, marrying Marya was salvation for both the entire Rostov family and himself. Marya, with all her faith and love, preserved family peace of mind and ensured harmony.

5 Stages of spiritual formation of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov

A lot of space is given to the description of the spiritual quest of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov in the novel “War and Peace” by Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy. The multifaceted content of the work made it possible to define its genre as an epic novel. It reflected important historical events and the fates of people of different classes throughout an entire era. Along with global problems, the writer pays great attention to the experiences, victories and defeats of his favorite characters. By observing their fate, the reader learns to analyze their actions, achieve their goals, and choose the right path.

The life path of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov is difficult and thorny. Their fates help convey to the reader one of the main ideas of the story. L.N. Tolstoy believes that in order to be truly honest, one must “struggle, get confused, fight, make mistakes, start and quit and start again, and forever fight and lose.” That's what friends do. The painful quest of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov is aimed at finding the meaning of their existence.

Andrei Bolkonsky is rich, handsome, married to a charming woman. What makes him quit successful career and a quiet, prosperous life? Bolkonsky is trying to find his purpose.

At the beginning of the book, this is a man who dreams of fame, popular love and exploits. “I love nothing but fame, human love. Death, wounds, loss of family, I’m not afraid of anything,” he says. His ideal is the great Napoleon. To be like his idol, the proud and ambitious prince becomes a military man and performs great feats. Insight comes suddenly. The wounded Andrei Bolkonsky, seeing the high sky of Austerlitz, realizes that his goals were empty and worthless.

Having left the service and returned, Prince Andrei strives to correct his mistakes. Evil fate decides otherwise. After the death of his wife, a period of depression and despondency begins in Bolkonsky’s life. A conversation with Pierre makes him look at life differently.

Bolkonsky again strives to be useful not only to his family, but also to the Fatherland. Classes state affairs briefly captivates the hero. A meeting with Natasha Rostova opens one's eyes to Speransky's false nature. The meaning of life becomes love for Natasha. Again dreams, again plans and again disappointment. Family pride did not allow Prince Andrei to forgive the fatal mistake of his future wife. The wedding was upset, hopes for happiness were dispelled.

Bolkonsky again settles in Bogucharovo, deciding to start raising his son and arranging his estate. The Patriotic War of 1812 awakened his best qualities in the hero. Love for the Motherland and hatred of the invaders force them to return to service and devote their lives to the Fatherland. Having found the true meaning of his existence, the main character becomes a different person. There is no longer room in his soul for vanity thoughts and selfishness. The path of quest of Bolkonsky and Bezukhov is described throughout the novel. The author does not immediately lead the heroes to their cherished goal. Finding happiness was not easy for Pierre either. The young Count Bezukhov, unlike his friend, is guided in his actions by the dictates of his heart.

In the first chapters of the work we see a naive, kind, frivolous young man. Weakness and gullibility make Pierre vulnerable and force him to commit rash acts.

Pierre Bezukhov, like Andrei Bolkonsky, dreams of the future, admires Napoleon, and tries to find his path in life. Through trial and error, the hero achieves his desired goal.

One of the main delusions of the inexperienced Pierre was marrying the seductive Helen Kuragina. The deceived Pierre feels pain, resentment, and annoyance as a result of this marriage. Having lost his family, having lost hope of personal happiness, Pierre tries to find himself in Freemasonry. He sincerely believes that his active work will be useful to society. The ideas of brotherhood, equality, and justice inspire the young man. He is trying to bring them to life: he alleviates the lot of peasants, gives orders for the construction of free schools and hospitals. “And only now, when I... try to live for others, only now I understand all the happiness of life,” he says to a friend. But his orders remain unfulfilled, the Mason brothers turn out to be deceitful and selfish. In the novel War and Peace, Bolkonsky and Pierre constantly have to start all over again.

The turning point for Pierre Bezukhov came with the beginning of the Patriotic War. He, like Prince Bolkonsky, is inspired by patriotic ideas. He forms a regiment with his own money and is on the front line during the Battle of Borodino. Having decided to kill Napoleon, Pierre Bezukhov commits a series of frivolous acts and is captured by the French. The months spent in captivity completely change the count's worldview. Under the influence of the simple man Platon Karataev, he understands that the meaning of human life is to satisfy simple needs. “A person should be happy,” says Pierre, who returned from captivity. Having understood himself, Pierre Bezukhov began to better understand those around him. He unerringly chooses the right way, finds true love and family.

“Calmness is spiritual meanness.” The heroes dear to the writer do not know peace, they are in search of the right path in life. The desire to honestly and honorably fulfill a duty and benefit society unites Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov, making them so different in character similar.

6 Natasha Rostova and female characters in the novel

Many female characters in Tolstov’s novel “War and Peace” have prototypes in the author’s real life. This is, for example, Maria Bolkonskaya (Rostova), Tolstoy based her image on his mother, Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya. Rostova Natalya Sr. is very similar to Lev Nikolaevich’s grandmother, Pelageya Nikolaevna Tolstoy. Natasha Rostova (Bezukhova) even has two prototypes: the writer’s wife, Sofya Andreevna Tolstaya and her sister, Tatyana Andreevna Kuzminskaya. Apparently, this is why Tolstoy creates these characters with such warmth and tenderness.

It is amazing how accurately he conveys the feelings and thoughts of people in the novel. The author subtly feels the psychology of a thirteen-year-old girl, Natasha Rostova, with her broken doll, and understands grief adult woman- Countess Natalya Rostova, who lost her youngest son. Tolstoy seems to show their life and thoughts in such a way that the reader seems to see the world through the eyes of the heroes of the novel.

Despite the fact that the writer talks about war, the female theme in the novel “War and Peace” fills the work with life and a variety of human relationships. The novel is full of contrasts, the author constantly contrasts good and evil, cynicism and generosity with each other.

Moreover, if negative characters remain constant in their pretense and inhumanity, then positive characters make mistakes, are tormented by pangs of conscience, rejoice and suffer, growing and developing spiritually and morally.

Natasha Rostova is one of the main figures in the novel; one feels that Tolstoy treats her with special tenderness and love. Throughout the entire work, Natasha is constantly changing. We see her first as a little lively girl, then as a funny and romantic girl, and in the end - she is already an adult mature woman, the wise, beloved and loving wife of Pierre Bezukhov. She makes mistakes, sometimes she is mistaken, but at the same time, her inner instinct and nobility help her understand people and feel their state of mind. Natasha is full of life and charm, so even with a very modest appearance, as Tolstoy describes, she attracts people with her joyful and pure inner world.

The eldest Natalya Rostova, the mother of a large family, a kind and wise woman, seems very strict at first glance. But when Natasha pokes her nose into her skirts, the mother “fakely angrily” glares at the girl and everyone understands how much she loves her children. Knowing that her friend is in a difficult financial situation, the Countess, embarrassed, gives her money. “Annette, for God’s sake, don’t refuse me,” the countess suddenly said, blushing, which was so strange considering her middle-aged, thin and important face, taking money out from under her scarf.”

With all the external freedom that she provides to the children, Countess Rostova is ready to go to great lengths for their well-being in the future. She discourages Boris from his youngest daughter, prevents the marriage of his son Nikolai with the dowry Sonya, but at the same time it is completely clear that she does all this only out of love for her children. And maternal love is the most selfless and brightest of all feelings.

Natasha’s older sister Vera stands a little apart, beautiful and cold. Tolstoy writes: “a smile did not grace Vera’s face, as usually happens; on the contrary, her face became unnatural and therefore unpleasant.” She is annoyed by her younger brothers and sister, they interfere with her, her main concern is herself. Selfish and self-absorbed, Vera is not like her relatives; she does not know how to love sincerely and unselfishly, like them.

