Folk heroic epic: "The Song of Roland". Song of Roland

Charles is the Frankish king Charlemagne (768-814), crowned Emperor of the West in Rome in 800. During the Spanish campaign he was not yet emperor.

In 778, Charlemagne, who had certain political and economic interests in northeastern Spain, intervened in the internal strife of the Spanish Moors. Called to the aid of Iba al-Arabi, the Muslim ruler in the north of the country, who was displaced by the Cordoban caliph Abderrahman, who sought to create an independent Muslim power in Spain, Charles undertook a campaign in Spain, which led to the creation of the Spanish March (the border region to the Ebro). Charlemagne's campaign in Spain lasted not seven years, but only a few months. However, it is quite possible that even before the composition of the “Song of Roland”, these seven years were already filled with some legends about the death of Roland and twelve peers. Later (in the 13th century), poems describing this period appeared on Italian soil (in a mixed French-Italian language): “Entry into Spain” (the first five years) and “The Capture of Pampeluna” (the last two years).

Charles did not reach the sea in 778; but his son, the future king Louis the Pious, during his father’s lifetime (801) conquered Barcelona, located by the sea.

Marsilius is a name of unclear origin, more Roman in form than Arabic, perhaps fictitious, or perhaps a corruption of the name Amoroz, which was the name, according to Eginchar (9th century), of the Moorish ruler of Zaragoza, who asked Charlemagne to help him against the Emir of Cordoba Abderrahman.

Christian preachers tried to portray the Mohammedans as pagans (“non-Christians”, atheists). Hence the veneration of the ancient god Apollo (Apollen) attributed to them and the transformation of Mohammed, the founder of the Muslim religion, into a pagan god.

At the end of most tirades there is an “aoi!”, which has not yet found a completely satisfactory explanation. In those tirades where it is placed out of place (sometimes, for example, in the middle), one should see simply the negligence or mistake of the last copyist.

There are several interpretations of this “aoi” (“aoi”), of which the most plausible are the following: 1) “aoi” is something like a refrain, an interjection, which is also found in the epic poem “Aliskans”; 2) symbol musical modulation saeculorum amen (forever and ever) or pax vobiscum (peace be upon you), reproducing the vowels of these words. This interpretation is less plausible than the first.

By “France” in the poem we mean either Ile-de-France or all of Charles’s possessions. The epithet “sweetheart” is one of the “stable epithets” and is used even by the enemies of France.

Faded falcons. - that is, those who have already left the period of molting, which was considered a very dangerous disease for game birds; they were valued much more than those that were yet to come.

In this poem, the French are called, without distinction, either the inhabitants of France in the narrow sense of the word, or the subjects of Charles in general (together with the inhabitants of the German parts of the empire - Bavarians, Alemanni, etc.).

The pinnacle of the French heroic classical epic is the poem “The Song of Roland”. It has been preserved in several manuscripts, the best of which is the Oxford one (1170). The work is written in Old French in verse and divided into couplets of different sizes. Each verse ends with the same assonance. The poem was actually a song, since many of her tirades ended with a cry of "Ayo", which apparently meant the chorus or melody that was sung during the singing of the song.

The poem is based on a historical fact that took place in the 8th century. The chronicler of Charlemagne, Einhard, reported that in 778 the king of the Franks began his first campaign with the goal of liberating Spain from the Moors. In fact, his invasion of Spain was a typical aggressive adventure with the aim of obtaining the wealth and lands of the Arabs. In the poem, this campaign is depicted as a great feat for the glory of France and Christianity. Historical facts indicate that the Moors were able to rebuff the troops of Charlemagne. Having captured several cities and reached Zaragoza, Charles met powerful resistance from the Moors and was forced to turn back. During the retreat, the rearguard of the French army in the Roncesvalles gorge attacked and defeated the Basques. One of the king's glorious peers, his nephew Count Roland, died in the battle. In the poem, on the contrary, Charlemagne won a complete victory.

"The Song of Roland": summary

The great Emperor Charles fought in Spain for seven years and baptized the entire region. Only the Moors of Zaragoza remained unbaptized, because their king Marsilius respected Mohammed. Since he was no longer able to resist the Franks, he resorted to a trick - he sent messengers to Charles with a large gift (700 camels, 400 mules loaded with Arab gold and silver) so that he could reward his vassals and pay the mercenaries. In addition, Marsilius promised to come to the capital city of Charles in a month and accept the Christian faith on St. Michael's Day. In order for the Franks to trust him, he gave the children of famous and wealthy Saracens as hostages, although he knew that they would die. He ordered the messengers to carry an olive branch in their hands (a symbol of humility and reconciliation) and promised rich estates for their faithful service.
However, Charles did not trust Marsilius, for he had already lost two of his brave counts - ambassadors Bazan and Basil. To make a final decision, he decided to consult with his peers: to continue the war until the complete destruction of Marsilius’ army or to offer the king, who fled, peace on the terms of his vassalage and adoption of Christianity.

Roland expressed the opinion not to trust the words of the Moors and to avenge the death of the glorious warriors. Not all barons were happy with this proposal, since they preferred to return home as soon as possible, tired of the long campaign and heavy, brutal battles. Count Gwenelon tried to prove to the king that the army had fought enough, taken a lot of booty and could proudly return to France, and therefore one could believe the words of Marsilius. Other barons also supported him. Knight Nemon of Bavaria advised to listen to the words of Gwenelon, remembering that Christian duty included forgiving the infidels and turning them to God. There was no doubt that Marsilius would still accept Christianity.

