I. On the history of the issue of literary norms of the Russian language
1.1 Background
The Russian language from the Indo-European family, after the collapse of the common European Proto-Slavic language (VI-VII centuries) into eastern, western and southern groups, developed in the East Slavic group, from which it separated in the 15th century. (5)
"Culture Ancient Rus' characterized by bilingualism: Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages. The book, literary, and scholarly language was Church Slavonic. The Old Russian language was used in everyday communication, business correspondence, etc. At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The Great Russian language emerged, displacing Church Slavonic from cultural communication.” (14)
“All liturgical literature,” write Mikhailova and Golovanova, “being copied from Old Church Slavonic Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Church Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature. Parallel to this style of language there was also secular and business literature" (5)
In the process of the formation of the Old Russian literary and written language, the primary one was the folk colloquial speech (dialects) of the East Slavic tribes, which in the 9th-10th centuries. possessed rich oral folk art, epic and lyrical poetry, tales and legends, proverbs and sayings (15).
“The book Slavic literary language based on Old Church Slavonic and used primarily in church literature” and the “folk literary language based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature” gradually came closer to one degree or another, and, although they did not overcome its separation and difference, but “on their basis in the 18th century. the literary Russian language was formed” (5).
Viktor Vinogradov (1894/95-1969) (16), academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1946), literary critic and linguist-Russianist, philologist, in the work “Pushkin’s Language” (1935) (17) on the issue of the formation of normalized Russian literary language notes that from the end of the 18th century this “normalization was carried out through the prohibition and strict limitation in literary use of words professional, “common” and generally dialectical (here: coming from dialects, and not from dialectics - P.P.) socially alien (from the point of view from the point of view of salon, secular-noble language) coloring” (17).
The modern literary Russian language, according to Mikhailova and Golovanova, originates only in the 19th century:
End of the 19th century to the present - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established language norms, but these norms are being improved over time” (5).
At the same time, upon completion of the process of formation of the written Russian literary language and, especially, after rules and norms were officially established in it, oral folk art and talk is no longer considered as component modern literary language, but in its own special dialect linguistic field (1).
Lev Shcherba (1880-1944), Russian and Soviet linguist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (18), in the article “Modern Russian Literary Language” notes:
"How larger number dialects are united by a given literary language, the more traditional and immobile its norms should be. It cannot follow changes in the spoken language of one dialect or another, since it will then cease to be understandable to everyone, that is, it will cease to perform the main function that a literary language should perform and which, in essence, alone makes it literary, i.e. that is, generally accepted, and therefore generally understandable.” (19)
“Language means that are not capable of serving the whole society are discarded and recognized as non-literary,” state Mikhailova and Golovanova (5).
The features of the literary language norms are the following (5):
1) relative stability;
2) prevalence;
3) common use;
4) universal obligatory;
5) compliance with the use, custom, and capabilities of the language system.
1.2. Pushkin - the founder of the modern Russian literary language
Alexander Pushkin (1799 -1837) is the greatest Russian poet with African, German and other non-Russian maternal roots. According to Pushkin’s pedigree, Pushkin’s maternal great-grandfather was the African Abram Hannibal, and his maternal great-grandmothers were the Russian German Christina Schöberg and Sarah Rzhevskaya (20).
Pushkin is officially recognized as “the founder of the modern Russian literary language” (21). Pushkin’s contribution to the Russian literary language has been scientifically determined primarily through the study of Vinogradov (16) “Pushkin’s Language” (1933) (17), as well as subsequent literary scholars and linguists:
Boris Tomashevsky (1890-1957) (22), verse theorist and textual critic, author of the book “Pushkin. Modern problems of historical and literary study" (1925) (23);
Grigory Vinokur (1896-1947), a member of the Writers' Union of the USSR, head of the Manuscript Department and the Pushkin Studies Sector of the Pushkin House, the center of whose scientific interests was the stylistics of the Russian language and especially poetic stylistics and who was engaged, in particular, in the work of Pushkin. Vinokur was a member of the Pushkin Commission from 1933, the initiator of the work to create a Dictionary of the Pushkin Language, and participated in the compilation of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language edited by Dmitry Ushakov (24, 25).
In the article “Literary language and ways of its development” (1940), Shcherba wrote:
“From the fact that the basis of any literary language is the richness of all still readable literature, it does not at all follow that the literary language does not change. Pushkin is, of course, still very much alive for us: almost nothing in his language shocks us. And yet it would be ridiculous to think that now it is possible to write in the sense of language quite like Pushkin” (19).
We will show with examples that Pushkin was by no means always an impeccable example of the “correct” or literary language not only of his time, but even more so of the modern one. Tomashevsky pointed out this in his studies. Referring to numerous spelling deviations from the literary norm “towards archaisms and living pronunciation,” it was he who concluded that “Pushkin’s language was not the “correct” literary language of his time” and even “Not all Pushkin’s forms were literary acceptable in print.” (23).
“Do we understand Pushkin? – Valery Bryusov (1873-1924), one of the most famous Russian poets, founders of symbolism, literary scholar and literary critic, posed the question in 1918 (26), and noted that “for the “average” reader, there are three elements of “incomprehensibility” in Pushkin’s works :
Firstly, in order to fully understand Pushkin, you need to know his era well, historical facts, details of the poet’s biography, etc....
Secondly, you need to know Pushkin’s language, his word usage...
Thirdly, it is necessary to know Pushkin’s entire worldview...” (27).
Vinokur in the article “Pushkin and the Russian Language” (1937) pointed out (28):
“...In Pushkin’s time, the influence of normative grammar on the literary language was much weaker than later. Therefore, such phenomena penetrated more freely into the literary language and were more easily retained in it, which represent the deviation of the living spoken language from the schemes of book grammar and which in our time, not only in writing, but also in oral speech, leave the impression of “unliteraryness”. This also applies to some extent to the vocabulary of the language.
At the beginning of the 19th century. In the literary language, some words found a place for themselves that now seem to us insufficiently literary, regional, etc. But not everything non-literary from our point of view was non-literary from the point of view of the linguistic practice of Pushkin’s time.
In the century that separates us from Pushkin (Vinokur’s article was written in 1937), the Russian literary language has gone through a number of changes, general meaning which can be defined approximately as follows: firstly, a stricter distinction between literary correct and non-literary forms of language; Secondly, the gradual elimination of sharp contradictions between the “high” and “simple” syllables within the literary language itself.
Banished from the literary language various kinds archaisms and specific elements of old book speech, but at the same time the literary language becomes much more strict in relation to such facts of the language, mainly phonetic and morphological, but to some extent also lexical, which begin to belong to the categories of “regional”, “common” etc.
In other words, the process of simplifying the literary language, the process of bringing the book language closer to living spoken language, was accompanied by dictionary and grammatical cleansing of the language, the introduction of grammatical uniformity and normative correctness into literary speech” (28).
Pushkin's work, of course, played a crucial role in shaping the norms of modern literary language. Before Pushkin, many such norms simply did not exist, were not formed or were not established for many words and expressions, although there were, of course, already rules of Russian grammar.
1.3. Pushkin's predecessors and their contribution to the foundation of the Russian literary language
Recognizing Pushkin’s contribution to the foundation of the modern Russian literary language and taking into account that the work of this greatest poet fell on the first period of development of such a language, it is nevertheless necessary to remember his predecessors.
1.3.1 Maxim Smotritsky - Theophilus Ortholog and his “Grammar”
Turning to an earlier time, to the 16th-17th centuries. , we must mention first of all Maxim Smotritsky, known in the church as Meletius, and who also had the pseudonym Theophilus Orthologus (born either in 1572 or ca. 1577-1579), Ukrainian and Belarusian publicist, learned philologist, church and public figure Southwestern Rus', Archbishop of Polotsk (29).
In 1618-1619, Smotritsky’s “Grammar” was published, his main philological work, “the basis of Church Slavonic grammatical science for the next two centuries, which went through many reprints, revisions and translations... - an outstanding monument to Slavic grammatical thought.”
Smotritsky’s “Grammar” consisted of the following parts: spelling, etymology, syntax, prosody or the study of stress (primarily musical, dealing with syllables in terms of their stress and length (29). In the old days, prosody was the name given to the set of rules of versification (30,31 ).
Smotritsky was responsible for establishing the system of cases characteristic of Slavic languages; two verb conjugations; definition (not yet entirely accurate) of the type of verbs, etc.; extra letters of Slavic writing are marked, which it does not need.
Smotritsky’s “Grammar” also had a section on versification, where instead of syllabic verse it was proposed to use metrical verse, as supposedly more characteristic of Slavic speech.
Smotritsky’s “Grammar” was repeatedly republished to bring it closer to the living Russian language and had a great influence on the development of Russian philology and the teaching of grammar in schools. In alphabet books of the 17th century. Extensive extracts have been made from it.
Smotritsky emphasized the need for conscious assimilation educational material- “Understand the words with your mind.” They put forward 5 stages of learning: “see, listen, understand, consider, remember.” Smotrytsky participated in the writing of the “Primer of the Slavonic language” (1618).
1.3.2 Contribution of Mikhail Lomonosov to the foundation of the Russian literary language
Next, we need to mention the great scientist and great poet Mikhail Lomonosov (1711-1765), whose contribution to the foundation of the Russian literary language is indisputable, but who still cannot be credited with the fact that he “established the foundations of the MODERN Russian literary language” (32). This merit remains with Pushkin.