Fortunately for her, Colonel Berg, whom she married, was very suited to her character, and they made a wonderful couple. Locked in a village with an old and oppressive father, Marya Bolkonskaya appears before the reader as an ugly, sad girl who is afraid of her father. She is smart, but not self-confident, especially since the old prince constantly emphasizes her ugliness.

At the same time, Tolstoy says about her: “the princess’s eyes, large, deep and radiant (as if rays of warm light sometimes came out of them in sheaves), were so beautiful that very often, despite the ugliness of her entire face, these eyes became more attractive than beauty . But the princess had never seen a good expression in her eyes, the expression they took on in those moments when she was not thinking about herself. Like all people, her face took on a tense, unnatural, bad expression as soon as she looked in the mirror.” And after this description, I want to take a closer look at Marya, watch her, understand what is going on in the soul of this timid girl. In fact, Princess Marya is a strong personality with her own established outlook on life. This is clearly visible when she and her father do not want to accept Natasha, but after her brother’s death she still forgives and understands her. Marya, like many girls, dreams of love and family happiness, she is ready to marry Anatol Kuragin and refuses marriage only for the sake of sympathy for Mademoiselle Burien. The nobility of her soul saves her from the vile and vile handsome man. Fortunately, Marya meets Nikolai Rostov and falls in love with him. It is difficult to immediately say for whom this marriage becomes a great salvation. After all, he saves Marya from loneliness, and the Rostov family from ruin.

Although this is not so important, the main thing is that Marya and Nikolai love each other and are happy together.

In the novel “War and Peace,” female characters are depicted not only in beautiful and rainbow colors. Tolstoy also portrays very unpleasant characters. He always indirectly defines his attitude towards the characters in the story, but never speaks about it directly.

So, finding himself at the beginning of the novel in Anna Pavlovna Sherer’s living room, the reader understands how false she is with her smiles and ostentatious hospitality. Scherer “... is full of animation and impulses,” because “being an enthusiast has become her social position...”.

The flirtatious and stupid Princess Bolkonskaya does not understand Prince Andrei and is even afraid of him: “Suddenly the angry squirrel expression of the princess’s beautiful face was replaced by an attractive expression of fear that arouses compassion; She glanced from under her beautiful eyes at her husband, and on her face appeared that timid and confessing expression that appears on a dog quickly but weakly waving its lowered tail.” She does not want to change, develop, and does not see how the prince is bored with her frivolous tone, her unwillingness to think about what she says and what she does. Helen Kuragina, a cynical, narcissistic beauty, deceitful and inhuman. Without hesitation, for the sake of entertainment, she helps her brother seduce Natasha Rostova, destroying not only Natasha’s life, but also Prince Bolkonsky’s. For all her external beauty, Helen is ugly and soulless internally. Repentance, pangs of conscience - all this is not about her. She will always find an excuse for herself, and the more immoral she appears to us.

Reading the novel “War and Peace,” we plunge into the world of joys and sorrows together with the characters, are proud of their successes, and empathize with their grief. Tolstoy managed to convey all those subtle psychological nuances of human relationships that make up our lives.

7 The problem of personality in history: Napoleon and Kutuzov. Condemnation of the cruelty of war in the novel

Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" is practically the only historical epic novel. He describes in detail the military campaigns of 1805, 1809 and the War of 1812. Some readers believe that the novel can be used to study individual battles throughout history. But for Tolstoy it was not the main thing to talk about the war as a historical event. He had a different plan - “people's thought.” Show people, their characters, revealing the meaning of life. Not only ordinary people, but also great historical figures such as Kutuzov, Napoleon, Alexander, Bagration. L.N. Tolstoy gives a specific description of Kutuzov and Napoleon in “War and Peace”. This open comparison of the two commanders runs through the entire plot of the work.

The principle of contrast, taken by Tolstoy as a basis, reveals in “War and Peace” the images of Kutuzov and Napoleon as military strategists, showing their attitude towards their country, towards their army, towards their people. The author created a true portrait of his heroes, without inventing heroism or false shortcomings. They are real, alive - from the description of their appearance to their character traits.

At first glance, it seems that Napoleon is given more space in the novel than Kutuzov. We see him from the first lines to the last. Everyone is talking about him: in the salon of Anna Pavlovna Scherer, and in the house of Prince Bolkonsky, and in the soldiers’ ranks. Many believe that “...Bonaparte is invincible and that all of Europe can do nothing against him...” And Kutuzov does not appear in entire parts of the novel. They scold him, they laugh at him, they forget about him. Vasily Kuragin speaks mockingly of Kutuzov when we're talking about about who will be the commander-in-chief in the military operations of 1812: “Is it possible to appoint as commander-in-chief a man who cannot sit on horseback, falls asleep in council, a man of the worst morals!...a decrepit and blind man?.. He sees nothing. Play blind man's buff..." But here Prince Vasily recognizes him as a commander: "I'm not even talking about his qualities as a general!" But Kutuzov is present invisibly, people rely on him, but they don’t say it out loud.
The great French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in the novel is presented to us through the eyes of his soldiers, Russian secular society, Russian and Austrian generals, the Russian army and L.N. Tolstoy himself. His vision of Napoleon's small character traits helps us understand this complex character.

We see Napoleon in a moment of anger when he realizes that his general Murat had made a mistake in his calculations and thereby gave the Russian army the opportunity to win. “Go, destroy the Russian army!” - he exclaims in a letter to his general.

We see him in his moment of glory, when Napoleon, with his head held high and a contemptuous grin, looks around the field of Austerlitz after the battle. They line up the wounded for him to examine; for him this is another trophy. He either respectfully or mockingly thanks the Russian General Repnin for a fair fight.

We see him in a moment of complete calm and confidence in victory, when he stands on the top of a hill on the morning before the Battle of Austerlitz. Unshakable, arrogant, he raises his “white glove” and with one movement of his hand begins the battle.

We see him in a conversation with Alexander when he came to a meeting in Tilsit. A tough decision, undeniable by anyone, an imperious look and confidence in actions gives the French emperor what he wants. The Tilsit peace was incomprehensible to many, but Alexander was blinded by Bonaparte’s “honesty”; he did not see the cold calculation and obvious deception of this truce.

Tolstoy shows his attitude towards French soldiers without hiding it. For Napoleon, it is just a weapon that must always be ready for battle. He doesn't think about people at all. His cynicism, cruelty, complete indifference to human life, cold, calculating mind, cunning - these are the qualities that Tolstoy talks about. He has only one goal - to conquer Europe, to capture, precisely to capture, Russia and to conquer the whole world. But Napoleon did not calculate his strength; he did not understand that the Russian army was strong not only in howitzers and cannons, but above all in faith. Faith in God, faith in the Russian people, faith in one people, faith in the victory of Russia for the Russian Tsar. The outcome of the Battle of Borodino became a shameful defeat for Napoleon, the defeat of all his great plans.

In comparison with Napoleon, the active, thinking young but experienced emperor, Kutuzov looks like a passive commander. We more often see him talking to soldiers, sleeping at military councils, not categorically deciding the course of battles and not imposing his opinions on other generals. He acts in his own way. The Russian army believes in him. All the soldiers call him “Kutuzov the Father” behind his back. Unlike Napoleon, he does not boast of his rank, but simply goes to the field not after the battle, but during it, fighting hand in hand next to his comrades. For him there are no privates and generals, everyone is united in the fight for the Russian land.

When inspecting the troops near Braunau, Kutuzov “looks at the soldiers with a gentle smile” and takes the problem of the lack of boots upon himself. He also recognizes Timokhin, to whom he gives a special bow. This suggests that for Kutuzov it is not his rank or title that is important, but simply a person with his soul. Tolstoy in “War and Peace” shows Kutuzov and Napoleon in clear contrast precisely in this aspect - the attitude towards his army. For Kutuzov, each soldier is an individual, a person with his own inclinations and shortcomings. Everyone is important to him. He often rubs his eyes, which are full of tears, because he tends to worry about people, about the outcome of the case. He is excited about Andrei Bolkonsky because he loves his father. He accepts the news of the death of old Bolkonsky with bitterness. Understands the losses and realizes the failure at Austerlitz. Makes the right decision during the Battle of Shengraben. He is thoroughly preparing for the Battle of Borodino and believes in the victory of the Russian army.

