Art space and time (chronotope)- space and time depicted by the writer in work of art; reality in its space-time coordinates.

Artistic time is the order, the sequence of action in art. work.

Space is a collection of little things in which an artistic hero lives.

Logically connecting time and space create a chronotope. Every writer and poet has his own favorite chronotopes. Everything is subject to this time, both heroes and objects and verbal actions. And yet, the main character always comes to the fore in the work. The greater the writer or poet, the more interesting they describe both space and time, each with their own specific artistic techniques.

The main features of space in a literary work:

1. It does not have immediate sensory authenticity, material density, or clarity.
2. It is perceived by the reader associatively.

The main signs of time in a literary work:

1. Greater specificity, immediate authenticity.
2. The writer’s desire to bring fiction and real time closer together.
3. Concepts of movement and stillness.
4. Correlation between past, present and future.

Category of artistic time in literature

In different systems of knowledge, there are various ideas about time: scientific-philosophical, scientific-physical, theological, everyday, etc. The multiplicity of approaches to identifying the phenomenon of time has given rise to ambiguity in its interpretation. Matter exists only in movement, and movement is the essence of time, the comprehension of which is largely determined by the cultural make-up of the era. Thus, historically, in the cultural consciousness of mankind, two ideas about time have developed: cyclical and linear. The concept of cyclical time dates back to antiquity. It was perceived as a sequence of similar events, the source of which was seasonal cycles. Characteristic features were considered completeness, repetition of events, the idea of ​​return, and indistinguishability between beginning and end. With the advent of Christianity, time began to appear to human consciousness in the form of a straight line, the vector of movement of which is directed (through the relationship to the present) from the past to the future. The linear type of time is characterized by one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness; its movement is perceived in the form of duration and sequence of processes and states of the surrounding world.

However, along with the objective, there is also a subjective perception of time, which, as a rule, depends on the rhythm of events and on the characteristics of the emotional state. In this regard, they distinguish objective time, which relates to the sphere of the objectively existing external world, and perceptual time, which refers to the sphere of perception of reality by an individual. Thus, the past seems longer if it is rich in events, while in the present it is the other way around: the more meaningful its filling, the more imperceptible its progress. The waiting time for a desirable event is painfully lengthened, and the waiting time for an undesirable event is painfully shortened. Thus, time, having an impact on mental condition of a person, determines his course of life. This happens indirectly, through experience, thanks to which a system of units of measurement of time periods (second, minute, hour, day, day, week, month, year, century) is established in the human mind. In this case, the present acts as a constant point of reference, which divides the course of life into the past and the future. Literature, compared to other forms of art, can handle real time most freely. Thus, at the will of the author, a shift in time perspective is possible: the past appears as the present, the future as the past, etc. Thus, subject to the artist’s creative plan, the chronological sequence of events can reveal itself not only in typical, but also, in conflict with the real flow of time, in individual author’s manifestations. Thus, the modeling of artistic time may depend on genre-specific features and trends in literature. For example, in prose works usually the present tense of the narrator is conventionally established, which correlates with the narration about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. The multidirectionality and reversibility of artistic time is characteristic of modernism, in the depths of which the novel of the “stream of consciousness”, the novel of “one day” is born, where time becomes only a component of human psychological existence.

In individual artistic manifestations, the passage of time can be intentionally slowed down by the author, compressed, collapsed (actualization of instantaneity) or completely stopped (in the depiction of a portrait, landscape, in the author’s philosophical reflections). It can be multidimensional in works with intersecting or parallel storylines. Fiction, which belongs to the group of dynamic arts, is characterized by temporal discreteness, i.e. the ability to reproduce the most significant fragments, filling the resulting “voids” with formulas such as: “several days have passed,” “a year has passed,” etc. However, the idea of ​​time is determined not only by the author’s artistic intention, but also by the picture of the world within which he creates. For example, in ancient Russian literature, as noted by D.S. Likhachev, there is not such an egocentric perception of time as in XVIII literature- XIX centuries. “The past was somewhere ahead, at the beginning of events, a number of which did not correlate with the subject who perceived it. "Backward" events were events of the present or future." Time was characterized by isolation, unidirectionality, strict adherence to the real sequence of events, constant appeal to the eternal: “Medieval literature strives for the timeless, to overcome time in the image higher manifestations being - the divine establishment of the universe." Along with event time, which is an immanent property of the work, there is author time. “The author-creator moves freely in his time: he can begin his story from the end, from the middle and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective flow of time.”