Lomonosov was one of the first who compiled (1755) “Russian Grammar” and thereby laid the foundation for the norms of the Russian literary language.
Lomonosov wrote the first Russian works on rhetoric: “A Brief Guide to Rhetoric” (1743) and the fundamental work “Rhetoric” (1748), which became the first anthology of world and domestic literature in Russia, or, as they said then, literature.
Rhetoric was considered by Lomonosov as the science of oral and written eloquence, which must be “depicted in decent words... Based on “Rhetoric,” textbooks on Russian eloquence were subsequently written.” In his work, he also highlighted poetry, giving “instructions for composing poetic works” (32).
In the book “Discourse on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” Lomonosov “developed a stylistic system of the Russian language” (33).
In his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739), Lomonosov, being a famous poet of his time, expressed his idea of the literary correctness of Russian poetic speech.
Lomonosov in his letter called for, firstly, to try not to use foreign or alien words unnecessarily in Russian poetry; secondly, to use all the vocabulary wealth of the Russian language, not shying away from colloquial folk expressions and words; and, finally, thirdly, try to avoid objectionable words and expressions and not forget all the good ones, taking from poetic examples only what is worthy of being followed or used in the modern Russian language.
1.3.3 Pioneer of Russian phonetics Vasily Trediakovsky
Vasily Trediakovsky (1703-1769), a Russian poet, translator and philologist, who for the first time in Russian language and literature theoretically separated poetry and prose, (34) wrote about the “liberties of poetic language”:
“Liberty is a certain change in words by the use of approved...
Typically, poets act more freely and boldly in their choice of syllables and sometimes use in verse, for measure, words that cannot be tolerated in prose. They have this right, confirmed by many centuries; however, they too must be moderate in this.
Liberty in general should be such that a word used at liberty can be clearly recognized, that it is directly ours, and also in such a way that it is somewhat in use, and not some kind of absurd, strange and wild” (35).
Trediakovsky’s treatise “Conversation about Spelling” (1748) dealt with Russian sounds, letters and fonts. In his teaching on spelling, Trediakovsky expressed the desire to bring closer Russian spelling to its phonetic basis: “My spelling for the most part is according to pronunciation for the ear, and not according to the work for the sake of the eye...” (35).
Literary critic, academician and doctor of philological sciences Leonid Timofeev (1904-1984) (36) in the introductory article about Trediakovsky, published in the book of selected works of the poet (1963) (37), cites a noteworthy characteristic of his spelling treatise given by Vinokur in the study “Spelling Theory Trediakovsky" (1948) (38):
“most of his (Trediakovsky - P.P.) provisions concerning phonetics turn out to correspond to reality, and one must certainly keep in mind that in establishing these provisions Trediakovsky had no predecessors and was a true pioneer of science... His scientific priority in history of Russian phonetics on a number of points... Trediakovsky appears before us as a pioneer of Russian phonetics, standing much higher than all his contemporaries.”
1.3.4 Alexander Sumarokov - a fighter for the purity and correctness of the Russian literary language
Alexander Sumarokov (1717-1777) was a wonderful, very popular poet and writer of his time, who made a significant contribution to the history of the struggle for the purity and correctness of the Russian literary language and Russian poetry; he was also the founder of the Russian theater, rightfully considered his father (39,40,41).
In the poem “Epistola on Poetry” (1747) Sumarokov wrote:
It is impossible for him to glorify himself with his letter,
Who does not know grammatical properties or rules
And, having no idea how to write letters correctly,
Suddenly he wants to be a creator and a poet.
He just arranges words to rhyme,
But he calls the intertwined nonsense poetry.
There is no direct stress in the words,
Not the slightest conjugation in speeches,
No decent rhymes, no decent feet
There is no stingy song with an unworthy thought.
..............................................
The style of the songs should be pleasant, simple and clear,
There is no need for flair; he is beautiful in his own right.
Pushkin wrote:
“Sumarokov knew the Russian language better than Lomonosov, and his critics (grammatically) were thorough. Lomonosov did not answer or laughed it off. Sumarokov demanded respect for poetry” (42).
1.3.5 Gabriel Derzhavin and his contribution to the development of the modern Russian literary language
Gabriel (Gavrila) Derzhavin (1743-1816), who came from the famous Tatar family Bagrim-Murzas from the Great Horde (43,44). - “the most radiant luminary of our poetry” (45) of the Enlightenment era, “the greatest poet of the 18th century.” (46)
Derzhavin was also a statesman Russian Empire:
“In 1791-1793 - cabinet secretary of Catherine II.
In 1793 he was appointed senator and promoted to privy councilor.
From 1795 to 1796 - President of the Commerce Collegium.
In 1802-1803 - Minister of Justice of the Russian Empire" (43).
Since the founding of the Imperial Russian Academy (1783), Derzhavin was its full member. As part of the publishing group, he took part in the compilation and publication of the first academic explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, or by its full name, “Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in a derivative order” (43, 47.48), published in 1784 - 1789. It is known that Derzhavin personally collected words starting with the letter “T” (48) for the specified dictionary, but this is not the most important thing that he did for the poetic Russian language.
The main contribution of the poet Derzhavin to the development of the modern Russian literary language is that he introduced original and lively combinations into classical poetry different styles, thereby consciously moving away from the views on Lomonosov’s poetry and his theory of three styles. He was the first to include into the fabric, along with archaisms and high-style poetisms, also bright vernaculars, and thereby enriched the literary language of Russian poetry, making it more vivid, impressionable, bold, truthful and popular.
1.3.6. Education of the Russian Academy as a center for the study of Russian language and literature
In 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the Imperial Russian Academy was founded in St. Petersburg on the model of the French Academy, known and referred to in various sources simply as the Russian Academy or as the Russian Academy.
By analogy with the French Academy, the goals of which in France are the study of the French language, literature, regulation of the linguistic and literary norms of the French language (49) “Brief outline of the Imperial Russian Academy” (or according to modern concept The Charter - P.P.) stated that “The Imperial Russian Academy should have as its object the purification and enrichment of the Russian language, the general establishment of the use of its words, its characteristic ornateness and poetry.” (48)
To further understand the essence of the work of the said Russian Academy in its various transformations, as well as its academicians or full and honorary members, they must be distinguished from the Imperial Academy of Sciences, which simultaneously existed in St. Petersburg and was founded by decree of Peter I in 1724 as the highest scientific institution of the Russian Federation. empire (50) which had the official names “Academy of Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg” (1724-1746), “Imperial Academy of Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg” (1747-1802), “Imperial Academy of Sciences” (1803-1835) , “Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences” (1836-1917) and “Russian Academy of Sciences (RAN) (1917-1925). Then, in the history of the Academy of Sciences, in connection with the change in the official name of the state, it is necessary to point out the following names: “Academy of Sciences of the USSR” (1925-1991) and again “Russian Academy of Sciences” (since 1991). Accordingly, scientific academicians differed from full and honorary members of the above-mentioned Russian Academy, who were, for the most part, famous writers and poets.
In the 19th century The following outstanding poets became members of the Russian Academy:
Ivan Krylov (1769-1844), the largest Russian fabulist (he turned to this genre in 1805), and at the same time he was known as a publicist and publisher of satirical and educational magazines. He became a full member of the Imperial Russian Academy from 1811 (41.51);
Nikolai Karamzin (1766-1826) was a remarkable poet-sentimentalist, an outstanding historian and the largest Russian writer of that time, (52), whose ancestry, according to researchers, came from the Tatar family of a certain Kara-Murza (53). In 1818 Karamzin was elected a member of the Russian Academy and the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
Vasily Zhukovsky (1783-1852) is the “central figure of early romanticism,” who opened the way for this trend in Russian poetry and was the founder of the Russian ballad (41.54). Zhukovsky became full members of the Russian Academy also in 1818.
By origin, Zhukovsky is the illegitimate son of the landowner Afanasy Bunin and his Turkish concubine Salha (named Elizaveta Dementyevna Turchaninova at baptism). Vasily received his surname and patronymic from his godfather - the impoverished Kyiv landowner Andrei Grigorievich Zhukovsky, who became a hanger-on with the Bunins. Thus, in the care of two fathers (native and godfather), the future poet, translator, literary critic and teacher Vasily Zhukovsky (41.54) grew up, becoming Pushkin’s literary mentor, and then “the collector, custodian and publisher of Pushkin’s works.” literary heritage"(41).
In 1817-1841, Zhukovsky was the Russian language teacher of the Grand Duchess, and then Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, wife of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I, and mentor of Tsarevich Alexander Nikolaevich. In 1841 he received the title of Privy Councilor (54).
He also became famous as a lyricist national anthem Russian Empire "God Save the Tsar!" (1833).
Alexander Vostokov (birth name Alexander-Woldemar Osteneck, German Osteneck) (1781-1864), Russian poet of “Balto-German origin”, born in Estonia (at that time the Livonian province of the Russian Empire), whose father was a certain Russian nobleman from Baltics H. I. Osten-Sacken (“Osten” in German means “east”, where it originates literary pseudonym poet, who also became his official surname), philologist, member of the Russian Academy since 1820, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences since 1841 (41.55). Vostokov, in addition, was awarded the titles of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Tübingen (1825) and Doctor of the University of Prague (1848). In 1831, the Russian Academy published “Russian Grammar,” compiled by Vostokov in two versions: abridged “for use in lower educational institutions” and “more fully presented” (55). Vostokov made “pioneering observations in the field of syntax.” (55) In his youth, Vostokov was a prominent figure in the literary and artistic association “Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts” (1801-1812, 1816-1825), formed at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, initially under the name “Friendly Society of Lovers of the Fine” ( 41, 56) and officially recognized in 1803.