Kutuzov and Napoleon are two great commanders who played an important role in history. Each had their own goal - to defeat the enemy, but they went towards it in different ways. L.N. Tolstoy used different means to describe Kutuzov and Napoleon. He gives us both external characteristics and the character of the soul, the action of thought. All this helps to put together a complete image of the heroes and understand whose priorities are more important to us.

The comparison of Kutuzov and Napoleon in Tolstoy’s novel is not a random choice of the author. He does not put two emperors on the same level - Alexander and Bonaparte, he builds a comparison of precisely two commanders - Kutuzov and Napoleon. Apparently, Alexander, still a very young ruler, did not have the qualities of a real commander to be able to resist “Napoleon himself.” Only Kutuzov could claim this.

L.N. Tolstoy in the epilogue tells us about “this man”, “without convictions, without habits, without traditions, without a name, not even a Frenchman...”, who is Napoleon Bonaparte, who wanted to conquer the whole world. The main enemy on his way was Russia - huge, strong. Through various deceitful ways, brutal battles, and seizures of territories, Napoleon slowly moved away from his goal. Neither the Peace of Tilsit, nor Russia's allies, nor Kutuzov could stop him. Although Tolstoy says that “the more we try to rationally explain these phenomena in nature, the more unreasonable and incomprehensible they become for us,” nevertheless, in the novel “War and Peace” the cause of the war is Napoleon. Standing in power in France, having subjugated part of Europe, he lacked great Russia. But Napoleon made a mistake, he did not calculate his strength and lost this war.

In the novel, L.N. Tolstoy expresses thoughts about the reasons for Russia’s victory in the Patriotic War: “No one will argue that the reason for the death of Napoleon’s French troops was, on the one hand, their entry at a late time without preparation for a winter campaign deep into Russia, and on the other hand, on the other hand, the character that the war took on from the burning of Russian cities and the incitement of hatred of the enemy among the Russian people.” For the Russian people, victory in the Patriotic War was a victory of the Russian spirit, Russian strength, Russian faith in any circumstances. The consequences of the War of 1812 were severe for the French side, namely for Napoleon. It was the collapse of his empire, the collapse of his hopes, the collapse of his greatness. Napoleon not only did not take over the whole world, he could not stay in Moscow, but fled ahead of his army, retreating in disgrace and the failure of the entire military campaign.
8 Borodin's lessons. Analysis of battle scenes.

Having studied Leo Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace,” many historians argue that Tolstoy allowed himself to distort some facts of the Patriotic War of 1812. This applies to the Battle of Austerlitz and the Battle of Borodino. Indeed, the Battle of Borodino in Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” is described in sufficient detail, which makes it possible to study historical events through the pages of the novel. However, the opinion of historians agrees that the main battle of the entire Patriotic War of 1812 was Borodino. It was this that was the reason for the Russian victory over the French army. It was this that became decisive.
Let's open L.N. Tolstoy's novel, volume three, part two, chapter nineteen, where we read: “Why was the Battle of Borodino given? It didn’t make the slightest sense for either the French or the Russians. The immediate result was and should be - for the Russians, that we were closer to the destruction of Moscow... and for the French, that they were closer to the destruction of the entire army... This result was then completely obvious, and yet Napoleon gave, and Kutuzov accepted This is a battle."
As Tolstoy describes, on August 24, 1812, Napoleon did not see the troops of the Russian army from Utitsa to Borodino, but accidentally “stumbled upon” the Shevardinsky redoubt, where he had to start the battle. The positions of the left flank were weakened by the enemy, and the Russians lost the Shevardinsky redoubt, and Napoleon transferred his troops across the Kolocha River. On August 25, no action followed from either side. And on August 26 the Battle of Borodino took place. In the novel, the writer even shows readers a map - the location of the French and Russian sides - for a clearer picture of everything that is happening. Tolstoy does not hide his misunderstanding of the senselessness of the actions of the Russian army and gives his assessment of the Battle of Borodino in “War and Peace”: “The Battle of Borodino did not take place in a chosen and fortified position with somewhat weaker Russian forces at that time, but the Battle of Borodino, due to the loss of the Shevardinsky redoubt, was adopted by the Russians in an open, almost unfortified area with forces twice as weak against the French, that is, in such conditions in which it was not only unthinkable to fight for ten hours and make the battle indecisive, but it was unthinkable to keep the army from complete defeat for three hours and escape." A description of the Battle of Borodino is given in chapters 19-39 of the second part of the third volume. At the same time, not only a description of military actions is given. Tolstoy pays great attention to the thoughts of our heroes. It shows Andrei Bolkonsky on the eve of the battle. His thoughts are agitated, and he himself is somewhat irritated, experiencing a strange excitement before the battle. He thinks about love, remembering all the important moments of his life. He confidently tells Pierre Bezukhov: “Tomorrow, no matter what, we will win the battle!”

Captain Timokhin tells Bolkonsky: “Why feel sorry for yourself now! The soldiers in my battalion, believe me, didn’t drink vodka: it’s not that kind of day, they say.” Pierre Bezukhov came to the mound, where they were preparing for battle, and was horrified, discovering the war “first-hand.” He sees the militia men and looks at them in bewilderment, to which Boris Drubetskoy explains to him: “The militia men just put on clean, white shirts to prepare for death. What heroism, Count!

Napoleon's behavior also makes us think. He is nervous and the last day before the battle “is not in a good mood.” Napoleon probably understands that this battle will be decisive for him. He seems unsure of his army and something is questioning him. During the very course of the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon sits on a mound near Shevardino and drinks punch. Why did the writer show it at such a moment? What did you want to show? Pettiness and indifference to his soldiers, or the special tactics of a great strategist and self-confidence? At least for us, the readers, everything becomes clear: Kutuzov would never have allowed himself to behave like that during a general battle. Napoleon showed his isolation from the people, where he was and where his army was. He showed all his superiority over both the Russians and the French. He did not condescend to take up his sword and engage in battle. He watched everything from the side. I watched how people kill each other, how Russians smash the French and vice versa, but I thought only about one thing - power.

Tolstoy says about Kutuzov’s words (order for battle): “...what Kutuzov said flowed...from the feeling that lay in the soul of the commander-in-chief, as well as in the soul of every Russian person.” For him, the significance of the Battle of Borodino was truly the outcome of the entire war. A man who felt everything that was happening to his soldiers probably could not think differently. Borodino was lost for him, but he knew, with some inner feeling, that the war was not over yet. Can this be called Kutuzov’s calculation when, by allowing Napoleon to enter Moscow, he signs the death warrant for the Emperor of France? He dooms the French army to complete devastation. He exhausts them with hunger and cold and leads them to flee Moscow. Kutuzov is helped in this by nature, and the Russian spirit, and in victory, and faith in the forces, albeit weakened, but still alive, and the large partisan movement that the people launched.

Kutuzov recognized the Russian people as a great force, which led Russia to victory. Whether it was a calculation or pure chance does not matter, but the Battle of Borodino was the outcome of the entire war of 1812. Briefly enough, I wrote some important, in my opinion, quotes that confirm this idea.

9 "People's Thought" in the novel

“The subject of history is the life of peoples and humanity,” this is how L.N. Tolstoy begins the second part of the epilogue of the epic novel “War and Peace.” He further asks the question: “What force moves nations?” Reflecting on these “theories,” Tolstoy comes to the conclusion that: “The life of peoples does not fit into the lives of a few people, because the connection between these several people and nations has not been found...” In other words, Tolstoy says that the role of the people in history is undeniable, and the eternal truth that history is made by the people was proven by him in his novel. “People's thought” in Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” is indeed one of the main themes of the epic novel.