They decided to send a brave knight and a far-sighted politician to the enemy’s camp with an answer. Roland proposed his candidacy, and it was rejected. Everyone knew that he was intemperate and not diplomatic enough. Such an ambassador would hardly be successful. Many other barons agreed to be ambassadors to prove their loyalty to the king and France. Only Gwenelon was silent. Then Roland made a new proposal: to send his stepfather Gwenelon as a parliamentarian, since it was he who gave Charles the advice to finish the matter with the pagans, and yet Marsilius promised to become an obedient vassal, to accept the faith and law of Charles. Having made such a proposal, he understood that Gwenelon was in danger of death at the hands of the infidels, but was guided by the main motive - respect for the reason and restraint of his stepfather, who could best carry out the dangerous assignment of the emperor.

Count Gwenelon realized that he might not return, but he had no right to refuse. However, he decided to take revenge on his stepson for such an act.

So, the epic background of the work was the confrontation between two worlds - Christian and Muslim. The conflict arose from a contradiction within the Christian, or rather knightly, world. Christian knights behaved in accordance with the requirements, first of all, of class, and then of Christian morality.

Gwenelon presented Marsilius with a low, cruel ultimatum, which was at odds with Charles’s demands. Perhaps he wanted to prevent the reconciliation of the Franks with the Saracens, at the risk of embittering the king of the Moors, although this made it easier for himself to further reconcile with his enemies. To take revenge on Roland, he invited Marsilius, during the Franks’ retreat from Spain, to attack their rearguard, which would be led by Roland, the best knight of Charlemagne. To defeat him, you should send 100 thousand Saracens for 20 thousand francs. He convinced the king of the Moors to give the Franks a large tribute so that they would not be able to come to their senses. Then Karl will have no choice but to return to France. If Roland dies, the king of the Franks will not dare to fight the Moors. Marsilius thanked Gwenelon for his advice, mutual understanding and support, and presented him with sable fur, a sword, a helmet and jewelry for his wife.

Strewn with gifts, with a load of gold on 10 mules, the traitor returned to Charles, handed over the keys to Zaragoza and assured of the peaceful intentions of the Moors. The king of the Franks decided to withdraw his troops from Spain, although he had doubts.

The Frankish rearguard was led by Roland. With him was his comrade Olivier and 12 peers - brave counts of France. When Charles's army retreated, Roland saw a large army of Saracens. Olivier asked Roland to blow the horn to bring the king's squad back, but he was afraid to discredit himself and did not do it. Such recklessness resulted in the loss of thousands of francs. When the third part of the army remained, Roland decided to inform Karl and blow the horn, but he was held back by the indignant Oliphant, because anyway Karl would not have time to help them, so the brave warriors could only die. At the end of the battle, on the advice of Bishop Turpin, Roland nevertheless called Charles to avenge the death of the French and bury them. He bitterly regretted his action, because of which many glorious barons died, including 12 peers of France. Suffering, Roland also died from his wounds and grief. The soul of the brave knight was accepted by angels. Archangel Gabriel, the mediator between God and people, took the glove from him as a sign of the knight’s loyalty to his new overlord - God.

When Roland blew the horn, Charles heard him and ordered the army to return. The Moors fled. Marcelius, whom Charles cut off at the elbow right hand, fled to Zaragoza. The battle ended with the victory of Charlemagne. He returned to his capital Aachen. Gwenelon was also brought here, who was put on a chain as a traitor. He became one twice: he violated the duty of a vassal and became an enemy of his clan and his family. In addition, his criminal egoism led to numerous victims of the Franks.

His trial is a trial of feudal tyranny. Gwenelon did not accept reproaches for treason, since he considered revenge on Roland his goal; he was not interested in anything else. He did not seek to defeat the entire Charles army. Since Gwenelon was a supporter of feudal civil strife, there were barons who even wanted to justify him. Then Thierry decided to give the true interpretation of Gwenelon’s act: it was not just the baron who suffered, but a faithful servant, a vassal of the king, and with him the glorious warriors of the country. The king was silent, not daring to punish the traitor. Then Thierry invited Karl to arrange a duel between him and Gwenelon’s relative Pinabel, and, depending on the result, make a decision. Only the victory of the knight Thierry in a tense duel made it possible to punish the traitor, who was brutally executed: tied to horses, which were driven to the water. Gwenelon was torn to pieces, he was treated as he wanted to be done to France.

Analysis of the poem "The Song of Roland"

The ideological struggle took place around Karl, whose image was supposedly obscured by events. He treated his vassals differently, since his power was just beginning to strengthen. The image of Charlemagne is depicted in a sublime style. The epithet “graybeard” is constantly encountered in the work, that is, a wise and fair king who thought only about France and how to establish the name of God and Christian ideas throughout the entire earth. He cared for his warriors, loved Roland, and was always ready to avenge his sons in a fierce battle. Despite his advanced age, Charles was not afraid to participate in battle, fearlessly repelling the attack of the Moors. During the Spanish campaign he was 36 years old, but in the poem he is much older.

The work is based on two aspects: epic-heroic and feudal-knightly. Roland and other characters in the poem - knights remained faithful to their overlord. Roland is a knight and an epic hero, Gwenelon is a knight and a traitor. Following the laws of knightly honor, he put the interests of feudal civil strife above the interests of France. Moreover, he believed that he had the right to declare civil strife against his stepson as his enemy. During the trial he behaved arrogantly, for he was convinced that he had not violated knightly honor and was not a traitor. Therefore, his case was resolved with the help of “God’s judgment.” Gwenelon lost not only Roland, but also 12 peers - the pride of the Franks.