In addition to many scientific works, Vostokov is also the author of “ Brief history Society of Lovers of Sciences, Literature and Arts (1804), which described in detail the first three years of his work. At the same time, we note that in the title of the indicated work and the works of the Society described in it, he, perhaps accidentally, put science in first place, and literature in second (57);
In 1832, Alexander Pushkin (58) was elected a full member of the Russian Academy, becoming the 159th full member of the Russian Academy at that time.
In total, over the 58-year history (from 1783 to 1841) of the Russian Academy, 187 full members were elected to its composition, among whom writers predominated (58). In the following presentation we will also indicate some of them who became famous as poets and made a significant contribution to the formation of the modern Russian literary language.
1.3.7 Ekaterina Dashkova - the first woman president of the Russian Academy and her contribution to the development of the modern Russian literary language
The role of Princess Ekaterina Dashkova (1743-1810), née Countess Vorontsova (Dashkova is her married name) in the development of the modern Russian literary language is invaluable (59). By the way, at that time the surname Dashkov, pronounced with an emphasis on “a”, indicated belonging to a princely family, and Dashkov, with an emphasis on “o” - to a noble family (60).
Princess Dashkova - politician who participated in the coup against Peter III;
scientist - the first woman in the world to run an academy of sciences: in 1783 she was appointed the first chairman of the Russian Academy and director of the Academy of Sciences, and was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society;
writer - essayist, playwright, journalist and memoirist, “her articles were published in “Friend of Enlightenment” (1804-1806) and in “New Monthly Works””, wrote the comedy “Toishokov, or the Characterless Man” (1786), drama for the Hermitage Theater “Fabian’s Wedding, or Greed for Wealth Punished” is a continuation of Kotzebue’s drama: “Poverty and Nobility of the Soul”;
poetess and translator: wrote poetry in Russian and French, translated Voltaire’s “Essay on Epic Poetry” from French, translated from English in “Experiences from the Works of a Free Russian Assembly”;
Dashkova's memoirs were published in English and French (59).
In 1771-1783, Dashkova actively participated in the work of the Free Russian Assembly (59), which existed at Moscow University from 1771 to 1787, which ceased its work in connection with the opening of the Russian Academy (61).
The Free Russian Assembly consisted of 51 members, mostly university professors (61). Its founder and chairman was the director and curator of Moscow University Ivan Melissino (1718 - 1795), who came from an ancient Greek family related to the Byzantine emperors (62). It is also necessary to mention in connection with the activities of the Assembly the last representative of classicism of the 18th century, in whose work there was a turn towards sentimentalism, a Russian poet with ancient Romanian roots on his father’s side, Mikhail Kheraskov (1733-1807), who was also the director of Moscow University (1763-1770) , and his curator (1778-1802). (63)
Dashkova actively participated in the compilation of the first academic explanatory dictionary - the main work of the Russian Academy, which she led from its founding until 1794. She collected words for this dictionary with the letters Ts, Sh, Shch, made additions to many other letters and also “many worked on explaining words (mostly denoting moral qualities)" in the specified Dictionary (59).
In November 1783, at a meeting of the Russian Academy, Dashkova proposed using the printed letter “е”, asking the attending academicians the question: is it legal to write “iolka” and is it not more reasonable to replace the digraph “io” with one letter “е” (60).
1.3.8 The first academic editions of the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language
The first academic explanatory dictionary of the Russian language corresponded to or established, in essence, the lexical norms of the literary language of the second half of the 18th century.
When compiling the first “Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in a derivative order,” materials were used from the Russian Collection of the Academy of Sciences in 1735-1743 and the Free Russian Assembly - a literary and scientific public organization that existed at Moscow University from 1771 to 1787, the goals of which were formulated in essence the same as for the subsequently founded Russian Academy: “correction and enrichment” of the Russian language, compilation of a dictionary of the Russian language, introduction of Russian scientific terms, publication historical sources" (47)
Although the first explanatory dictionary was defined as “Slavic-Russian,” nevertheless, approximately one fiftieth of the number of all words in the dictionary was occupied by foreign borrowings. “They were left in some cases, for example:
1) if the word has merged with the Russian language, like many words of Tatar origin;
2) Greek and Hebrew church words accepted in Orthodox worship;
3) job titles adopted in legislation are mainly from the German language;
4) the names of “natural and artistic works brought from foreign lands.” (47)
Release of a six-volume explanatory sovar of the Russian language in 1784 - 1789. became the main work of the life of Princess Dashkova, who remained as president of the Russian Academy until 1796.
The first explanatory dictionary of the Russian language included 43,357 words, which were arranged according to a common root, forming branched semantic nests and thus, using the dictionary, it was possible to determine the origin of the words, i.e. this dictionary was not only explanatory, but, in essence, also the first etymological dictionary of the Russian language or, more precisely, “contained elements of an etymological dictionary” (47).
In the second edition, the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order” (1806-1822) included 51,388 words. Its compilers abandoned the principle of grouping lexical units according to the common root of words proposed and implemented by Dashkova in the first edition (48).
1.3.8 The great reformer of the Russian language Nikolai Karamzin
Karamzin had a huge influence on the development of the Russian literary language and went down in history as its great reformer. He purposefully refused to use Church Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, preferring in his works the everyday language of his era, and decisively brought the literary language closer to the spoken language, although he also used old words when he considered them especially expressive (52).
The great Russian critic Vissarion Belinsky (1811-1848), born in the former Sveaborg (in Swedish Sveaborg - Swedish fortress) or in Finnish - in Suomenlinna, since in Finnish Suomenlinna - “Finnish fortress”, a fortress within the boundaries of Helsinki (Finland) whose paternal surname was BelYnsky (64), derived from the name of the village of Belyn, Penza province, where his paternal grandfather served as a priest (upon entering the university, the future critic decided to “soften” his surname, registering as Belinsky) wrote about the reformist contribution Karamzin's contribution to Russian literature is as follows:
“In the person of Karamzin, Russian literature for the first time descended to earth from the stilts on which Lomonosov placed it.” (65)
Karamzin’s statement is interesting: “a grammarian should be good-natured and compassionate, especially towards poets.” (66)
Karamzin was one of the first to support the letter “е” proposed by Dashkova (52) and thanks to him it became widely known (67).
“Sensitive to linguistic nuances, Karamzin was the first to decide to use a young letter in his poem, replacing with it the clumsy combination in the word “sliozy”,” wrote Elena Novoselova in “ Rossiyskaya newspaper"in 2003 in connection with the 220th anniversary of this young letter of the Russian alphabet (68).
In the first book of the poetic almanac “Aonids” (1796), Karamzin printed with the letter “e” not only the word “tears”, but also the words “dawn”, “eagle”, “moth”, “as well as the verb “flow” (60, 67).
For a long time it was believed that it was Karamzin who introduced the letter “e” into written speech. (60,69,70)
However, the printed letter “е” appeared back in 1795, in the first edition of the collection of poems “And My Trinkets” by the famous Russian poet, representative of sentimentalism, fabulist, member of the Russian Academy (1797) Ivan Dmitriev (1760 -1837), who was Printed at the Moscow University Printing House. The title of the collection was given by analogy with Karamzin’s “My Trinkets.” Dmitriev is a distant relative of Karamzin (71), whom he met only in 1783 and became his friend. He is also known as a statesman and minister of justice (1810-1814) (71).
This collection had a title similar to Karamzin’s “My Trinkets” (60).
Philologist Elena Ogneva points out that Dmitriev “then ran to Nikolai Mikhailovich (Karamzin-P.P.) and showed that in the word he put everything at the end of E. And Karamzin replaced two letters in the word sliozy with E”” (67)
Also, the Russian writer, prose writer and researcher Viktor Chumakov (1932-2012), who was the chairman of the so-called “Union of Efictionists of Russia” (72), confirms that the first word written by Dmitriev with the letter “e” was “everything”. Actually, it was Chumakov who made this discovery, made, as he writes, in August 1999 (60).
It is also known that it was Dmitriev who contributed to Pushkin’s admission to the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, and his first meeting with little Alexander Pushkin took place in 1809 (71).
1.4. Russian literary and philological societies of the 19th century
The literary society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (73), also called, as indicated in the “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron” (74) “Conversation of Lovers of Russian Literature” (75) was founded in 1811 by Derzhavin and Shishkov on the initiative of the latter “with the purpose of developing and maintaining a taste for elegant words through the public reading of exemplary works in verse and prose” (75).
It is interesting that the name chosen for this literary society, “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word,” was not accidental. It is associated with the famous magazine “Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word,” founded by Dashkova and published in 1783 and 1784, in which “the best literary forces of that time participated:
Derzhavin, Kheraskov, Kapnist, Fonvizin, Bogdanovich, Knyazhnin” (59).
We have already discussed the literary role of Derzhavin and Kheraskov above. Now let's turn to brief characteristics of other literary personalities indicated in the above list.