Many readers understand the word “people” not quite the way Tolstoy understands it. Lev Nikolaevich means by “people” not only soldiers, peasants, men, not only that “huge mass” driven by some force. For Tolstoy, the “people” are officers, generals, and the nobility. This is Kutuzov, and Bolkonsky, and the Rostovs, and Bezukhov - this is all of humanity, embraced by one thought, one deed, one purpose. All the main characters of Tolstoy's novel are directly connected with their people and are inseparable from them.
The fates of the beloved heroes of Tolstoy’s novel are connected with the life of the people. “People's thought” in “War and Peace” runs like a red thread through the life of Pierre Bezukhov. While in captivity, Pierre learned his truth of life. Platon Karataev, a peasant peasant, opened it to Bezukhov: “In captivity, in a booth, Pierre learned not with his mind, but with his whole being, with his life, that man was created for happiness, that happiness is in himself, in the satisfaction of natural human needs, that all misfortune occurs not from lack, but from excess.” The French offered Pierre to transfer from a soldier's booth to an officer's, but he refused, remaining faithful to those with whom he suffered his fate. And for a long time afterwards he recalled with rapture this month of captivity as “complete peace of mind, perfect inner freedom which he experienced only at this time.”

Andrei Bolkonsky also felt his people at the Battle of Austerlitz. Grabbing the flagpole and rushing forward, he did not think that the soldiers would follow him. And they, seeing Bolkonsky with a banner and hearing: “Guys, go ahead!” rushed at the enemy behind their leader. The unity of officers and ordinary soldiers confirms that the people are not divided into ranks and titles, the people are united, and Andrei Bolkonsky understood this.

Natasha Rostova, leaving Moscow, dumps her family property on the ground and gives away her carts for the wounded. This decision comes to her immediately, without thinking, which suggests that the heroine does not separate herself from the people. Another episode that speaks of the true Russian spirit of Rostova, in which L. Tolstoy himself admires his beloved heroine: “Where, how, when did she suck into herself from the Russian air that she breathed - this countess, raised by a French governess - this spirit, where she got these techniques from... But these spirits and techniques were the same, inimitable, unstudied, Russian.”

And Captain Tushin, who sacrificed his own life for the sake of victory, for the sake of Russia. Captain Timokhin, who rushed at the Frenchman with “one skewer.” Denisov, Nikolai Rostov, Petya Rostov and many other Russian people who stood with the people and knew true patriotism.

Tolstoy created a collective image of a people - a united, invincible people, when not only soldiers and troops fight, but also militias. Civilians help not with weapons, but with their own methods: men burn hay so as not to take it to Moscow, people leave the city only because they do not want to obey Napoleon. This is what “folk thought” is and how it is revealed in the novel. Tolstoy makes it clear that in a single thought - not to surrender to the enemy - the Russian people are strong. A sense of patriotism is important for all Russian people.

The only commander-in-chief of the army who never separated himself and the people was Kutuzov. “He knew not with his mind or science, but with his whole Russian being, he knew and felt what every Russian soldier felt...” The disunity of the Russian army in the alliance with Austria, the deception of the Austrian army, when the allies abandoned the Russians in battles, were unbearable pain for Kutuzov. To Napoleon’s letter about peace, Kutuzov replied: “I would be damned if they looked at me as the first instigator of any deal: such is the will of our people” (italics by L.N. Tolstoy). Kutuzov did not write on his own behalf, he expressed the opinion of the entire people, all Russian people.

The image of Kutuzov is contrasted with the image of Napoleon, who was very far from his people. He was only interested in personal interest in the struggle for power. An empire of worldwide submission to Bonaparte - and an abyss in the interests of the people. As a result, the war of 1812 was lost, the French fled, and Napoleon was the first to leave Moscow. He abandoned his army, abandoned his people.

In his novel War and Peace, Tolstoy shows that people's power is invincible. And in every Russian person there is “simplicity, goodness and truth.” True patriotism does not measure everyone by rank, does not build a career, does not seek fame. At the beginning of the third volume, Tolstoy writes: “There are two sides of life in every person: personal life, which is the more free the more abstract its interests are, and spontaneous, swarm life, where a person inevitably fulfills the laws prescribed to him.” Laws of honor, conscience, general culture, general history.

10 Platon Karataev: Russian picture of the world

Among the representatives of the nobility, the image of Platon Karataev in Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” stands out especially brightly and prominently. When creating his work, the writer sought to most fully reflect the picture of his contemporary era. In the novel, numerous faces and various characters pass before us. We meet emperors, field marshals, and generals. We study the life of secular society, everyday life landed nobility. Heroes from the common people play an equally important role in understanding the ideological content of the work. Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, who knew well the living conditions of people of the lower class, talentedly depicts it in his novel. The memorable images of Platon Karataev, Tikhon Shcherbaty, Anisya, and the hunter Danila were created by the writer with a particularly warm feeling. Thanks to this, we have before us a realistic and objective picture of the life of people in the first half of the nineteenth century.

The most significant character from the common people is, of course, Platon Karataev. It is in his mouth that the author’s concept of common life and the meaning of human existence on earth is put. The reader sees Plato through the eyes of Pierre Bezukhov, who was captured by the French. It is there that they meet. Under the influence of this simple man, the educated Pierre changes his worldview and finds the right path in life. Using a description of appearance and speech characteristics, the author manages to create a unique image. The hero’s round and soft appearance, leisurely but deft movements, gentle and friendly facial expression radiate wisdom and kindness. Plato treats his comrades in misfortune, his enemies and a stray dog ​​with equal sympathy and love. He is the personification of the best qualities of the Russian people: peace, kindness, sincerity. The hero's speech, full of sayings, aphorisms, and aphorisms, flows measuredly and smoothly. He slowly talks about his simple fate, tells fairy tales, sings songs. Wise expressions fly from his tongue easily, like birds: “To endure an hour, but to live a century,” “Where there is judgment, there is untruth,” “Not by our mind, but by God’s judgment.” Constantly busy with useful work, Plato does not get bored, does not talk about life, does not make plans. He lives for today, relying in everything on the will of God. Having met this man, Pierre understood a simple and wise truth: “His life, as he himself looked at it, had no meaning as a separate life. It made sense as a part of a whole that he constantly felt.”
The worldview and lifestyle of Platon Karataev are the closest and dearest to the writer, but in order to be objective and honest in depicting reality, he uses a comparison of Platon Karataev and Tikhon Shcherbaty in the novel.

We meet Tikhon Shcherbaty in the partisan detachment of Vasily Denisov. This man from the people is contrasted in his qualities to Platon Karataev. Unlike the peace-loving and all-forgiving Plato, the hero is full of hatred for the enemy. A man does not rely on God and fate, but prefers to act. The active, savvy partisan is everyone's favorite in the detachment. If necessary, he is cruel and merciless and rarely leaves the enemy alive. The idea of ​​“non-resistance to evil through violence” is alien and incomprehensible to Shcherbaty. He is "the most useful and brave man in the detachment."

Giving a characterization of Platon Karataev and Tikhon Shcherbaty, Tolstoy compares their external features, character qualities and life position. Tikhon is hardworking and cheerful like a peasant. He never loses heart. His rude speech is filled with jokes and jokes. Strength, agility, and self-confidence distinguish him from the soft and leisurely Plato. Both characters are well remembered thanks to detailed descriptions. Platon Karataev - fresh, neat, without gray hair. Tikhon Shcherbaty is distinguished by a missing tooth, which is where his nickname came from.