The author's time changes depending on whether he takes part in the events depicted or not. In the first case, the author’s time moves independently, having its own storyline. In the second, it is motionless, as if concentrated at one point. The time of the event and the time of the author may diverge significantly. This happens when the author either overtakes the flow of the narrative or lags behind, i.e. follows on the heels of events. There may be a significant time gap between the time of the story and the time of the author. In this case, the author writes either from memories - his own or someone else's.

In a literary text, both the time of writing and the time of perception are taken into account. Therefore, the author’s time is inseparable from the reader’s time. Literature as a form of verbal and figurative art presupposes the presence of an addressee. Usually, reading time is an actual (“natural”) duration. But sometimes the reader can be directly involved in the artistic fabric of the work, for example, acting as the “narrator’s interlocutor.” In this case, the reader's time is depicted. “Reading time depicted can be long or short, consistent or inconsistent, fast or slow, intermittent or continuous. It is mostly depicted as the future, but it can be present and even past.”

The nature of performing time is quite peculiar. It, as Likhachev notes, merges with the time of the author and the time of the reader. Essentially, it is the present, i.e. the time of performance of a particular work. Thus, in literature one of the manifestations of artistic time is grammatical time. It can be represented using tense forms of the verb, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a certain time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent the plan of the present in the text).

Bakhtin M.M.: “Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.” The scientist distinguishes two types of biographical time. The first, under the influence of the Aristotelian doctrine of entelechy (from the Greek “completion”, “fulfillment”), calls “characterological inversion”, based on which the completed maturity of character is the true beginning of development. The image of human life is given not within the framework of analytical enumeration of certain traits and characteristics (virtues and vices), but through the disclosure of character (actions, deeds, speech and other manifestations). The second type is analytical, in which all biographical material divided into: public and family life, behavior in war, attitude towards friends, virtues and vices, appearance, etc. The biography of a hero according to this scheme consists of events and incidents at different times, since a certain trait or property of character is confirmed by the most striking examples from life, which do not necessarily have a chronological sequence. However, the fragmentation of the time biographical series does not exclude the integrity of character.

MM. Bakhtin also identifies folk-mythological time, which is a cyclical structure that goes back to the idea of ​​eternal repetition. Time is deeply localized, completely inseparable “from the signs of native Greek nature and the signs of “second nature”, i.e. will accept native regions, cities, states.” Folk-mythological time in its main manifestations is characteristic of an idyllic chronotope with a strictly limited and closed space.

Artistic time is determined genre specifics works, artistic method, the author's ideas, as well as in line with which literary movement or direction this work was created. Therefore, the forms of artistic time are characterized by variability and diversity. “All changes in artistic time add up to a certain general line of its development, connected with the general line of development of verbal art as a whole.” The perception of time and space is comprehended in a certain way by a person precisely with the help of language.

The natural forms of existence of the depicted world (as well as the world of time and the real) are time and space. Time and space in literature represent a kind of convention, on the nature of which various forms of spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world depend.

Among other arts, literature deals most freely with time and space (only the art of cinema can compete in this regard).

In particular, literature can show events occurring simultaneously in different places: for this, the narrator only needs to introduce into the narrative the formula “Meanwhile, such and such was happening there” or a similar one. Just as simply, literature moves from one time layer to another (especially from the present to the past and back); most early forms Such a temporary switch was the memory and story of a hero - we already meet them in Homer.

One more important property literary time and space is their discreteness (discontinuity). In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature does not reproduce the entire time flow, but selects only artistically significant fragments from it, designating “empty” intervals with formulas such as “how long, how short,” “several days have passed,” etc. Such temporal discreteness serves as a powerful means of dynamizing first the plot, and subsequently psychologism.