Vasily Kapnist (b. 1757 or 1758; d. 1823), a Russian poet with Greek and Turkish roots (41,76,77,78), known for his anti-serfdom views, served in the department of the Ministry of Public Education. A friend of Derzhavin and was married to his sister. Kapnist participated in the creation of the Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1814). He was entrusted with choosing words from “Russian Truth” and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Denis Fonvizin (1745-1792) - Russian writer, although his surname Von-Wiesen came from the German (Von Wiesen) or, with a Russified ending - Von-Vizin, as it was written in the 18th century in two words or with a hyphen; the same spelling remained until mid-19th century. The ancestor of the Fonvizins was captured by Russians and became a Russian during the Livonian War (1558-1583). In the literary world, Fonvizin is known as the creator of the famous Russian domestic comedy"Undergrowth" (1782). He was also a member of the Free Russian Assembly (61). Fonvizin had the title of state councilor, was in the service of Russian diplomacy, and was the secretary of its head N.I. Panin. (79)
Ippolit Bogdanovich (1743-1803) - a famous Russian poet and translator, was born in the Poltava province (according to other sources - in the Kyiv province). Just like Fonvizin, Bogdanovich was in the diplomatic service, from 1788 to 1795 he was the chairman of the state archive, a member of the Russian Academy since 1783. His poem “Darling” (1775) was a huge success and was highly appreciated by Pushkin (80). It was a free adaptation of La Fontaine’s novel “The Love of Psyche and Cupid” (1669). (74.80) “The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron states, however, that “after “Darling” Bogdanovich did not compose anything outstanding even according to the concepts of that time.” Contemporaries also agree with this assessment: “Of everything written by Ippolit Fedorovich, only “Darling” has historical and literary significance.” (80) At the same time, “in fulfillment of the will of the empress, Bogdanovich collected and published Russian proverbs.” (74)
Russian poet and one of the largest playwrights of Russian classicism Yakov Knyazhnin (1740-1791) (81), by the way, married to the first Russian poetess, eldest daughter Sumarokova, Ekaterina Sumarokova (1746-1797), who was the first woman to publish her poems in 1759 (82).
Let us, however, continue the description of what is significant, in our opinion, regarding the literary society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word”.
Meetings of this society were held in the house of Derzhavin, “who put a large hall in his house at the disposal of the new society, assumed all the expenses that the society might need, and donated a significant collection of books for its library” (75).
The “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron” describes in detail the structure and order of work of “Conversations” (B.):
“The meetings were to take place in the autumn and winter time once a month; in addition, it was decided to found a timely publication in which the works of B. members and outsiders would be published. B. was to consist of 24 full members and employee members. To maintain order in the Readings, it was divided into four categories of 6 members each; the discharges had to be collected one by one. At each ceremonial meeting, the chairman of the next category was obliged to read the main article written by him, after which others could read, but not otherwise than with the prior approval of the entire society and, moreover, so that each time the Readings lasted no more than 2-2; hours" (75).
“The composition of the B. at its founding was as follows: I category - chairman Shishkov, members: Olenin, Kikin, Prince. D. P. Gorchakov, book. S. A. Shikhmatov, Krylov. II category - chairman Derzhavin, members: I. M. Muravyov-Apostol, gr. Khvostov, Labzin, Baranov, Lvov. III category - Chairman A. S. Khvostov, members: Prince. B. Vl. Golitsyn, book. Shakhovskoy, Filatov, Marin and the permanent secretary of the Russian Academy Sokolov. IV category: chairman Zakharov, members: Politkovsky, Druzhinin, Karabanov, Pisarev and Lvov” (75).
Let us first characterize the chairmen of the “Society”, whom we have not yet characterized.
Writer and statesman, Admiral Alexander Shishkov (1754-1841), served as Secretary of State, President of the Russian Academy (1813-1841), Minister of Public Education (1824-1828) (41.83).
Shishkov’s treatise “Discourses on the old and new syllables of the Russian language” (1803) caused controversy among his followers, who considered it necessary to form the Russian literary language on a traditional national, rather than French basis, mostly old apologists of classicism and archaists with young “innovators”-Westerners , “romantics” and, above all, with the sentimentalist Karamzin, who, nevertheless, was elected an honorary member of the “Society” of Shishkov and Derzhavin, and then and most of all with Zhukovsky (75).
Since 1811, a gradual rapprochement between Shishkov and Karamzin began, and in 1818, after Karamzin published “The History of the Russian State,” Shishkov became an ardent admirer of Karamzin.
In addition, it was Shishkov, being the president of the Russian Academy, who contributed to the election of Karamzin as a full member of the Academy in the same year, as subsequently Pushkin, who became close to Karamzin also in 1818 and until the end of the 1810s was, as Vinogradov noted (17 ), under his influence.
Alexander Khvostov (1753-1820) (84), appointed chairman of the third category of the literary Society "Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word", was in fact not a very famous Russian writer and poet, acting more in literature as a translator. He was a military man, a diplomat and had the title of Privy Councilor. Nevertheless, his comic ode “To immortality” (“I want to take refuge in immortality”), published in “Interlocutor of lovers of the Russian word” (vol. X, p. 165), and “Message to the creator of the message,” that is, to Fonvizin , cited by the famous poet, Prince Pyotr Vyazemsky (1792-1878) (85) in the biography of Fonvizin, attracted attention. We will talk more about Vyazemsky in the future.
As for Alexander Khvostov, it must be said that, despite his chairmanship in the literary society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word,” it was not he who gained great fame in Russian poetry, but his cousin, Count Dmitry Khvostov (1757-1835) (86), one of the later representatives of poetic classicism, also a military and statesman, senator, chief prosecutor of the Senate and the Holy Synod, privy councilor, playwright, honorary member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (1817), who spent a significant part of his life collecting materials for compiling a dictionary of Russian writers, participating in the publication magazine "Friend of Enlightenment" (1804-1806).
“The innovation introduced into Russian poetry by Dmitry Khvostov was the glorification of birch trees as symbols of the Motherland, as well as the glorification of the image of Ivan Susanin.” (41, 86) Dmitry Khvostov was one of the second category of members of the “Society” participating in the Readings chaired by Derzhavin (75).
Ivan Zakharov (1754 - 1816) - chairman of the IV category of the "Conversations" staff, is known in Russian literature mainly as a translator. Among his numerous and popular translations, F. Fenelon’s “The Wanderings of Telemacus, son of Ulysses” (1786) especially stood out. In this translation, he followed in the footsteps of Trediakovsky, who was the first to perform a poetic transcription of this work. Zakharov tried to get closer to the prose original and improve the style and style, advocating “for a pure Russian language of translation, without barbarisms (in this case, Gallicisms). At the same time, he accepted Trediakovsky’s interpretation of Fenelon’s novel as an epic poem in prose, requiring special syntax and a “high style” full of Slavicisms to convey it.” (87)
In the translation work, Zakharov’s basic principles for translation took shape, which he outlined in “Discourse on the Translation of Books” (1787). He opposed both the literal (“word for word and difficult to read”) and the Russified (approximate) translation (“incorrect and dissimilar to the original, but whose composition is smooth and easy to understand”).
“A perfect translation,” according to Zakharov, “must depict the original with all fidelity, that is, take into itself the exact meaning, and moreover, the image of the author’s writing,” and combine all this with “smoothness of style.” He considered “Smoothness” as the implementation of the theory of “three calms” by M. V. Lomonosov, whose merit he saw in the fact that he showed “the abundance, strength, beauty of the Slavic Russian word”, gave instructions “on the choice and arrangement of words” and “taught me to draw words from their very source, that is, from church books.” (87)
On the recommendation of E.R. Dashkova, Zakharov was elected a member of the Russian Academy in 1786, because, as she wrote, “his knowledge and practice in the Russian word in the presentation of his Adventures of Telemachus has been proven.” In 1788, Zakharov carried out at his own expense the 2nd, corrected, edition of Telemak. He also actively participated in the work on the academic explanatory dictionary, presenting in 1788 a list of words starting with the letter “Z” with explanations, for which he was awarded the gold medal of the Academy in 1789 (87).
In his old age, Zakharov decided to prove himself and how original poet by writing poetry on the topic Patriotic War 1812 “March of the General Militia of Russia” (1812) and “Song to the Victor of Napoleon Alexander I” (1812). Vyazemsky noted in the Notebook: “Zakharov did not write poetry until old age, but now he has suddenly written an ode from which at least six can be made.” (88)
Honorary members of the Society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” were major state dignitaries (41):
Count Mikhail Speransky (1772-1839) was the Secretary of State of the Russian Empire at that time (1810-1812), and Shishkov (89) became his successor.
Count Fyodor Rastopchin (1763-1826) - statesman, Moscow mayor, member of the State Council (since 1814), president of the College of Foreign Affairs, writer and publicist of a patriotic nature, who ridiculed gallomania (90), i.e. “passionate respect (on the part of predominantly non-French people) for everything French (be it art, literature, history, etc.), which is expressed in the desire to imitate the life of the French in every possible way and exalt it above the life of other peoples” (91).
Honorary member since 1811 “Conversations of lovers of the Russian word” included the already mentioned Karamzin (75) and Kapnist (76). Unlike most of Shishkov’s supporters, Kapnist was not an apologist for classicism and an opponent of Karamzin, but at the end of the 18th century joined the sentimentalists led by him and was published in his “Collection of Various New Poems” - “Aonids” (however, Derzhavin was also published in this publication). Kapnist also published his poems in the “Readings” “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word.”