Tikhon Shcherbaty is a character who personifies the image of the Russian people - a hero who stood up to defend his Fatherland. The fearlessness, strength and cruelty of such partisans struck terror into the hearts of the enemy. Thanks to such heroes, the Russian people managed to win. Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy understands the need for such behavior of his hero and partially justifies it in our eyes.

Platon Karataev is a representative of the other half of the Russian people, who believes in God, who knows how to endure, love and forgive. They, like halves of one whole, are necessary for a complete understanding of the character of the Russian peasant.

Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy’s sympathies are, of course, on the side of Platon Karataev. The writer, a humanist, has spent his entire adult life opposed to war, the most inhumane and cruel, in his opinion, event in the life of society. With his creativity, he preaches the ideas of morality, peace, love, mercy, and war brings death and misfortune to people. The terrible pictures of the Battle of Borodino, the death of young Petya, the painful death of Andrei Bolkonsky make the reader shudder from the horror and pain that any war entails. Therefore, the importance of Plato’s image in the novel “War and Peace” is difficult to overestimate. This person is the embodiment of the author’s main idea about a harmonious life in harmony with oneself. The writer sympathizes with people like Platon Karataev. The author, for example, approves of the act of Petit, who takes pity on the French captive boy, and understands the feelings of Vasily Denisov, who does not want to shoot the captured French. Tolstoy does not accept the heartlessness of Dolokhov and the excessive cruelty of Tikhon Shcherbaty, believing that evil begets evil. Realizing that war is impossible without blood and violence, the writer believes in the victory of reason and humanity.

11 Tested by the era of “defeat and shame.” The theme of true pseudo-patriotism

The colossal prose canvas “War and Peace,” which reflected with incredible sincerity and truthfulness real pictures of the life of the people in the abyss of difficult events in the first decades of the 19th century, became one of the most important works in Russian literature. The novel earned its high significance due to the seriousness of its problems. True and false patriotism in the novel “War and Peace” is one of the central ideas, the relevance of which continues more than 200 years later.

Despite the extensive character system of the work, its main character is the Russian people. As you know, people show their true qualities when they find themselves in difficult life situations. There is nothing more terrible and responsible for both an individual and the nation as a whole than war. Like a magic mirror, she is able to reflect the true face of everyone, tearing off the masks of pretense and pseudo-patriotism of some, emphasizing the heroism and readiness for self-sacrifice for the sake of the civic duty of others. War becomes a kind of test for the individual. The novel depicts the Russian people in the process of overcoming this test in the form of the Patriotic War of 1812.

In the course of depicting the war, the author resorts to the method of comparative comparison of the moods and behavior of both the military and secular society, comparing the years 1805–1807, when the battles took place outside the Russian Empire, with 1812, the period of the French invasion of the territory of the state, which forced the people to rise to defend the Fatherland.

The main artistic device that the author masterfully uses in the work is antithesis. The author uses the method of contrast both in the table of contents of the epic novel, and in the parallel management of plot lines, and in the creation of characters. The heroes of the work are opposed to each other not only by their moral qualities and actions, but also by their attitude to civic duty, the manifestation of true and false patriotism.

The war affected various segments of the population. And many are trying to contribute to the cause of common victory. Peasants and merchants burn or give away their property just so that it does not go to the invaders, Muscovites and residents of Smolensk leave their homes, not wanting to be under the yoke of the enemy.

With special insight and pride, Lev Nikolaevich creates images of Russian soldiers. They demonstrated heroism and courage in episodes of military operations at Austerlitz, Shengraben, Smolensk and, of course, at the Battle of Borodino. It was there that the incomparable courage of ordinary soldiers, their love for the Motherland and perseverance, and willingness to sacrifice their own lives for the sake of freedom and the Fatherland were manifested. They are not trying to look like heroes, to emphasize their prowess compared to others, but are only trying to prove their love and devotion to the Fatherland. One can involuntarily read in the work the idea that true patriotism cannot be ostentatious and posturing.

One of the most striking characters who personifies true patriotism in the novel “War and Peace” is Mikhail Kutuzov. Appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army against the royal will, he managed to justify the trust placed in him. The logic of his appointment is best explained by the words of Andrei Bolkonsky: “While Russia was healthy, Barclay de Tolly was good... When Russia is sick, it needs its own man.”

One of the most difficult decisions that Kutuzov had to make during the war was the order to retreat. Only a far-sighted, experienced and deeply patriotic commander could take responsibility for such a decision. Moscow was on one side of the scale, and all of Russia was on the other. As a true patriot, Kutuzov makes a decision in favor of the entire state. The great commander demonstrated his patriotism and love for the people even after the expulsion of the invaders. He refuses to fight outside the country, believing that the Russian people have fulfilled their duty to the Fatherland, and there is no longer any point in shedding their blood.

A special role in the work is assigned to the partisans, whom the author compares to a club, “rising with all its menacing and majestic strength and, without asking anyone’s tastes and rules, nailed the French until the entire invasion was destroyed.”

The spirit of sincere love for the native land and state is characteristic not only of the military, but also of the civilian population. Merchants gave away their goods for free so that the invaders would not get anything. The Rostov family, despite the impending ruin, provides assistance to the wounded. Pierre Bezukhov invests his funds in the formation of the regiment and even makes an attempt to kill Napoleon, regardless of the consequences. Patriotic feelings are also characteristic of many representatives of the noble class.

However, not all the heroes of the work are familiar with sincere feelings of love for the Motherland and sharing the people's grief. Tolstoy contrasts the real fighters against the invaders with the false patriots who continued their luxurious life in salons, attended balls and spoke the language of the invader. The author considers not only secular society, but also the majority of the officers of the Russian army to be false patriots. Many of them are happy about the war as a way to receive orders and career growth. The author denounces most of the officers who huddle in headquarters and do not participate in battles, hiding behind ordinary soldiers. The technique of antithesis in the depiction of feigned and real patriotism is one of the ideological lines of the epic novel “War and Peace”. According to the author, true feelings of love for their native land were demonstrated by representatives of the common people, as well as those nobles who were imbued with its spirit. Those who have no peace in moments common grief, and reflect sincere love for the Motherland. This idea is one of the main ones in the work, as well as in the essay on the topic “True and false patriotism in the novel “War and Peace.” The author portrays this belief through the thoughts of Pierre Bezukhov, who realizes that true happiness is in unity with his people.

12 Moral and philosophical results of the novel

“There are two sides of life in every person: personal life, which is the more free the more abstract its interests are, and spontaneous, swarm life, where a person inevitably uses the laws prescribed to him” (L.N. Tolstoy). “War and Peace” is the result of the moral and philosophical quest of L. N. Tolstoy, his desire to find the truth and meaning of life. Each work of l. N. Tolstoy is himself; each contains a piece of it immortal soul: “All of me is in my writings.”

The novel “War and Peace” can be called “an encyclopedia of man and life.” The writer showed on the pages of the book everything that a person faces: good and evil, love and hate, wisdom and stupidity, life and death, war and peace; endowed his “favorite” heroes with a beautiful soul and was able to show this very convincingly.

All "War and Peace" is a hymn to human unity. Every time after describing the destructive principles lurking in secular society, l. Tolstoy addresses characters striving for unity. The writer shows how insignificant is what separates people, and how majestic is what unites them. Self-interest, ambition and jealousy separate people, but love, self-sacrifice, and the death of loved ones unite them.

Life, purpose real life lies in the search for truth, and truth lies in the unity of people. To the realization of this beloved heroes L. N. Tolstoy was brought closer by the war of 1812. It turned all their ideas about life upside down; it was a great test for the entire nation. The title of the epic has many meanings: war and peace - two states of social life - are closely related. In peacetime, a person is formed, partially revealed; and in wartime, a time of great testing, its essence is finally determined. The participation of Prince Andrei and Pierre in the Patriotic War, their understanding of the nature of this war, the conclusions they made for themselves - all this was prepared by their spiritual development in the pre-war years.