The reason for the tragedy of the poem is not at all in Gwenelon’s revenge, but in the nature of epic heroism. Count Roland was incapable of being afraid of either his enemies or death itself. When he and his army ended up in the Roncesvalles Gorge, he had the opportunity to call for help, but did not do this so as not to “drop the family.”

Roland is the embodiment of the people's dream of ideal hero, brave, courageous, desperate, devoted to France, God and the king. He died for the honor and glory of “dear France.” The religiosity of this hero was not simple. Roland, who with all the fervor of his youth laid down his head for the honor of Christianity, passed into another world with complete conviction and heartfelt repentance for his sins. God liked him, so the angels accepted the knight's glove he offered him. At the same time, he cannot be considered a real Christian, he did not think about the instructions of the church, and did not set himself any great religious goals other than the fight against the pagans.

For the knight, love was not the most important thing in life, and sometimes it even interfered with him. Therefore, only a few tirades highlight the relationship between Roland and his fiancee Alda, Olivier’s sister. Before his death, the hero forgot about his beloved, thinking only that his sword would not fall into the hands of the infidels. This fact prompted researchers to consider the episode with Alda secondary, which was explained by the absence this image in one of the ancient editions of “The Song of Roland”. Unlike the knight, Alda is completely devoted to her pure feelings. Having learned about the death of her beloved, she did not want to live and committed suicide.

Roland's friend Olivier is also a brave and decisive knight, balanced in his decisions. He always thought about the consequences of his actions. Like Roland, he died a heroic death, hoping that the people would write songs about him and his friends. Olivier acts in the poem as a kind of tempter who tests Roland.

The main idea of the poem is the glorification of love for the fatherland and the condemnation of anarchic feudalism. Chivalry is the embodiment of ideas about devotion to the Fatherland and one’s faith.

“The Song of Roland” was popular in world culture. The Italian poet Luigi Pulci (1432-1484) created the epic "Great Blink" (1483). Another Italian poet, Boiardo (1441-1494), wrote the poem "Orlando in Love", and Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) wrote the poem "The Furious Orlando".

Source (translated): Davydenko G.Y., Akulenko V.L. Story foreign literature Middle Ages and Renaissance. - K.: Center educational literature, 2007

The heroic epic is one of the most characteristic and popular genres of the European Middle Ages. In France and Spain, it existed in the form of poems called gestures, that is, songs about deeds and exploits.
The thematic basis of the gesture is real historical events, most of which date back to the 8th - 10th centuries. Probably, immediately after these events, oral traditions and legends about them arose.
Originating from the early Middle Ages, the heroic epic took a classical form and experienced a period of active existence in the 12th, 13th and partly 14th centuries. Its written recording dates back to the same time.
In the heroic epic of the Middle Ages one can find signs of:
1. History confidently wins the foreground from mythology. National history either dominates or completely supplants it. In its purest form, this is manifested in the Spanish epic (entirely only “The Song of My Cid” of 1140) - it was born on late material. Its plot dates back to the mid-11th century.
2. The importance of religious Christian motives increases significantly.
3. Patriotic motivation intensifies. And the material motivation of the characters (“Song of Sid” - for the first time in the epic, accounting figures appear: in order to perform feats you need to have money).
4. The increasingly clear influence of knightly ideology and culture (this is what explains the transformation).
5. Signs of the removal of these works from folklore become more obvious: drama is intensifying (growing to tragedy), these epics are characterized by a more harmonious composition, a large epic form is emerging in which these works have come down to us (the principles of cyclization are preserved, but generic cyclization is increasingly being supplanted national-ethical cyclization, develop into national cycles, tribal values are replaced by feudal, state and family values).
The French epic is a political epic. In archaic epics there is no politics at all. The Spanish epic is also political.
One of the main topics heroic epic- selfless, driven only by love for the homeland, the service of faithful vassals to a weak, hesitant, often ungrateful king, who is constantly threatened by either internal or external enemies.
On the one hand, the heroic epic is characterized by a fairly large variety of plots, on the other hand, it knows only a few stable types of characters, moving from gesture to gesture.

Such heroes (using the example of “The Song of Roland”):
1) king (Karl)
2) an epic hero - a valiant knight, ready to sacrifice his life for the sake of his homeland, faith and king (Roland)
3) the hero’s companions, creating a kind of background or motivation for his exploits (Olivier)
4) “traitor” (Ganelon)
5) “anti-hero” – Marsilius (King of Zaragoza)

THE SONG OF ROLAND is a French folk heroic epic.
The most famous and oldest poem in this cycle.
The core of the plot: the Frankish rearguard, led by Ronald, is attacked by a horde of Saracens. The treacherous attack is the fruit of Roland's stepfather's revenge.
The time of creation of the poem is not known exactly. About ten versions of the editions have survived, which date back to the 14th century. Of these, the most ancient is the Oxford list (1170). The events themselves date back to 778. The oldest story about the Battle of Roncival, which took place in August 778, is contained in the oldest biography of Charlemagne from 878 (Einhard). The Basques wrote according to this description.