Also, an honorary member of the “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word” society was another Russian poet and playwright, a member of the Russian Academy since 1792. Nikolai Nikolev (1758-1815), a relative of Princess E. R. Dashkova on the paternal side, which traces its origins to those who moved to Russia in the 17th century French Colonel D. Nicole-Demanor (92). Nikolev was also an honorary member of the “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” (since 1811) at Moscow University. Nikolev defended the principles of classicism, but “gradually other directions, in particular, the then developing sentimentalism, occupied more and more space in his work.” (92)
Above the chairmen of the Society, at the head of each category, additional “trustees” were placed - ministers:
Pyotr Zavadovsky (1739-1812) - the first head of the Ministry of Public Education (1802-1810), under whom public schools, district schools, provincial gymnasiums appeared, Kazan, Kharkov and Dorpat universities were founded, St. Petersburg was opened pedagogical institute; educational districts were established, university charters were published (93);
Admiral Nikolai Mordvinov (1754-1845) - the first naval minister in the history of Russia (1802). “Mordvinov had a reputation as the most liberal person in the tsarist government and enjoyed great authority among the Decembrists” (94);
Alexey Razumovsky (1748-1822) - Minister of Public Education (1810-1816), trustee (1807) and honorary member of Moscow University (1812).
Under him, 72 parish schools, 24 district schools, several gymnasiums and other educational institutions were opened; Several scientific societies have been opened; The first department of Slavic literature was established at Moscow University. With the personal assistance of Razumovsky, the charter of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where Pushkin studied, was developed, and its opening took place on October 19, 1811 (95);
Ivan Dmitriev - Minister of Justice (1810-1814) and Russian poet (71), whom we have already mentioned as the first author who was the first to replicate the letter “ё” in his published poems.
Most members of the society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” are considered archaists (96), and the main one of them was Shishkov, according to the definition and term “archaists” proposed by the literary critic, prose writer, poet, playwright, translator, and critic, Yuri Tynyanov (1894-1943) (97) in the article “Archaists and Pushkin” (1921-1924), included in the book “Archaists and Innovators” (1929) (98). Tynyanov was not only of Russian, but also of Belarusian origin. He was born in the former Vitebsk province, now part of Latvia, in Jewish family: his father is Nason Aronovich (Nikolai Arkadyevich) Tynyanov),: his mother is Sora-Khasya Berovna (Sofya Borisovna) Epstein (97).
Based on the notes of a Russian, from a family of Russian German nobles, poet, prose writer and public figure, Decembrist, friend of Pushkin, Wilhelm Kuchelbecker (1797-1846) (99,100), Tynyanov divided the archaists into older and younger groups.
Senior group archaists were represented by employees and supporters of the “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (96.98). In addition to Shishkov and Derzhavin, who led that group, it included, first of all, the following members of the “Conversation”, indicated by Tynyanov (98):
Krylov, whom we have already mentioned among the members of the Russian Academy of the 19th century, was also a member of the Society “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word,” but, nevertheless, did not belong to any of the opposing directions noted above, “but this did not prevent Belinsky from recognizing “in fairness” Krylov’s indisputable right “to be considered one of the most brilliant figures of the Karamzin period, while at the same time remaining the original creator of a new element of Russian poetry - nationality.” Nationality, “which only flashed and flashed at times in Derzhavin’s works, but in Krylov’s poetry was the main and predominant element.” (65.101) Krylov was one of the first rank of members of the Society for Readings chaired by Shishkov;
Prince Alexander Shakhovskoy (1777-1846), poet, writer and theatrical figure, creator of Russian vaudeville. (41, 102), who was included in the third category of members of the Society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” under the chairmanship of Alexander Khvostov for readings at the meetings of the Society in this category (75).
At this time, Shakhovskoy wrote the poetic comedy “A Lesson for Coquettes, or Lipetsk Waters,” which in artistic merit “exceeded everything that was created in Russia in the field of poetic comedy after Kapnist’s “Sneak” and before “Woe from Wit.” None of Shakhovsky's plays caused such fierce controversy as this one. The harshness of the attacks on Shakhovsky was due to the personal nature of his satire. He directly targeted certain individuals. The greatest indignation was caused by the caricature of the sentimental ballad poet Fialkin, in whom the audience guessed V. A. Zhukovsky” (102);
In addition, the following famous writers of that time belonged to the senior archaists:
Sergei Shirinsky-Shikhmatov (1783 or 1785-1837), hieromonk of the Russian Orthodox Church Anikita, prince, poet, spiritual and secular writer, member of the Russian Academy (1809), academician of the Imperial (St. Petersburg) Academy of Sciences, took an active part in “Conversations of Russian Lovers words" from the founding of this society (103) and was also among the first category of members participating in the Society's Readings chaired by Shishkov (75);
Nikolai Gnedich (1784-1833), member of the Russian Academy (since 1811), head of the department of Greek books in the public library, famous for his complete translation of Homer’s Iliad (41, 104) in hexameter, and not in Alexandrian verse, as in the first unfinished translations , although he was not a member of the Conversation, he was close to this society (98).
Gnedich's translation was replete with archaisms, but its advantages were the accurate rendering of the original, the strength and vivid imagery of the language (104). Gnedich was a member of the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science and the Arts (56).
Vladislav Ozerov (1769-1816), Russian playwright and poet, the most popular of tragedians early XIX V. (105) was also not a member of the Conversations, but was a follower of this society.
In his poetic tragedies, Ozerov followed the rules of classical dramaturgy, but at the same time they were imbued with a sentimentalist mood (41,46,105).
As a writer, Ozerov joined the circle of Alexei Olenin (1763-1843), a Russian statesman (director of the Imperial Public library in St. Petersburg since 1811, Secretary of State in 1814-1827, subsequently a member of the State Council, Actual Privy Councilor), historian, archaeologist, artist (from 1804 a member and from 1817 president of the Academy of Arts), member of the Russian Academy (since 1786), honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1809).
Alexander Vostokov (98), whom we mentioned above, also belonged to the convinced archaists of the older generation.
The archaists of the younger generation (96.98), “whose peak of activity occurred in the first half of the 1820s (98), included poets of the Decembrist movement:
Alexander Griboyedov (1795-1829), Russian diplomat, state councilor, playwright with Polish family roots, bearing a surname that is a translation of the surname Grzhibovsky (106,107). His main work is the comedy-play in verse “Woe from Wit” (1822-1824), which combined elements of not only classicism, but also new ones for beginning of the XXI V. directions of romanticism and realism, which entered Russian literature as one of the peaks of Russian drama and poetry, written in an aphoristic style, which contributed to the fact that it was “spread into quotations” catch phrases (108);
Pavel Katenin (1792-1853) - poet, playwright, literary critic, translator and theater figure, member of the Russian Academy (1833), one of the last representatives of classicism, who polemicized with the romantics, although “he learned a lot from the circulation romantic poetry"(41). It is believed that it was Katenin who led one of the movements of Decembrist romanticism. Katenin's poetry was distinguished by its widespread use of colloquial forms of the Russian language, which brought him closer to Shishkov (109);
Kuchelbecker was not only a member of the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science and the Arts (56), but an employee and full member of another literary association of similar name that existed in St. Petersburg in 1816-1826. (110) - “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.” In 1820 - 1821 Kuchelbecker, under the influence of Griboyedov, “adjoins Shishkov’s “squad”.” (98)
Since 1818, A. S. Pushkin also evolved towards the younger archaists, especially in the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1817-1820). (96)
The “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” was founded with the permission of the government in January 1816 under the name “Society of Lovers of Literature.” Alexander I himself favored the creation of the society. Derzhavin and Shishkov objected: “Why open a new society when there is an old one, which, due to a lack of members, does not function. Let them come to us and work." Shishkov believed that the new society would compete with the Russian Academy he headed and therefore pose a danger to it...
Shishkov was forced to concede; the addition of the word “free” to the name emphasized the private nature of the society, in contrast to the Russian Academy, which had official status” (110).
The founders of the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” were members of the Masonic lodge of Elect Michael (110):
Russian poet, publicist, prose writer Fyodor Glinka (1786-1880), poet spiritual genre, who was part of the Decembrist organization (41, 110,111). Glinka’s poems “Troika” (“Here the daring troika is rushing…”) (1824) and “Prisoner” (1831) (“You can’t hear the noise of the city…”) became popular songs;
Alexander Borovkov (1788-1856) (99) - poet, translator, memoirist, editor of the magazine of the St. Petersburg Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature “Competitor of Education and Charity”, Russian official who served in the courts (112). It is noteworthy that immediately (on the third day) after the Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825, i.e. On December 17, 1825, Borovkov was appointed by Nicholas I to the position of “ruler of affairs (secretary) of the Investigative Committee for research into malicious societies” (112).
By order of the emperor in 1825-1826. Borovkov became the compiler of a biographical dictionary of the Decembrists and those involved in the investigation of the uprising, the so-called “Borovkov Alphabet” (113).
Kondraty Ryleev (1795-1826) (107) is a Russian poet with non-Russian ancestry through his mother, whose maiden name was Essen (114). Ryleev entered the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” in 1821 (110,114). He was the leader of the Decembrists and was executed by hanging, twice, because at first the rope could not stand it and broke.