True hero The writer is harmonious, the author of “War and Peace” believed that the moral improvement of man is the only path to justice and truth. As a thinker, he makes his best heroes not only deeply feeling, but also thinking people.

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Leo Tolstoy was born on September 9, 1828 in the Tula province (Russia) into a family belonging to the noble class. In the 1860s, he wrote his first great novel, War and Peace. In 1873, Tolstoy began work on the second of his most famous books, Anna Karenina.

He continued to write fiction throughout the 1880s and 1890s. One of his most successful later works is “The Death of Ivan Ilyich.” Tolstoy died on November 20, 1910 in Astapovo, Russia.

First years of life

On September 9, 1828, the future writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy was born in Yasnaya Polyana (Tula province, Russia). He was the fourth child in a large noble family. In 1830, when Tolstoy's mother, née Princess Volkonskaya, died, his father's cousin took over the care of the children. Their father, Count Nikolai Tolstoy, died seven years later, and their aunt was appointed guardian. After the death of his aunt, Leo Tolstoy, his brothers and sisters moved to their second aunt in Kazan. Although Tolstoy experienced many losses at an early age, he later idealized his childhood memories in his work.

It is important to note that the primary education in Tolstoy’s biography was received at home, lessons were given to him by French and German teachers. In 1843 he entered the Faculty of Oriental Languages ​​at the Imperial Kazan University. Tolstoy failed to succeed in his studies - low grades forced him to transfer to an easier law faculty. Further difficulties in his studies led Tolstoy to eventually leave the Imperial Kazan University in 1847 without a degree. He returned to his parents' estate, where he planned to start farming. However, this endeavor also ended in failure - he was absent too often, leaving for Tula and Moscow. What he really excelled at was keeping his own diary - it was this lifelong habit that inspired much of Leo Tolstoy's writing.

Tolstoy was fond of music; his favorite composers were Schumann, Bach, Chopin, Mozart, and Mendelssohn. Lev Nikolaevich could play their works for several hours a day.

One day, Tolstoy’s elder brother, Nikolai, during his army leave, came to visit Lev, and convinced his brother to join the army as a cadet in the south, in the Caucasus mountains, where he served. After serving as a cadet, Leo Tolstoy was transferred to Sevastopol in November 1854, where he fought in the Crimean War until August 1855.

Early publications

During his years as a cadet in the army, Tolstoy had a lot of free time. During quiet periods, he worked on an autobiographical story called Childhood. In it, he wrote about his favorite childhood memories. In 1852, Tolstoy sent a story to Sovremennik, the most popular magazine of the time. The story was happily accepted, and it became Tolstoy's first publication. From that time on, critics put him on a par with already famous writers, among whom were Ivan Turgenev (with whom Tolstoy became friends), Ivan Goncharov, Alexander Ostrovsky and others.

After completing his story “Childhood,” Tolstoy began writing about his daily life at an army outpost in the Caucasus. The work “Cossacks”, which he began during his army years, was completed only in 1862, after he had already left the army.

Surprisingly, Tolstoy managed to continue writing while actively fighting in the Crimean War. During this time he wrote Boyhood (1854), a sequel to Childhood, the second book in Tolstoy's autobiographical trilogy. At the height of the Crimean War, Tolstoy expressed his views on the startling contradictions of the war through a trilogy of works, Sevastopol Tales. In the second book " Sevastopol stories", Tolstoy experimented with relatively new technology: Part of the story is presented as a narration from the soldier's point of view.

After the end of the Crimean War, Tolstoy left the army and returned to Russia. Arriving home, the author enjoyed great popularity on the literary scene of St. Petersburg.

Stubborn and arrogant, Tolstoy refused to belong to any particular school of philosophy. Declaring himself an anarchist, he left for Paris in 1857. Once there, he lost all his money and was forced to return home to Russia. He also managed to publish Youth, the third part of an autobiographical trilogy, in 1857.

Returning to Russia in 1862, Tolstoy published the first of 12 issues of the thematic magazine Yasnaya Polyana. That same year he married the daughter of a doctor named Sofya Andreevna Bers.

Major novels

Living in Yasnaya Polyana with his wife and children, Tolstoy spent much of the 1860s working on his first famous novel"War and Peace". Part of the novel was first published in “Russian Bulletin” in 1865 under the title “1805”. By 1868 he had published three more chapters. A year later the novel was completely finished. Both critics and the public debated the historical justice of the Napoleonic Wars in the novel, coupled with the development of stories of its thoughtful and realistic, but still fictional characters. The novel is also unique in that it includes three long satirical essays on the laws of history. Among the ideas that Tolstoy also tries to convey in this novel is the belief that a person’s position in society and the meaning of human life are mainly derived from his daily activities.

After the success of War and Peace in 1873, Tolstoy began work on the second of his most famous books, Anna Karenina. It was based in part on real events period of the war between Russia and Turkey. Like War and Peace, this book describes some of the biographical events in Tolstoy's own life, most notably in the romantic relationship between the characters Kitty and Levin, which is said to be reminiscent of Tolstoy's courtship with his own wife.

The first lines of the book “Anna Karenina” are among the most famous: “All happy families are alike, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” Anna Karenina was published in installments from 1873 to 1877, and was highly acclaimed by the public. The royalties received for the novel quickly enriched the writer.

Conversion

Despite the success of Anna Karenina, after the completion of the novel, Tolstoy experienced a spiritual crisis and was depressed. The next stage of Leo Tolstoy's biography is characterized by the search for the meaning of life. The writer first turned to the Russian Orthodox Church, but did not find answers to his questions there. He concluded that Christian churches were corrupt and, instead of organized religion, promoted their own beliefs. He decided to express these beliefs by founding a new publication in 1883 called The Mediator.
As a result, for his unconventional and controversial spiritual beliefs, Tolstoy was excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox Church. He was even watched by the secret police. When Tolstoy, driven by his new conviction, wanted to give away all his money and give up everything unnecessary, his wife was categorically against this. Not wanting to escalate the situation, Tolstoy reluctantly agreed to a compromise: he transferred the copyright and, apparently, all royalties on his work until 1881 to his wife.

Late fiction

In addition to his religious treatises, Tolstoy continued to write fiction throughout the 1880s and 1890s. The genres of his later work included morality tales and realistic fiction. One of the most successful of his later works was the story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich,” written in 1886. The main character tries his best to fight the death hanging over him. In short, Ivan Ilyich is horrified by the realization that he wasted his life on trifles, but the realization of this comes to him too late.

In 1898, Tolstoy wrote the story “Father Sergius,” a work of fiction in which he criticizes the beliefs he developed after his spiritual transformation. The following year he wrote his third voluminous novel, Resurrection. Got the job good feedback, but it is unlikely that this success corresponded to the level of recognition of his previous novels. Tolstoy's other late works are essays on art, a satirical play called The Living Corpse, written in 1890, and a story called Hadji Murad (1904), which was discovered and published after his death. In 1903, Tolstoy wrote a short story, “After the Ball,” which was first published after his death, in 1911.

Old age

During his later years, Tolstoy reaped the benefits of international recognition. However, he still struggled to reconcile his spiritual beliefs with the tensions he created in his family life. His wife not only did not agree with his teachings, she did not approve of his students, who regularly visited Tolstoy on the family estate. In an effort to avoid his wife's growing discontent, Tolstoy and his youngest daughter Alexandra went on pilgrimage in October 1910. Alexandra acted as a doctor for her elderly father during the trip. Trying not to expose their private lives, they traveled incognito, hoping to evade unnecessary questions, but sometimes this was to no avail.