There are two storylines in The Song of Roland:
- the struggle of two worlds: Muslim and Christian (the struggle of Charles with King Marsilius).
- Ganilon's revenge on stepson Roland. There is enmity between them even before the embassy. Death of Roland, execution.
The first plot is larger and has general meaning. The second plot fills with life details, it also connects “The Song of Roland” with the cycle of evil feudal lords. Giving advice to Karl, Ganilon advises appointing Roland.
Ganilon is not in the most ancient stories. The line of Ganilon itself probably entered the plot of Roland no earlier than 860, since Ganilon modern science associates with Sanskaya Archbishop Vinil, who betrayed Charles the Bald, his trial took place in 859, there was no execution over him.
The two plots correspond to two conflicts in the song:
1. between the Christian and Muslim worlds, which develops from the point of view of the monologue legend: “the infidel is wrong, but the Christian is right.”
The motif of religious intolerance and the struggle between two worlds should be compared with the “Song of Cid”. In the Spanish epic there is no motive of filthy infidels; they knew the merit of the Moors. They are fighting not against a foreign religion, but for the liberation of their land. The Song of Sid is very delicate in this matter: it is tolerance at its core. literally this word.
2. between vassal loyalty and feudal right to strife, which leads to betrayal. The vassals' declaration is put into Roland's mouth: the vassal must suffer for the lord.
The noble feudal lord Ganilon does not consider himself a traitor; at the beginning of the song he directly and publicly announced his enmity with Roland: the right to feud is his legal right. Charles's barons in the trial scene do not see him as a traitor; they acquit Ganilon. Only with the help of God's court, a duel between the parties, is it possible for Charles to punish Ganilon. God's court puts an end to the relationship between the vassal and the king and the vassal's right to internecine strife (in the "Song of Sid" also only with the help of God's court).
Both conflicts are resolved in favor of Charles, the personification of the Christianization of Europe.
Side story: Roland – Olivier line.
It was not in the original version; it appeared only in the 11th century. Plot conflict: “Olivier is wise, and our Roland is brave” or “Roland is hot, and Olivier is reasonable.” Roland refuses to blow the horn three times. Archbishop Trubin will put an end to their dispute. Roland refuses to blow the horn, since his epic immensity conflicts with his vassal duty, and this determines the tragic guilt of the hero: he cannot allow political blasphemy to reach him and his soldiers at home, that he was afraid of the Moors. He cannot change his epic heroic character. “Roland dies not so much under the blows of his enemies as under the weight of his heroic character.” Olivier, proposing to blow the horn, suggests the following outcome: he considers the pride of the Rolands to be the reason for the defeat of the warriors. Roland himself also realizes his guilt.
The ideal of chivalry will be based on valor, equipped with wisdom and virtue, valor subordinated to the Christian canon.
"The Song of Roland" is a song of defeat. The topic of defeat is chosen because the panegyric does not have such possibilities: it was impossible to better show the ideal archpastor and the ideal monk, the fortitude of Roland himself, other than through such a sacrifice.
The scene of Roland's death is described as a rite, a ritual of death for an ideal Christian warrior: he is not wounded, but his head hurts terribly (while blowing the trumpet, he tore the veins in his temples). Roland faints several times, he cries, the archpastor dies in his arms, and goes to die.
Roland enters the depths of the Saracen land, climbs a hill, strikes three times with his sword, lies down on the grass, under a pine tree, with his head towards Spain, feeling how he is dying, remembers the battle, the feat, his relatives and the king, but does not forget his soul: confession, repentance and the ritual of the glove (the overlord handed the glove to his vassal, served the service - returns the glove) - before his death, Roland stretches the glove upward, handing it over to God, and the Archangel Michael transfers Roland’s soul to heaven.