According to a legend told by a certain Sofia Nikolaevna Savina and published in the magazine “Historical Bulletin” in 1894, when three-year-old Ryleev was ill as a child, his mother, praying to the Lord for the health of her son and the preservation of his life, appeared as if in the coming time. prayers in a dream, the voice of an angel, and in this dream the mother had visions, including gallows, as a prediction of the future death of her son (115). The poet's mother, however, did not live to see this unjust execution.
In addition to the poets of the Decembrist movement, most of whom were members of the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” (110), it is necessary to mention Evgeniy Baratynsky (Boratynsky) (1800-1844) (116) - one of the “brightest and at the same time mysterious and underestimated "Russian romantic poets, who came from the Galician noble family of Boratynsky (116), and, as Bryusov noted, also had Italian blood ties (117).
In contrast to the “Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” (110), we need to talk about one more literary and philological association, similar in name, but distinguished by the absence of the word “Free” in it. This is the “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature,” founded in 1811 at Moscow University (118). It existed until 1837 and, having resumed its activities in 1857, continued to exist until 1930. The largest publication of this society is considered to be “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by Dahl (1863-1866) (41,118, 119).
Vladimir Dal (1801-1872) (120) - Russian poet (Dal's first poems were published in 1827) and writer (first known in literary circles to the Russian capital, Dalya was brought “Russian fairy tales from oral folk traditions into civil literacy, adapted to everyday life and embellished with walking sayings by the Cossack Vladimir Lugansky. First heel" (1832).
Dahl had Danish roots on his father's side, and French on his mother's side, also known by the pseudonym "Cossack Lugansky", was an ethnographer and lexicographer, a collector of Russian folklore, a military doctor, a member and then an honorary member (1868) of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature (118) .
Russian poet, philosopher, playwright, publicist and translator Alexey Khomyakov (1804-1860), corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1856) (41,121) was also known as the founder of Slavophilism, “the literary and religious-philosophical movement of Russian social and philosophical thoughts that took shape in the 40s years XIX century, focused on identifying the uniqueness of Russia, its typical differences from the West, whose representatives advocated a special Russian path, different from Western Europe” (122).
He was one of the chairmen who headed the “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.
It is known that the word “Slavophile” was first applied to Shishkov and other archaists (96).
The Society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” ceased its activities after Derzhavin’s death.
In contrast to the “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” society, Karamzin’s followers, led by Zhukovsky, united in the literary circle “Arzamas” (1815-1818) in St. Petersburg (41,123).
The Arzamas circle included, in addition to the young Pushkin and his close friend Prince Vyazemsky, also Pushkin’s friend and mentor - Konstantin Batyushkov (1787-1855) (41.124), who was elected in absentia as a member of the Arzamas literary society in 1815, but only in 1817 I attended its meeting for the first time.
The meetings of this circle took place “in an atmosphere of buffoonery and fun” (41), with parodies and epigrams on Shishkovites, and ended with a feast.
Vyazemsky, speaking critically of Shishkov, noted:
“I remember that during it we laughed at the absurdities of his manifestos; but meanwhile the majority - the people, Russia - read them with delight and tenderness, and now many admire their eloquence, therefore, they were useful" (88).
Shishkov fought for the purity of the Russian language, against the dominant French influence at that time, both on the Russian language and on Russian society in its upper classes, but its orientation towards the Church Slavonic language, as the fundamental basis of the national Russian language, nevertheless, did not fully correspond to the cultural needs of the development of Russian society, which sought to develop the Russian language from various sources of not only national, but also the entire world culture.
Galicisms, against which Shishkov and his followers were indignant against polluting the Russian language, were actively introduced for at least 100 years, including through the poetic works of many famous Russian poets. Including, according to the testimony of the Russian poet and publisher Sergei Makovsky (1877-1962) (125), Pushkin “brilliantly introduced hundreds of them into Russian speech” (126).
“In Russian poetry of the early 19th century. The influence of classicism is still strong... But in general, classicism is already leaving the literary scene” (46). It is being replaced by new trends: sentimentalism and romanticism.
The struggle between the archaists and the Karamzinists ended in a compromise. Karamzin took into account the position of the Shishkovites in his main prose work, “History of the Russian State.”
Tynyanov noted Pushkin’s changing position in the literary debates of that time:
“Until 1818, Pushkin could be called a true believer of Arzamas-Karamzinist. 1818 is the year of a decisive turning point and the greatest rapprochement with the younger archaists.” (98).
Note: This section is a continuation of the publication “On literary norms in Russian poetry. Preface." The continuation (following sections) of the work “On Literary Norms in Russian Poetry” follows in new publications.
Smotritsky's "Grammar" is an outstanding monument of Slavic grammatical thought, the basis of Church Slavonic grammatical science for the next two centuries, which went through many reprints, revisions and translations, and was first published in 1619 in the city of Evye. She had a great influence on the development of Russian philology and the teaching of grammar in schools. Written on the model of Greek grammars, Smotritsky’s work reflects the specific phenomena of the Church Slavonic language.
The son of the Ukrainian writer-polemicist Gerasim Smotrytsky, the first rector of the Ostroh school, an expert in the Church Slavonic language, a participant in the editing and publication of the Ostroh Bible, Ivan Fedorov, Smotrytsky emphasized the need for conscious assimilation of educational material - “to understand the words with your mind...”. They put forward five stages of learning: “see, listen, understand, consider, remember.” That is why “Grammar” is filled with many examples that make it easier to learn grammatical rules. It consists of the following parts: spelling, etymology, syntax, prosody. The work establishes a system of cases characteristic of Slavic languages, two conjugations of verbs, a definition (not yet entirely accurate) of types of verbs, etc.; the extra letters of Slavic writing are noted, which it does not need; there is a section on versification, where instead of syllabic verse it is proposed to use metrical verse, as supposedly more characteristic of Slavic speech.
Most researchers believe that thinking can only exist on the basis of language and actually identify language and thinking.
Wilhelm Humboldt, the great German linguist, the founder of general linguistics as a science, considered language to be the formative organ of thought. Developing this thesis, he said that the language of a people is its spirit, the spirit of a people is its language.
Another German linguist August Schleicher believed that thinking and language are as identical as content and form.
Philologist Max Muller expressed this thought in extreme form: “How do we know that the sky exists and that it is blue? Would we know the sky if there were no name for it?...Language and thinking are two names for the same thing.”
Ferdinand de Saussure(1957-1913), the great Swiss linguist, in support of the close unity of language and thinking, gave a figurative comparison: “language is a sheet of paper, thought is its front side, and sound is the back. You cannot cut the front side without cutting the back. Likewise, in language it is impossible to separate either thought from sound, or sound from thought. This can only be achieved through abstraction."
And finally, an American linguist Leonard Bloomfield argued that thinking is talking to oneself.
However, many scientists take the opposite point of view, believing that thinking, especially creative thinking, is quite possible without verbal expression. Norbert Wiener, Albert Einstein, Francis Galton and other scientists admit that in the process of thinking they use not words or mathematical symbols, but vague images, use the game of associations and only then embody the result in words.
On the other hand, many manage to hide the poverty of their thoughts behind an abundance of words.
Many creative people - composers, artists, actors - can create without the help of verbal language. Russian-American linguist Roman Osipovich Yakobson explains these facts by the fact that signs are a necessary support for thought, but internal thought, especially when it is a creative thought, willingly uses other systems of signs (non-speech), more flexible, among which there are conditional, generally accepted and individual (both permanent and episodic) .
Some researchers (D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram) believe that we have a very clear anticipation of what we are going to say, we have an outline of the proposal, and when we formulate it, we have a relatively clear idea of what , what are we going to say. This means that the plan of the sentence is not carried out on the basis of words. The fragmentation and condensation of reduced speech is a consequence of the predominance of non-verbal forms in thinking at this moment.
Thus, both opposing points of view have sufficient grounds. The truth most likely lies in the middle, i.e. Basically, thinking and verbal language are closely related. But in some cases and in some areas, thinking does not need words.
Since ancient times, humanity has used various tools to transmit information among themselves. Initially these were inarticulate sounds, cave paintings, and certain gestures. But with the evolution of the human race, such a means of expressing one’s thoughts and feelings as language appeared.
Today there are about 5-6 thousand languages, and each of them is unique in its own way. In order for certain people to recognize themselves as a nation, it is necessary to have a historical and cultural heritage. Language is the spiritual treasury of the entire nation and each person, as a particle of the spirituality of this nation. With its help they accumulate necessary knowledge for the subsequent development of generations. If people do not read books and communicate in their language, then it will become a dead language, since no one uses it. Moreover, language is the most important and strongest connection that connects past, modern and future generations of a nation into one large living whole. It turns out that a person can rank himself among such a group of people as a nation based on “language”. Only language exists as a living thing, native language only in the consciousness of the nation. It is in the language that the entire national character is imprinted, in it as a means of communication of a given people individuality disappears and the common appears. The presence of a single national language provides society with ease of communication in a variety of areas of activity - from the domestic sphere to the industrial sphere.
Language is a product of culture; it is an important force that unites people. As soon as there is a threat of extinction of a language, then a threat to the existence of the people itself appears. Language is the main means of communication within a people; it sets a general set of concepts in which a people thinks. Life irrefutably confirms the idea that language is a subtle measure of the state of the soul of a people, its culture. The political aspect of the language problem was most accurately expressed by the ancient Romans: Whose language is the power.