Death and legacy

Unfortunately, the pilgrimage proved too onerous for the aging writer. In November 1910, the head of the small Astapovo railway station opened the doors of his house to Tolstoy so that the ailing writer could rest. Shortly after this, on November 20, 1910, Tolstoy died. He was buried in the family estate, Yasnaya Polyana, where Tolstoy lost so many people close to him.

To this day, Tolstoy's novels are considered one of the best achievements of literary art. “War and Peace” is often cited as greatest novel ever written. In the modern scientific community, Tolstoy is widely recognized as having a gift for describing the unconscious motives of character, the subtlety of which he championed by emphasizing the role of everyday actions in determining the character and goals of people.

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Russian writer and philosopher Leo Tolstoy was born on September 9, 1828 in Yasnaya Polyana, Tula province, the fourth child in a wealthy aristocratic family. Tolstoy lost his parents early; his further upbringing was carried out by his distant relative T. A. Ergolskaya. In 1844, Tolstoy entered Kazan University at the Department of Oriental Languages ​​of the Faculty of Philosophy, but because... classes did not arouse any interest in him, in 1847. submitted his resignation from the university. At the age of 23, Tolstoy, together with his older brother Nikolai, left for the Caucasus, where he took part in hostilities. These years of the writer's life were reflected in the autobiographical story "Cossacks" (1852-63), in the stories "Raid" (1853), "Cutting Wood" (1855), as well as in the later story "Hadji Murat" (1896-1904, published in 1912). In the Caucasus, Tolstoy began to write the trilogy “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth”.

During the Crimean War he went to Sevastopol, where he continued to fight.

After the end of the war, he left for St. Petersburg and immediately joined the Sovremennik circle (N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. A. Goncharov, etc.), where he was greeted as " the great hope of Russian literature" (Nekrasov), published "Sevastopol Stories", which clearly reflected his outstanding writing talent.

In 1857, Tolstoy went on a trip to Europe, which he was later disappointed with.

Admirers of the writer’s work came to Yasnaya Polyana from all over Russia and the world, whom they treated as a spiritual mentor.

In 1899, the novel “Resurrection” was published.

The writer’s latest works were the stories “Father Sergius”, “After the Ball”, “Posthumous Notes of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich” and the drama “The Living Corpse”.

In the late autumn of 1910, at night, secretly from his family, 82-year-old Tolstoy, accompanied only by his personal doctor D.P. Makovitsky, left Yasnaya Polyana, fell ill on the road and was forced to get off the train at the small Astapovo railway station of the Ryazan-Ural Railway. Here, in the house of the station chief, he spent the last seven days of his life. November 7 (20) Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy died.

LEV TOLSTOY (1828-1910)

F. Dostoevsky

Life and creative path

Leo Tolstoy is one of the greatest Russian writers and a prominent figure in world literature. He was born on September 9, 1828 in the village. Yasnaya Polyana, Tula province. The future writer was left an orphan early on. His mother, a well-educated and sensitive woman, died when he was only two years old, and in 1837 (the same year as A. Pushkin, whose work significantly influenced Tolstoy), his father also died. The children were raised by a distant relative, T. Ergolska, warming them with the warmth of her soul. Leo subsequently wrote that she taught him “the spiritual pleasure of love.” Childhood memories forever remained the most joyful for Tolstoy: family legends and observations of family life, first impressions of the life of a noble estate became rich material for his works and were embodied in the autobiographical story “Childhood.” Soon the family moved to Kazan. In 1844, Leo Tolstoy entered Kazan University at the Department of Oriental Languages, and then transferred to the Faculty of Law, where he studied for less than two years: his studies did not arouse his interest, so he plunged into the whirlpool of secular entertainment. In the spring of 1847, having submitted a petition for dismissal from the university “for poor health and home circumstances,” Tolstoy left for Yasnaya Polyana with the firm and ambitious intention of studying the entire course of legal sciences (in order to pass the exam as an external student), practical medicine, languages, agriculture, history, geographic statistics, write a dissertation and “achieve highest degree

He spent the summer in the village and became disillusioned with the unsuccessful management of the household under new conditions favorable to the serfs (these events are depicted in the story “The Morning of the Landowner” (1857). In the fall of 1847, Tolstoy went first to Moscow and then to St. Petersburg to take his candidate’s exams At the university, his life style during this period often and radically changed: he spent days studying and passing exams, he was extremely interested in music, he intended to start a career as an official, or he dreamed of becoming a cadet in a regiment of horse guards. Religious restraint, sometimes reaching the point of asceticism, alternated. with periods of enjoying the “easy life.” His relatives considered him frivolous, and indeed, he was able to repay his then debts only after many years. However, it was then that intense introspection and struggle with himself took place in his soul, which was embodied in the diary that Tolstoy kept. throughout his life, it was then that he developed a serious desire to write and his first unfinished artistic sketches appeared.

Lev Tolstoy. 1848

Covers for works by L. Tolstoy

In 1851, his older brother Nikolai, an officer in the active army, persuaded Lev to go together to the Caucasus. For almost three years, Tolstoy lived in a Cossack village on the banks of the Terek River, traveling to Kizlyar, Tiflis, Vladikavkaz, and took part in military operations. Caucasian nature and the patriarchal simplicity of Cossack life became the material for the autobiographical story “Cossacks” (1852-1863), the story “Hadji Murat” (1896-1904, published in 1912 p.). Then the future writer felt a sharp contrast between the simple way of life of the Cossacks in the “disastrous Caucasus” and the well-fed idleness of the aristocrats in Russia - “the land of slaves, the land of masters” (G. Lermontov). This comparison made him think: how to live further? which path to choose for yourself? Without these reflections, it is unlikely that his concept of “simplification”, a return to folk origins, to simple hard work on the ground.

In the Caucasus, L. Tolstoy wrote the story “Childhood” and sent it to the magazine “Sovremennik”, hiding his name (published in 1852 under the initials “L.N.”; together with the stories “Adolescence” (1852-1854) and “ Youth" (1855-1857) she formed an autobiographical trilogy). His literary debut brought real recognition.

In 1854, L. Tolstoy was assigned to the Danube Army, in Bucharest. Boring life at the headquarters soon forced him to transfer to the Crimean Army in Sevastopol, which was under siege by the combined forces of England, France and Turkey. Here he commanded a battery on the 4th bastion, showing extraordinary courage (he was awarded the Order of St. Anne and medals). In Crimea, Tolstoy was going to publish a magazine for soldiers, began writing a series of “Sevastopol Stories”, which were soon published and enjoyed enormous success (even Emperor Alexander II read them). His first works amazed literary critics the courage of psychological analysis and a detailed picture of the “dialectics of the soul” (M. Chernyshevsky).

In November 1855, L. Tolstoy came to St. Petersburg and became a member of the circle of the famous magazine “Sovremennik” (Nekrasov, Turgenev, Ostrovsky, etc. published their works there), where he was perceived as “the great hope of Russian literature” (M. Nekrasov) . He took part in dinners and readings, collaborated with the Literary Fund, became involved in disputes and conflicts between writers, but in their midst he felt like a stranger, which he later described in detail in “Confession” (1879-1882): “I’m tired of these people.” , and I tore myself up.” In the fall of 1856, Tolstoy, having retired, moved to Yasnaya Polyana, and at the beginning of 1857 he went abroad. He visited France, Italy, Switzerland (Swiss impressions are depicted in the story “Lucerne”), Germany, returned to Moscow in the fall, and then again to Yasnaya Polyana.

In 1859, the writer opened a school for peasant children in Yasnaya Polyana, helped organize more than 20 schools in the surrounding villages, and this activity fascinated him so much that in 1860 he went abroad for the second time to get acquainted with school education in Europe. Tolstoy traveled a lot, in particular lived for some time in London, studied popular pedagogical systems, but basically they did not satisfy him. He outlined his ideas in special articles, arguing that the basis of education should be the “student’s desire” to learn and not use violence against him. In 1862, L. Tolstoy published the pedagogical magazine “Yasnaya Polyana” with an appendix - books for reading, which became classic examples of children's literature in Russia.