Sovereign Emperor of the Franks great Charles(the same Charles from whose name the word “king” comes) seven for long years fought with the Moors in Spain. He has already conquered many Spanish castles from the wicked. His faithful army took all the towers by storm and conquered all the cities. Only the ruler of Zaragoza, King Marsilius, the godless servant of Muhammad, does not want to recognize the dominance of Charles. But soon the proud ruler Marsilius will fall and Zaragoza will bow its head before the glorious emperor. King Marsilius convenes his faithful Saracens and asks them for advice on how to avoid the reprisal of Charles, the ruler of beautiful France. The wisest of the Moors remain silent, and only one of them, the Valfond castellan, did not remain silent. Blancandrin, as the Moor was called, advises to achieve peace with Charles by deception. Marsilius must send messengers with great gifts and with an oath of friendship, let him promise Charles on behalf of his sovereign. The ambassador will deliver to the emperor seven hundred camels, four hundred mules, loaded with Arab gold and silver, so that Charles can reward his vassals with rich gifts and pay the mercenaries. When Charles sets off on his return journey with the offerings, let Marsilius swear to follow Charles in a short time and accept Christianity in Aachen, the capital city, on St. Michael’s Day. The children of the most noble Saracens will be sent to Charles as hostages, although it is clear that they are destined for death when Marcilius’s treachery is revealed. The French will go home, and only in Aachens Cathedral will the mighty Charles on the great day of St. Michael understand that he has been deceived by the Moors, but it will be too late to take revenge. The hostages will die, but King Marsilius will not lose his throne. Marsilius agrees with Blancandrin’s advice and sends envoys on their way to Charles, promising them rich estates as a reward for their faithful service. The ambassadors take an olive branch in their hands - a sign of peace - and set off. Meanwhile, the mighty Charles celebrates his victory over Cordoba in a fruitful garden. Vassals sit around him, playing dice and chess. Arriving at the Frankish camp, the Moors see Charles on the golden throne, the king’s face is proud and beautiful, his beard whiter than snow , and the curls fall in waves onto the shoulders. The ambassadors greet the emperor. They set forth everything that Marsilius, king of the Moors, ordered them to convey. Karl listens attentively to the messengers and, hanging his head, plunges into thought. The sun sparkles brightly over the camp of the Franks when Karl convenes his entourage. Karl wants to know what the barons think, whether one can believe the words of Marsilius, who promises to obey the Franks in everything. The barons, tired from long campaigns and difficult battles, wish for a speedy return to their native lands, where their beautiful wives are waiting. But no one can advise this to Karl, since each of them knows about Marsilius’s treachery. And everyone is silent. Only one, the king’s nephew, the young Count Roland, comes forward and begins to persuade Charles not to believe the words of the deceitful king of the Moors. Roland reminds the king of the recent betrayal of Marsilius, when he also promised to faithfully serve the Franks, but he himself broke his promise and betrayed Charles, killing his ambassadors, the glorious counts of Bazan and Basil. Roland begs his master to go to the walls of rebellious Zaragoza as soon as possible and take revenge on Marsilius for the death of the glorious warriors. Charles. is silent, an ominous silence hangs. Not all the barons are happy with young Roland's proposal. Count Gwenelon convinces everyone that Charles’s army is already tired, and so much has been conquered that they can proudly strive back to the borders of beautiful France. Another baron, Nemon of Bavaria, one of the king's best vassals, advises Charles to listen to the speeches of Gwenelon and heed the pleas of Marsilius. The count claims that Christian duty dictates that the infidels be forgiven and converted to God, and there is no doubt that the Moors will come to Aachen on St. Michael’s Day. Charles turns to the barons with the question of who to send to Zaragoza with an answer. Count Roland is ready to go to the Moors, although his advice is rejected by the master. Karl refuses to let go of his beloved nephew, to whom he owes many victories. Then Nemon of Bavaria willingly offers to take the message, but Karl does not want to let him go either. Many barons, in order to prove their loyalty, want to set off, only Count Gwenelon is silent. Then Roland shouts out advice to Karl: “Let Gwenelon go.” Count Gwenelon stands up in fear and looks at the crowd, but everyone nods their heads in agreement. Count Gwenelon goes to his tent and prepares his battle armor, getting ready to set off. Not far from the Frankish camp, Gwenelon catches up with the returning embassy of the infidels, whom the cunning Blancandrin detained with Charles as long as possible in order to meet the emperor’s envoy along the way. A long conversation ensues between Gwenelon and Blancandrin, from which the Moor learns about the enmity between Gwenelon and Karl’s favorite Roland. They swear an oath to each other - to destroy the mighty Roland. A day passes, and Gwenelon is already at the walls of Zaragoza, he is being led to the king of the Moors, Marsilius. Having bowed to the king, Gwenelon gives him Karl's message. Charles agrees to go to his borders in peace, but on the day of St. Michael he is waiting for Marsilius in the throne of Aachen, and if the Saracen dares to disobey, he will be taken in chains to Aachen and face a shameful death there. Marsilius, who did not expect such sharpness, grabs a spear, wanting to defeat the count, but Gwenelon dodges the blow. All the troubles of Spain come from Roland alone, he begins to convince Marsilius, and if he wants peace in his country, then he must not only listen to Charles, but also destroy his nephew, Roland, by cunning or deceit. Marsilius is happy with this plan, but he does not know how to deal with Roland, and asks Gwenelon to come up with a remedy. If they succeed in destroying Roland, Marsilius promises the count rich gifts and castles of beautiful Spain for his faithful service. Gwenelon has had a plan ready for a long time; he knows for sure that Karl will want to leave someone in Spain in order to ensure peace in the conquered land. Karl will undoubtedly ask Roland to remain on guard, he will have a very small detachment with him, and in the gorge (the king will already be far away) Marsilius will defeat Roland, depriving Karl of his best vassal. Marsilius likes this idea, he calls Gwenelon to his chambers and orders him to bring expensive gifts there, best furs and decorations that new friend will take his wife to distant France. Soon Gwenelon is escorted back, as if they have agreed on the execution of their plans. Every noble Moor swears friendship to the traitorous Frank and sends his children with him to Charles as hostages. Count Gwenelon drives up to the Frankish camp at dawn and immediately goes to Charles. He brought the ruler many gifts and brought hostages, but most importantly, Marsilius handed over the keys to Zaragoza. The Franks rejoice, Karl ordered everyone to gather to announce: “The end of the cruel war. We're going home." But Karl does not want to leave Spain without protection. Otherwise, before he even gets to France, the infidels will raise their heads again, and then everything that the Franks have achieved in seven long years of war will come to an end. Count Gwenelon prompts the emperor to leave Roland on guard in the gorge with a detachment of brave warriors. Karl leaves Spain in tears and gives Roland his bow as a farewell. He knows that they are no longer destined to meet. The traitor Gwenelon will be to blame for