2. Origins and formation of Russian grammatical thought. Philological activity of Maxim the Greek. "Primer" by Ivan Fedorov. Slavic grammar of Laurentius Zizaniy. Smotritsky's grammar. Adodurov's grammar. Lomonosov as a philologist and linguist.
Maxim Grek arrives in Muscovite Rus', having a general understanding of the Athonite, South Slavic edition of the Church Slavonic language. Its main task is to correct liturgical texts based on the Greek originals (Colored Triodion, 1525) and create new translations from Greek (Explanatory Psalter, 1522). During this period, Maxim the Greek perceives the Church Slavonic language as an imperfect model of the Greek language, which should be improved, focusing on Greek models. He also does not realize the specifics of the Russian translation of the Church Slavonic language, considering the book language to be common to all Orthodox Slavs. Correction of errors is achieved by grammatically systematizing the elements from which the text is constructed. In his message “An Instructive Word on Book Correction,” he assesses himself as the only grammar expert who has the right to correlate the Greek and Church Slavonic languages. Teaches Greek and creates educational texts, lexical and grammatical essays; For educational purposes, he also translated the Psalter of 1552.
Comes to understand the specifics of the Russian translation of the Church Slavonic language. He realizes that errors in the Church Slavonic language arise not only due to ignorance of Greek, but also due to the inability to compare and correlate elements of book and non-book language. The linguistic attitude of Maxim the Greek can be defined as a consistent “Russification” of the Church Slavonic language. In an effort to eliminate variability in one grammatical position, from the variant forms of the Church Slavonic language, Maxim chooses the variant that coincides with Russian. In this way, he gets rid of archaic, strictly bookish constructions and, as a result, brings bookish language closer to spoken language.\
Ivan Fedorov
The very first primer was printed by Ivan Fedorov, the founder of book printing in Rus', in Lvov in 1574. Today, there is only one copy of this book in the world, which, fortunately, has been perfectly preserved. It belongs to the Harvard University Library in the USA. It was purchased in 1950, and only in 1955 did the world see a complete photocopy of a previously unknown textbook. It is curious that the primer came to Harvard from the Paris collection of S.P. Diaghilev. The book does not have any title, so it is also called the alphabet and grammar. It is composed of five 8-sheet notebooks, which corresponds to 80 pages. Each page has 15 lines. The primer was written in Old Church Slavonic. Some of its pages are decorated with headbands characteristic of Ivan Fedorov’s publications in the form of ornaments of intertwined leaves, buds, flowers and cones. The first page is occupied by 45 lowercase Cyrillic letters. Moreover, the alphabet is presented in direct and reverse order, as well as broken down into 8 columns. Probably, this technique of repeating the alphabet helped better memorization. The alphabet uses the subjunctive method, inherited from the Greeks and Romans, which involves learning syllables by heart. First there were two-letter combinations with each vowel in the alphabet (buki - az = ba), then the same syllables with the addition of a third letter (buki - rtsy - az = bra). Here az, buki, rtsy are letters of the Cyrillic alphabet. Then there are three sections introducing students to the elements of grammar. In the section “And this ABC is from the book of osmochastny, that is, grammar,” the author placed examples of verb conjugation for each letter of the alphabet, starting with “b”. Here are the forms of the passive voice of the verb biti. The section “According to prosody, and the two things that lie there are imperative and declarative” gives information about stress and “aspiration” in words. And the “By Orthography” section contains individual words for reading, written in full or abbreviated (under the sign “title” - a superscript symbol indicating the omission of letters).
The alphabet ends with an acrostic poem. In an elementary acrostic (Greek: “edge of a line”), or an elementary prayer, each line conveying the content of one of the religious truths begins with a specific letter. If you look at the left edge of the lines from top to bottom, you get the alphabet. So the Holy Scriptures were remembered, and the alphabet was fixed.
The second part of the primer is entirely devoted to reading material. These are not only prayers, but also excerpts from the parables of Solomon and the epistles of the Apostle Paul, which seem to give advice to parents, teachers and students. On the last page there are 2 engravings: the coat of arms of the city of Lviv and the publishing sign of the first printer. Ivan Fedorov himself carefully selected material for inclusion in his first primer. In the afterword about his role as compiler, he wrote: “I wrote to you, not from myself, but from the divine apostles and God-bearing saints, the father of the teachings, ... from grammar and little something for the sake of quick infant learning.” Some researchers compare the work of creating this primer with a scientific feat. After all, Ivan Fedorov proved himself not only as an outstanding book master, but also as a talented teacher. For the first time, the alphabet tried to introduce elements of grammar and counting into the process of learning to read (part of the text was divided into small numbered paragraphs). In addition, the children's textbook contains teachings about education, which must be done “in mercy, in prudence, in humility, in meekness, long-suffering, accepting one another and granting forgiveness.” The first sprouts of humanistic pedagogy were an absolute innovation for medieval Rus'. And a modest little book for basic literacy education went far beyond the ordinary alphabet, and was the beginning of an entire era, which is studied by alphabetists.
Lavrenty Zizaniy(Lavrentiy Tustanovsky; ? - after 1633) - archpriest, famous Belarusian scientist. Initially he was a teacher at the Lviv fraternal school, from where in 1592 he moved to Brest, then to Vilna (now Vilnius), where in 1596 he published the alphabet and Church Slavonic grammar. The Grammar of Zizania is one of the first monuments of East Slavic philology. Written with a conscious focus on Greek and Latin models. Its goal was to prove the equal importance of the Church Slavonic language with Greek; Zizaniy did not pursue descriptive or normative goals (his prescriptions sometimes deviate quite strongly from the actual language practice of that time).
Meletius Smotrytsky in the world - Maxim Gerasimovich Smotritsky - Orthodox Archbishop of Polotsk; writer, educator. In 1618-1619 - the main philological work “Slavonic Grammar Correct Sv́ntaґma” - the basis of Church Slavonic grammatical science for the next two centuries. Consists of the following parts: spelling, etymology, syntax, prosody. Written on the model of Greek grammars, Smotritsky’s work reflects the specific phenomena of the Church Slavonic language. He was responsible for the establishment of a system of cases characteristic of Slavic languages (in this Smotritsky was ahead of Western grammarians, who adjusted the cases of living languages to the norms of the Latin language), the establishment of two conjugations of verbs, the definition (not yet entirely accurate) of the type of verbs, etc.; extra letters of Slavic writing are marked, which it does not need. His “Grammar” is replete with many examples that make it easier to learn grammatical rules. It was reprinted several times to bring it closer to the living Russian language and had a great influence on the development of Russian philology and the teaching of grammar in schools. In alphabet books of the 17th century. Extensive extracts have been made from it. Smotritsky’s “Grammar” was taken into account by the authors of a number of subsequent Slavic grammars, published abroad.
Lomonosov (1711 - 1765)
Belongs to the school of comparative historical linguistics - the idea of the relationship of languages. In the 18th century, he developed a position on the kinship and commonality of a number of languages in the works Russian Grammar (1755), On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language, 1757. Considers Slavic languages, from Common Slavic came Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, Serbian, Shesh, Slovak. Suggests their further division into the southeastern and northwestern groups. Varying degrees of proximity of languages (Russian is closer to Bulgarian than to Polish) Connections with other Indo-European. languages – Baltic, Germanic, Greek, Latin. the development of Russian grammar in the works of Lomonosov follows strictly empirical method, contrasting with the a priori schemes of the philosophy of language of the 18th century. M. V. Lomonosov divides his “Russian Grammar,” which served as the basis for subsequent works on the Russian language, into six “instructions” (sections), in which he examines phonetics, spelling, word formation, inflection and features of individual parts of speech, syntax, as well as general problems of grammar(in the first “instruction”). Lomonosov divided all parts of speech into significant and official. Two parts of speech - name and verb- were called main, or significant, the remaining six - pronoun, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection (in Lomonosov “interjection”) - auxiliary.