Yasnaya Polyana. Estate of Count L. Tolstoy

Leo Tolstoy with students of the Yasnaya Polyana school. 1892

In September 1862, Leo Tolstoy married the eighteen-year-old daughter of a doctor, Sophia Beret, and immediately after the wedding he moved from Moscow to Yasnaya Polyana, where he devoted himself entirely to family life and housekeeping (the impression of this is reflected in the novel “Anna Karenina”).

Since the autumn of 1863, Tolstoy became interested in a literary project, which for a long time bore the name “One Thousand Eight Hundred and Five” (the future epic novel “War and Peace”). The creation of the novel was a period of spiritual uplift, family happiness and calm, solitary work. The writer read the memoirs and correspondence of people of the Alexander era (in particular, the materials of Tol verse and Volkonsky), worked in archives, studied Masonic manuscripts, and traveled to the Borodino field. Due to many revisions, the work moved slowly. His wife helped him a lot in copying hundreds of thousands of pages of manuscripts, so her asceticism is invaluable for literature. Only at the beginning of 1865 was the first part of “War and Peace” published in the Russian Messenger. The novel was received enthusiastically, it evoked many responses, striking readers with its combination of epic scope with subtle psychological analysis, a living reflection of private life, organically combined with national history. Tolstoy himself characterized his plan as an attempt to “write the history of the people” and considered it impossible to determine its genre nature unambiguously and definitively: “... will not fit into any form, no novel, no story, no poem, no history.”

Leo Tolstoy and his family. 1892

In the 1870s, the writer lived in Yasnaya Polyana and continued to teach rural children and develop his pedagogical views in print, and also worked on the novel Anna Karenina. It was an innovative work about the life of contemporary society. It is based on a comparison of two storylines: the family drama of Anna Karenina and family idyll the young landowner Konstantin Levin, whose image is similar to the writer himself both in lifestyle and beliefs. The beginning of work coincided with a passion for Pushkin’s prose. Tolstoy strove for simplicity of presentation and external objectivity. Only tendentious criticism interpreted the novel as a love story. The meaning of the existence of the “educated social class” and the deep truth of peasant life are the questions that Levin seeks to solve, but they were alien to most of his heroes, even those sympathetic to the author (among them Leo Tolstoy: “Yasnaya Polyana is not Capua.”

Leo Tolstoy was very demanding of himself. Millions of the then aristocrats lived in luxury, quietly consuming the fruits of serf labor, and the count was embarrassed by such “lordly idleness.” In his works and diaries, he called it “Capua”, from the name of the city of Capua near Naples, where Hannibal’s mighty army had wintered and “diminished physically and spiritually”: that is why Carthage lost the war and was destroyed by Rome (Titus Livius, “Roman History” ).

We find a sharp condemnation of idleness and laziness in the novel “Anna Karenina”: “Levin smiled from his thoughts and shook his head disapprovingly at these thoughts; a feeling similar to remorse tormented him. There was something calm, pampered, kapuyske, as he called it, in his present life. “It’s not good to live like this,” he thought. - It’s almost three months now, and I’m doing almost nothing. Today, almost for the first time, I took my work seriously, and so what? I just started and quit... But three months are coming soon, and I have never wasted time so carelessly. No, this can’t be done, we have to start.

Still from the movie "War and Peace"

and Anna). These questions sounded state-publicistic to many contemporaries, primarily to F. Dostoevsky. He considered this work an artistically perfect social novel. Thus, the “family thought” (the main thought in the novel, according to Tolstoy) was directed into a social direction.

These changes that took place in Tolstoy’s consciousness are reflected in his other works, primarily in the experiences of the heroes, in a sharp spiritual insight that destroys their destinies and makes them suddenly see the world in a new way. Such characters are depicted in the stories “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” (1884-1886), “The Kreutzer Sonata” (1887-1889, published in Russia in 1891), “Father Sergius” (1890-1898, published in 1912 p.), the drama “The Living Corpse” (1900 p., unfinished, published in 1911 p.), in the story “After the Ball” (1903 p., published in 1911 p.).

Tolstoy's confessional journalism gives a detailed idea of ​​his deep drama: painting pictures of social inequality and the seduced idleness of the nobles, the writer raised the question of the meaning of life and faith, criticized all state institutions, denying science (as an activity far from the soul, feelings and conscience), art , court, marriage and even achievements of civilization. He embodied his new worldview in “Confession” (published in 1884 in Geneva, in 1906 in Russia), in the articles “On the Census in Moscow” (1882), “So what should we do, you?” (1882-1886, published in full in 1906 p.), “On Hunger” (1891 p., published on English language in 1892 p., in Russian - in 1954 p.), “What is art?” (1897-1898), “Slavery of Our Time” (1900 p., fully published in Russia in 1917 p.), “On Shakespeare and Drama” (1906), “I Can’t Be Silent” (1908).

Leo Tolstoy is exactly like this...

It should be noted that Tolstoy was an uncompromising man, therefore he not only proclaimed, but also adhered to the proclaimed ideas. So, he became a vegetarian. Once, according to eyewitnesses, a relative of the Tolstoys came to Yasnaya Polyana, who was not a vegetarian and wanted to eat meat. Then they tied a live chicken to the leg of the table, and put a knife on the table, leaving the guest alone - they say, if you want meat, kill it with your own hands... Of course, not everyone liked such a literal fulfillment of all the proclaimed moral norms and rules, but Tolstoy was precisely like this.

Leo Tolstoy with his wife. Last photo

Tolstoy's social declaration was based on the idea of ​​Christianity as a moral teaching, and his ethical ideas were interpreted by him from a humanistic position as the basis of the universal brotherhood of man. This set of problems led to an analysis of the Gospel and a critical revision of theological works, which are the subject of the religious and philosophical treatises “A Study of Dogmatic Theology” (1879-1880), “What is My Faith” (1884), “The Kingdom of God is Within You” (1893). Calls for direct and immediate implementation of Christian commandments caused a violent reaction in society. In particular, his preaching of “non-resistance to evil by violence” (Rus. non-resistance to evil by violence) was widely discussed, which became the impetus for the creation of many works of art - the drama “The Power of Darkness” (1887) and folk stories written in a deliberately simplified, “unpretentious” manner.

As part of a new worldview and ideas about Christianity, L. Tolstoy opposed the Christian church and sharply criticized its union with the state, which led to a conflict with the church authorities: in 1901, the Synod officially excommunicated the internationally recognized writer and preacher.

In his last novel, “Resurrection,” the writer reflected the entire range of problems that worried him. The main character, Prince Dmitry Nekhlyudov, went through a path of moral purification, which prompted him to do good. The narrative is built on a system of contrasts exposing vices social order(the beauty of nature and the falsity of social justice, the truth of peasant life and the falsehood that reigns among the educated population).

Spiritual quests dramatically changed the writer’s personal life, leading to family discord (the refusal to own private property caused sharp discontent among family members, especially the wife, who invested a lot of effort and time in her husband’s literary success). You can read about Tolstoy's personal drama in his diary entries. In the fall of 1910, secretly from his family, 82-year-old (!) Leo Tolstoy, accompanied only by his personal physician D. Makovitsky, left Yasnaya Polyana at night. However, the journey turned out to be too much for him: Tolstoy fell ill and was forced to get off the train at the small Astapovo railway station. Here, in the station master's house, he spent the last seven days of his life. For reports about the health of Tolstoy, who at that time was already worldwide famous writer, all of Russia was watching. However, he is no longer destined to recover...

Leo Tolstoy was buried in Yasnaya Polyana.

Cover for L. Tolstoy’s novel “Resurrection”