the troubles that will befall the Franks and their emperor. Roland, having gathered his army, descends into the gorge. He hears the roar of drums and watches the soldiers leaving for their homeland. Karl is already far away, and then Roland and Count Olivier climb a high hill and see hordes of Saracens. Olivier reproaches Gwenelon for betrayal and begs Roland to blow the horn. Charles may still hear the call and turn his troops. But proud Roland does not want help and asks the soldiers to fearlessly go into battle and win: “God bless you, French!” Olivier climbs the hill again and sees the Moors very close, the hordes of which are still arriving. He again asks Roland to blow the trumpet so that Karl will hear their call and turn back. Roland doesn’t want to hear anything, lines up his army and rushes into battle with the cry “monjoy”. The French and the troops of the cunning Marsilius clashed in a fierce battle. An hour passes, the French are cutting down the infidels, only screams and the ringing of weapons are heard over the remote gorge. Count Olivier rushes across the field with a fragment of a spear, he hits the Moor Malzaron, followed by Turgis, Estorgoth. Count Olivier has already killed seven hundred infidels. The battle is getting hotter - Cruel blows strike both the Franks and the Saracens, but the Franks have no fresh strength, and the pressure of the enemies does not weaken. Marsilius rushes from Zaragoza with a huge army, he longs to meet Charles’s nephew, Count Roland. Roland sees Marsilius approaching and only now finally understands the vile betrayal of his Gwenelon. The battle is terrible, Roland sees how the young Franks are dying, and in repentance he rushes to Olivier, he wants to blow the horn. But Olivier just says that it’s too late to call Charles for help, now the emperor won’t help, he’s quickly rushing into the battle. Roland trumpets... Bloody foam on Roland's lips, the veins on his temples are swollen, a drawn-out sound can be heard far away. Having reached the border of France, Karl hears Roland's horn, he understands that his premonitions were not in vain. The Emperor deploys his troops and rushes to the aid of his nephew. Karl is getting closer and closer to the place of the bloody battle, but he will no longer find anyone alive. There is death and blood everywhere, dead Frenchmen lie everywhere, only Roland returned to the battlefield, he cuts from the shoulder, cut Fal-dron, many noble Moors, Roland’s revenge is terrible for the death of the soldiers and for the betrayal of Gwenelon. On the battlefield, he encountered Marsilius, the king of all Zaragoza, and cut off his hand, threw the prince and son of Marsilius from his horse with a damask sword and stabbed him with a spear. Marsilius flees in fright, but this will not help him, Charles’s troops are too close. It's dusk. One caliph, on a horse, flies up to Olivier and hits him in the back with a damask spear. Roland looks at Count Olivier and realizes that his friend has been killed. He looks for the archbishop, but there is no one nearby, the army is defeated, the day has come to an end, bringing death to the valiant Franks. Roland walks alone across the battlefield, he feels that his strength has left him, his face is covered in blood, Perfect eyes blurred, he sees nothing. The hero falls on the grass, closes his eyes, and for the last time he sees the image of beautiful France. After a while, a Spanish Moor crept up to him in the darkness and dishonorably struck him down. A mighty knight has been killed. Here at dawn Charles’s army finds him. The emperor, sobbing, falls to his knees in front of his nephew's body and promises to avenge him. The troops are in a hurry to get on the road to catch up with the Moors and give the last battle to the filthy traitors. The wounded Marsilius escapes from the wrath of the emperor in the capital, Zaragoza. He hears the victorious cry of the French entering the city. Marsilius asks his neighbors for help, but everyone turned away from him in fear; only Baligant is ready to help. His troops met with Charles's troops, but the Franks quickly defeated them, leaving the Saracens lying on the battlefield. Karl returns to his homeland to piously bury the bodies of the heroes and bring a fair trial to the traitors. All of France mourns the great warriors, the glorious Roland is no more, and without him the Franks have no happiness. Everyone demands the execution of the traitor Gwenelon and all his relatives. But Karl does not want to execute the vassal without giving him a word in his justification. The day of the great judgment has come, Karl calls the traitor to himself. Then one of the glorious Franks, Tidri, asks Charles to arrange a duel between him and Gwenelon’s relative, Pinabel. If Tdry wins, Gwenelon will be executed, if not, he will live. The mighty Tedri and the invincible Pina-bel met on the battlefield, raising their swords, they rushed into battle. The heroes fight for a long time, but neither one nor the other is given victory. Fate decreed that when the wounded Tidry raised his sword over Pinabel’s head for the last time, he, struck, fell dead to the ground and never woke up again. The emperor's judgment is completed, the soldiers tie Gwenelon to horses and drive them to the water. The traitor Gwenelon experienced terrible torment. But what kind of death will atone for the death of the beautiful Roland... Charles bitterly mourns his beloved vassal. A. N. Kotreleva Charlemagne - Emperor of the Franks, Roland's uncle in the poem. The historical K.V. very little resembles the grey-bearded ruler, wise with years and experience - at the time of the Spanish campaign he was only 36 years old. In the poem he is 200 years old, and his appearance is emphatically patriarchal, which is typical for folk tales. The poem also creates a hyperbolic idea in the spirit of the epic about the power of the empire of K.: along with the regions that actually belonged to the Frankish emperor or were conquered by him, those countries and cities that were not part of the empire of K. are named (Poland, Scotland, Wales, England , Constantinople, etc.), and even those that did not exist in the 8th century. (Normandy). K.V. appears in the poem as the embodiment of the spirit of the Crusades: his actions are guided by the Archangel Gabriel; like Joshua, he stops the sun in order to punish the infidels; he dreams prophetic dreams. In general, throughout the entire poem there is a parallel with gospel parable about Christ. The twelve peers are likened to the apostles, the traitor Gwenelon is to some extent equated to Judas, and in the behavior of K. himself at times a martyr’s submission to fate appears: “I cannot hold back the flow of tears! /Count Gwenelon will destroy my people, - /Tonight an angel appeared to me /And showed a prophetic dream to my eyes.” Roland is the main character of the “Song”. His character is distinguished by pride and arrogance, typical of a hero accustomed to winning victories. When he notices that a superior enemy force is approaching their small detachment, he rejects Olivier's advice to blow the horn so that Charles's warriors will hear him and come to his aid. He, as befits an epic hero, relies entirely on his own strength. The selfless devotion of the vassal to the emperor, the readiness to sacrifice his life at his first request is the main motive of the “Song”, which does not contain pictures of peaceful life and everyday life, but military councils, battles and duels are described in detail. We learn about R.’s bride, Alda, who dies of grief after learning about the death of her lover only at the end of the poem, and her image does not produce such strong impression, as figures of stern warriors and nobles of Emperor Charles. R. appears in the “Song” as the embodiment of all the virtues that, according to the ideas of his era, a faithful servant of the emperor and a courageous Christian warrior should have had.