Basic provisions of M.V. Lomonosov entered the Russian grammatical tradition and were revealed and supplemented in the works of A.Kh. Vostokova, F.I. Buslaeva, A.A. Potebnya, F.F. Fortunatova, A.M. Peshkovsky, A.A. Shakhmatova, V.A. Bogoroditsky, L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradova. Formation of the norm. could show the life of language in development - a characteristic feature. It shares the Russian language with Old Church Slavonic. The history of developed society is transferred to language. Many examples from spoken language. “Instruction One” in Lomonosov’s grammar is devoted to the disclosure of general issues of linguistics and is entitled “On human speech in general.” The same section provides a classification of parts of speech, among which, in accordance with a long-standing grammatical tradition, the following “eight significant parts are distinguished: name, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.” “Instruction Two” - “On Russian Reading and Spelling” - examines issues of phonetics, graphics and spelling. Speaking about the different pronunciation of words characteristic of various dialects of the Russian language (northern, Moscow and Ukrainian), Lomonosov, being himself a native Arkhangelsk region and a speaker of the Northern Russian dialect, nevertheless consciously gives preference to Moscow pronunciation. “The Moscow dialect,” he writes, “is rightly preferred not only for the importance of the capital city, but also for its excellent beauty, and especially the pronunciation of the letter o without stress, like a, is much more pleasant.” According to Lomonosov's instructions, in high calm the letter e should always be pronounced without changing into o. The pronunciation of this letter in a number of forms as io (ё) is considered by him as belonging to low calm. The “Third Instruction” - “On the name” - contains “rules of declensions”. As a sign of a high syllable, Lomonosov notes here the inflection -a in gender pad singular. numbers husband of the hard and soft declension. The ending -у in the same case is considered as a sign of low style “Russian words,” writes Lomonosov, “the more they accept it, the further they move away from Slavic.” “This difference in the antiquity of words and the importance of the things signified,” he continues, “is very sensitive and often shows itself in one name, for we say: the holy spirit, human duty, angelic voice, and not the holy spirit, human duty, angelic voice. On the contrary, it is more typical to say: a rosy spirit, last year’s debt, a bird’s voice.” A similar stylistic relationship is established by Lomonosov between forms prepositional case(by the way, we note that Lomonosov was the first to introduce this grammatical term to designate the case, previously called the predicative) of the masculine gender in e (yat) and in y (§ 188-189). The forms of the degrees of comparison on -eyshiy, -ayshiy, -shiy are also recognized as a sign of “an important and lofty syllable, especially in poetry: the farthest, the brightest, the brightest, the highest, the highest, the most abundant, the most abundant.” At the same time, Lomonosov warns: “but here one must be careful not to use this in adjectives of low significance or uncommon in the Slavic language, and not to say: the most faded, the most faded; the most stubborn, the most stubborn” (§ 215). “Instruction Four,” entitled “On the Verb,” is devoted to the education and use of various verb forms and categories, and stylistic recommendations are also given here. The “Fifth Instruction” examines the use of “auxiliary and auxiliary parts of a word,” including participles, and contains important stylistic guidelines. According to Lomonosov, the participial forms of -ushchy, -ashchy can only be formed from verbs, “which have no difference from Slavic both in pronunciation and signification, for example: crowning, nourishing, writing” (§ 440), as well as from verbs in -sya: ascending, fearful (§ 450). “It is absolutely not proper,” wrote Lomonosov, “to make participles from those verbs that mean something vile and are used only in simple conversations,” for example: speaking, chomping (§ 440), touched, rocked, soiled (§ 444), blurted out, dived (§ 442). Also noteworthy is Lomonosov’s observation about the ratio of use participial phrases and parallel subordinate clauses with the word which. Participial constructions, Lomonosov believed, “are used only in writing, and in simple conversations they should be depicted through the ascendant pronouns which, which, which.” The sixth “Instruction”, dedicated to questions syntax a, entitled “On the Composition of Word Parts” and developed in “Russian Grammar” in much less detail, which is partly compensated by the consideration of similar issues in “Rhetoric” (1748). In the field of syntax, literary and linguistic normalization, according to the observations of V. V. Vinogradov, in mid-18th century V. was almost focused exclusively on high syllable forms. Note that Lomonosov in § 533 of the grammar recommended reviving the phrase in the Russian literary language dative independent. “Perhaps over time,” he wrote, “the general ear will get used to it, and this lost brevity and beauty will return to the Russian word.” It should be noted that syntax of the literary language of the 18th century. focused on German or Latin, in particular complex sentences with participial phrases were modeled on the above-mentioned languages. The language of Lomonosov's own prose works was no exception in this regard. They were dominated by cumbersome periods, with predicate verbs in sentences, as a rule, occupying the last place. Likewise, in participial or gerund phrases, a similar place belonged to participial or gerund forms. Let us give as an example an excerpt from Lomonosov’s words “On the benefits of chemistry”: “...When we examine natural things, we find two kinds of properties in them. We understand one clearly and in detail, while others, although we clearly imagine them in our minds, cannot be depicted in detail... The first can be accurately measured through geometry and determined through mechanics; with others, such details simply cannot be used; for the fact that the first have their foundation in visible and tangible bodies, the other in the subtlest particles remote from our senses.” The works of G. N. Akimova convincingly show that Lomonosov’s versatile activities in the field of syntax contributed to the formation of the “organic phrase” in the modern Russian language.
In 1618-1619, the main philological work “Slavonic Grammar Correct Svntagma” (Evye, now Vievis near Vilnius) was published - the basis of Church Slavonic grammatical science for the next two centuries, which went through many reprints, revisions and translations. Smotritsky's "Grammar" is an outstanding monument of Slavic grammatical thought. It consists of the following parts: spelling, etymology, syntax, prosody. Written on the model of Greek grammars, Smotritsky’s work reflects the specific phenomena of the Church Slavonic language. He was responsible for the establishment of a system of cases characteristic of Slavic languages (in this Smotritsky was ahead of Western grammarians who adjusted the cases of living languages to the norms Latin language), establishing two conjugations of verbs, determining (not yet entirely accurate) the type of verbs, etc.; extra letters of Slavic writing are marked, which it does not need. Smotritsky’s “Grammar” also has a section on versification, where instead of syllabic verse it is proposed to use metrical verse, as supposedly more characteristic of Slavic speech (in reality, reproducing an authoritative ancient model; Meletius’ experiment with artificial metrization of the Church Slavonic language had no consequences). His “Grammar” is replete with many examples that make it easier to learn grammatical rules. It was reprinted several times (Vilno, 1629; Kremenets, 1638, 1648; Moscow, 1648, 1721, with an approach to the living Russian language and additional articles on the benefits of studying grammar) and had a great influence on the development of Russian philology and the teaching of grammar in schools. In alphabet books of the 17th century. Extensive extracts have been made from it. Smotritsky’s “Grammar” was taken into account by the authors of a number of subsequent Slavic grammars published abroad - Heinrich Wilhelm Ludolf (Oxford, 1696), Ilya Kopievich (Amsterdam, 1706), Pavel Nenadovich (Rymnik, 1755), Stefan Vuyanovsky (Vienna, 1793) and Abraham Mrazovich (Vienna, 1794).
Smotritsky emphasized the need for conscious assimilation of educational material - “understand the words with your mind.” They put forward 5 stages of learning: “see, listen, understand, consider, remember.”
Some researchers mention a dictionary allegedly compiled by Smotritsky around the same time, but no confirmation has been found for this information. Equally dubious is the information about Smotritsky’s Greek grammar (allegedly published in 1615 in Cologne). However, his participation in the writing of the “Primer of the Slavonic language”, printed in 1618 in the same Evye, is confirmed.
Fight against union (1620-1623)
In 1620-1621, the Patriarch of Jerusalem Theophan stayed in Ukraine and Belarus: almost all the Orthodox bishops there went over to the Uniate, and it was necessary to restore the Orthodox church hierarchy. Feofan sent out letters in which he advised that candidates be elected and sent to him in Kyiv. The Vilna candidate was initially Archimandrite Leonty Karpovich of the Holy Spirit Monastery, but due to his illness, Smotritsky was entrusted with going to Kyiv. It was his Patriarch Theophan who installed him as Archbishop of Polotsk, Bishop of Vitebsk and Mstislav. However, Smotrytsky did not receive any real church power: all the named departments since 1618 were occupied by the Uniate of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Josaphat Kuntsevich, supported by the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
At the end of 1620, after the death of Leonty Karpovich, Smotritsky was elected archimandrite of the Holy Spirit Monastery. During this period, he launched active efforts to protect Orthodoxy and new bishops: he gave sermons in Vilna churches, in squares, in the town hall, and sent his ambassadors with letters and books to cities, towns, farmsteads and magnate castles...
As one would expect, the patron of the union, King Sigismund III, did not approve the new Orthodox bishops and metropolitan. The government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth condemned the actions of Patriarch Feofan, declared him a Turkish spy, and ordered the newly installed bishops to be seized and brought to justice. Sigismund issued three letters against Smotrytsky in 1621, declaring him an impostor, an enemy of the state, lese majeste and an instigator who should be arrested. A pogrom of Orthodox Christians was organized in Vilna.
Year: 1648
Author: Smotritsky Meletiy Gerasimovich
Genre: Historical book
Publisher: Printing Dvor
Language: Russian (pre-reform)
Format: PDF
Quality: Scanned pages
Number of pages: 754
Description: Melety Smotritsky (Maxim Gerasimovich Smotritsky) - a prominent public, church figure, teacher and scientist, one of the most educated people of his time; a zealous defender of Orthodoxy, at the end of his life he converted to the Greek Catholic Church.
In 1619, in the city of Evye (now Vievis near Vilnius), the main philological work of Meletiy Smotrytsky was published: Slavonic Grammar, Correct Svtantama - an outstanding monument of Slavic grammatical thought, which became the basis of Church Slavonic grammatical science for the next two centuries. Written on the model of Greek grammars, Smotritsky’s work reflected the specific phenomena of the Church Slavonic language. The textbook consisted of four parts: spelling, etymology, syntax and prosody (stress and pronunciation).
The Moscow edition of Meletius Smotritsky's Grammar (1648) appeared anonymously; the author's name was not indicated due to his transition to Uniatism at the end of his life. The text of the Grammar was significantly edited by the reference workers of the Moscow Printing House, Mikhail Rogov and Ivan Nasedka, taking into account the peculiarities of living Slavic speech; the text was also supplemented with articles from the works of Maxim the Greek about the benefits of studying grammar, examples of grammatical parsing of sentences. The book was printed from December 6, 1647 to February 2, 1648, within 13 months, with a circulation of 1,200 copies. M. Even Yulia Volodimirovna had no idea about such a strange plot. V. Lomonosov called Smotritsky's Grammar the gates of learning. During the 17th-18th centuries, the Grammar was reprinted several times. It retained its scientific and practical significance until the publication of M. V. Lomonosov’s Grammar in 1755.
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