"The Song of Roland". Folk heroic epic The Middle Ages differs significantly from Homeric poems. Homeric poems, as has been shown, complete the development of the ancient folk epic. Homer relies on myth, glorifying the heroic past of his people, the “glory of men”; its scale is space and humanity. Especially the "Odyssey", with its sophisticated composition, with various literary layers, indicates a transition from the folklore stage to the literary, authorial stage. Medieval epic poems, in comparison with the Homeric epic, seem to return to a typologically earlier, purely folklore stage of literature. They reflected the oral folk art young peoples Western Europe, their passionary impulse, which is based on the spread of Christianity.

These poems took shape over the course of centuries, and were written down almost simultaneously: the best manuscript of the “Song of Roland”, the so-called Oxford manuscript, dates back to the middle of the 12th century; At the same time, the “Song of My Sid” was recorded in a Spanish monastery; at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, the “Song of the Nibelungs” was recorded in southern Germany. But to what extent does the authorship of the poems belong to the people who recorded them? Were they simply monastic scribes who had before them some more ancient manuscripts that have not reached us, or professional poet-storytellers who were called “jugglers” in France, “huglars” in Spain, and “spielmanns” in Germany? It is impossible to answer this question today. In the last line of the "Song of Roland" a proper name appears: "Turold fell silent." But we know nothing about this Turold, and the assumption that this is the author of the poem is unprovable. The fact is that the epic literature of the Middle Ages does not know the concept of individual authorship: the text of an epic poem is a collective property, and each new performer, each new copyist felt the right to make changes to it. Therefore, when dealing with the written down, fixed text of the “Song of Roland”, one should be aware that this is one of many actually existing versions of the poem.

"The Song of Roland" - main monument French epic, the richest and most extensive of all the other national epic traditions of Western Europe. It consists of the so-called chansons de geste ("chanson de gesture", or "gesture" for short - a song about an action). Today, about a hundred gestures created in the 10th-13th centuries are known. Wandering singer-jugglers performed gestures to the accompaniment of a harp or viol at fairs and in the castles of feudal lords. The volume of a gesture is from one to twenty thousand verses, that is, a gesture could not always be heard at once, sometimes it took several days to complete.

Gestures could tell about conflicts within the feudal nobility, but the most popular was the Carolingian epic - songs about the so-called "Carolingian revival", about the era of the reign of the historical emperor Charlemagne (reigned from 768 to 814). In popular memory, he overshadowed all the other rulers of his dynasty and turned into an ideal king, the creator of a powerful state and the defender of the faith. "Our Emperor Charles" is one of the main characters in The Song of Roland.

The historical basis of the poem is set out by Frankish and Arab chronicles. At the end of the 8th century, Spain was invaded by the Moors; in 778, 38-year-old Charles (he would not be proclaimed emperor until 800) unsuccessfully intervened in a dispute between Muslim rulers in Spain. This expedition of his was unsuccessful. He was forced to lift the short siege of Zaragoza, and returning to France, he was attacked by detachments of Basques professing Christianity, who wanted to take revenge on the Franks for the destruction of their settlements. The French rearguard was attacked in the gorges of the Roncesvalles gorge in the Pyrenees. The Basques easily gained the upper hand, and among those who fell in this battle, the only chronicle mentions a certain “Hruodland, prefect of the Breton March,” that is, the epic Roland.

The jugglers turned this episode into a picture of Charles's seven-year war with the Saracens for the Christianization of Spain. Once again we encounter a characteristic epic exaggeration of the scale of events, the number of people involved in them, and a rethinking of the significance of these events for the history of the people.

The events of the plot are enlarged. In the seventh year of the war in Spain, having won many victories, Charles receives ambassadors from the last enemy, King Marsilius of Zaragoza, with a false offer of peace. Charles responds to the embassy of Marsilius with the embassy of Ganelon, who must clarify the terms of the truce. Ganelon's name is pronounced at the council by his stepson and Charles's favorite nephew, Count Roland, who himself first volunteered to be an ambassador. But since the Franks remember the fate of their previous ambassadors - all of them were killed by Marsilius - the king forbids Roland to go to the embassy, but agrees to Ganelon’s candidacy. Ganelon immediately accuses Roland of wanting him dead and vows revenge. Arriving in Zaragoza, he enters into a treacherous conspiracy with Marsilius, instilling in him that only the warlike Roland at the court of the old, tired emperor advocates war, and it is necessary to put an end to Roland in order to rid Spain of the Franks. Having brought hostages and gifts from Marsilius to Charles, Ganelon persuades him to appoint Roland as the head of the twenty-thousand-strong French rearguard, which will cover the return of Charles’s main troops, and Roland, with his characteristic daring, accepts this assignment, seeing in it recognition of his military merits.

The plan of Ganelon and Marsilius is carried out. In the Roncesvalles Gorge, hordes of hundreds of thousands of Moors treacherously attack the French. Roland's brother, Olivier, persuades him to blow Olifan's horn three times so that Karl can hear his call and come to his aid, but the proud Roland refuses. He strikes right and left with his blued sword Durendal, rushes across the battlefield on his war horse Veliantif, kills hundreds of Moors, but all this is in vain. In a fierce battle, all the French peers and barons were killed: the reasonable Olivier fell, the penultimate warrior Bishop Turpin died, and, finally, Roland himself, only blowing the horn before his death. Charles returns to his call, mourns the French and arranges the defeat of first the army of Marsilius, and then the Babylonian emir Baligan, who landed in Spain. Thus the correctness of the Christian faith was proven, and the pagans renounced their gods, who could not help them.

In the third part, the action of the poem is immediately transferred to Charles’s capital, Aachen, where the traitor Ganelon was sent for trial. However, the baronial court, consisting of Ganelon’s relatives, acquits him, and justice triumphs only thanks to “God’s court,” that is, a duel between Pinabel, a supporter of Ganelon, and Charles’s faithful servant, Thierry. Thierry gains the upper hand, and Ganelon accepts a painful execution - “let the criminal not boast of treason.” At the end of the poem, the widow Marsilia Bramimonda voluntarily converts to Christianity, and the Archangel Gabriel appears to King Charles in a dream and calls for help to the Christians suffering from the pagans:

But the king does not want to go to war. He says: “God, how bitter is my lot!” - Tears his gray beard, cries mournfully...

As you can see, the composition of the poem is built on the principle of symmetry: each of the three main stages of action consists of two contrasting events. The plot of the poem, the betrayal of Ganelon, includes a description of two embassies - the Moor Blancandrin and the Christian Ganelon. The climax of the poem is a description of two battles, one victorious, the second disastrous for the French. The denouement is retribution for the Muslims and Ganelon.

Compared to Homeric poems, the scope of action in The Song of Roland is narrowed: it is only a military, patriotic and religious epic. Roland's beloved, Lady Alda, is mentioned in only one stanza; Roland himself does not remember her. Only after learning from Karl about the death of the one who “gave an oath to call her his wife,” she immediately dies - “Have mercy on Alda, God!” No privacy heroes do not, they are only warriors, diplomats, statesmen, and their value system is subordinated to the concepts of Christian and vassal duty. The author does not show any tolerance towards those who do not share these values. The Moors are shown as idolaters, deprived of the light of true faith; When they die in battle, these devils go straight to hell. Those of them who refuse to be baptized after the surrender of Zaragoza to Charles are killed on the spot, and the epic author speaks about this quite calmly:

Karl is jealous Christian faith He orders the prelates to consecrate the water and hastily baptize the Moors in their fonts, and if anyone does not agree to this, hang, burn and kill them mercilessly.

The same Christian idea permeates the images of the main epic heroes. Charles is the defender of the south of France from the attacks of the Moors, and the war with them is interpreted as a patriotic war for “sweet France.” Charles's barons are loyal vassals and the best warriors in the world, and the best among them is Roland, who conquered many lands for his king. But, in addition, Roland is also a vassal of God; it is not for nothing that before his death he stretches out his glove to heaven - this is a gesture with which he betrays himself to the Lord, just as a vassal hands over his glove as a sign of loyalty to the overlord. The warrior church is personified in the poem by Archbishop Turpin, who in Roncesvalles absolves the sins of the dying with one hand, and strikes down enemies with the other.

A relatively small element of fantasy in the poem is associated with Christianity. Karl has prophetic dreams. The Archangel Gabriel appears to the king; Through the emperor's prayer, the day is extended: so that he can finish slaughtering the Moors, God stops the sun in heaven. At the hour of the battle in Roncesvalles, a terrible thunderstorm breaks out over France - a cry for the dying Roland.

Accordingly, the characters in the poem are depicted more straightforwardly than Homer's characters. Karl personifies in his gesture statesmanship, Christian virtue, Roland - heroic fury, Olivier - prudent restraint:

Olivier is wise, Roland is brave, And one is equal in valor.

All three heroes are opposed to each other, but are united by their love for “dear France,” and they are opposed by the traitor to the interests of the homeland Ganelon.

The poem says that Roland makes a mistake, as a result of which his entire squad and himself die. This mistake is a consequence of his frantic heroism, his faith in his own strength and his high principles:

Let no one say about me that I forgot my duty out of fright. I will never disgrace my family. ........................................ Shame on the one in whose heart fear has crept .

Roland's tragic mistake is explained and justified by his virtues epic hero, and even though from a Christian point of view the former epic heroism, which fills a person with vanity, is a sin that is subject to atonement, Roland completely atones for his mistake with his feat. His heroism is unbridled and limitless, he is a hero aimed at personal feat for the glory of his king and his God. This is a new version of the epic hero, colored by Christianity, which is why the poem is named after him, the name of Roland.

The Song of Roland in the Oxford manuscript consists of 4002 verses. Like all gestures, it is written in a special strophic form - loess, or otherwise tirades, with a variable number of lines in a stanza, from four to twenty; the lines within the loess are connected by imprecise rhymes - assonances, when the same vowel sounds in each last syllable of each line of a given stanza. French epic verse is a syllabic decasyllable; exact rhymes in French versification will appear later.

"The Song of Roland" uses the same repetitions (often the loess ends with the exclamation "Aoi!"), stable formulas; Its amazing parallelism in the system of images and compositional structure has already been noted.

Arrangements of the “Song of Roland” are known in almost all Romance and Germanic languages.

“The Song of Roland” was recorded at a time when the class of knights with its special ideology had already emerged, and the knightly code of honor left a well-known imprint on the depiction of the relationship between the heroes of the “Song” (glorifying loyalty to vassal duty, Christian fervor), but in general the system of values here is still early feudal. Specifically knightly conflicts will be reflected in the most popular epic genre literature of the high Middle Ages - in the chivalric romance.