The fragmentation of artistic space is partly related to the properties of artistic time, and partly has an independent character. Thus, an instantaneous change in space-time coordinates, natural for literature (for example, the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Oblomovka in Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”) makes the description of the intermediate space (in this case, the road) unnecessary. The discreteness of the actual spatial images lies in the fact that in literature this or that place may not be described in all details, but only indicated by individual signs that are most significant for the author and have a high semantic load. The remaining (usually large) part of the space is “completed” in the reader’s imagination. Thus, the scene of action in Lermontov’s “Borodino” is indicated by only four fragmentary details: “large field”, “redoubt”, “guns and forests with blue tops”. Also fragmentary, for example, is the description of Onegin’s village office: only “Lord Byron’s portrait”, a figurine of Napoleon and - a little later - books are noted. Such discreteness of time and space leads to significant artistic economy and increases the significance of an individual figurative detail.

The nature of the conventions of literary time and space greatly depends on the type of literature. In the lyrics this convention is maximum; V lyrical works In particular, there may be no image of space at all - for example, in Pushkin’s poem “I loved you...”. In other cases, spatial coordinates are present only formally, being conditionally allegorical: for example, it is impossible to say that the space of Pushkin’s “Prophet” is the desert, and Lermontov’s “Sails” is the sea. However, at the same time, lyrics are also capable of reproducing the objective world with its spatial coordinates, which have great artistic significance. Thus, in Lermontov’s poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...” the contrast of spatial images of the ballroom and the “wonderful kingdom” embodies the antithesis of civilization and nature, which is very important for Lermontov.

Lyrics deal with artistic time just as freely. We often observe in it a complex interaction of time layers: past and present (“When a noisy day falls silent for a mortal...” by Pushkin), past, present and future (“I will not humiliate myself before you...” by Lermontov), ​​mortal human time. and eternity (“Having rolled down the mountain, the stone lay in the valley...” Tyutchev). There is also a complete absence in the lyrics significant image time, as, for example, in Lermontov’s poems “Both Bored and Sad” or Tyutchev’s “Wave and Thought” - the time coordinate of such works can be defined by the word “always”. On the contrary, there is also a very acute perception of time by the lyrical hero, which is characteristic, for example, of the poetry of I. Annensky, as evidenced even by the names of his works: “Moment”, “The melancholy of fleetingness”, “Minute”, not to mention the more profound images However, in all cases, lyrical time has a high degree of conventionality, and often abstraction.

The conventions of dramatic time and space are mainly associated with the orientation of drama towards theatrical production. Of course, each playwright has his own construction of the spatio-temporal image, but the general character of the convention remains unchanged: “No matter how significant the role narrative fragments acquire in dramatic works, no matter how fragmented the depicted action is, no matter how the characters’ spoken statements are subordinated to their internal logic speech, drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time”*.

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* Khalizev V.E. Drama as a kind of literature. M., 1986. P. 46.

The epic genre has the greatest freedom in handling artistic time and space; It is also where the most complex and interesting effects in this area are observed.

By features artistic convention literary time and space can be divided into abstract and concrete. This division is especially important for the artistic space. We will call abstract a space that has a high degree of conventionality and which, in the limit, can be perceived as a “universal” space, with coordinates “everywhere” or “nowhere”. It does not have a pronounced characteristic and therefore does not have any influence on the artistic world of the work: it does not determine the character and behavior of a person, is not associated with the characteristics of the action, does not set any emotional tone, etc. Thus, in Shakespeare’s plays, the location of the action is either completely fictitious (“Twelfth Night,” “The Tempest”) or does not have any influence on the characters and circumstances (“Hamlet,” “Coriolanus,” “Othello”). According to Dostoevsky’s correct remark, “his Italians, for example, are almost entirely the same English”*. In a similar way, artistic space is built in the dramaturgy of classicism, in many romantic works (ballads by Goethe, Schiller, Zhukovsky, short stories by E. Poe, “The Demon” by Lermontov), ​​in the literature of decadence (plays by M. Maeterlinck, L. Andreev) and modernism (“ Plague" by A. Camus, plays by J.-P. Sartre, E. Ionesco).

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* Dostoevsky F.M. Full collection cit., In 30 volumes. M., 1984. T. 26. P. 145.

On the contrary, concrete space does not simply “tie” the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but actively influences the entire structure of the work. In particular, for Russian literature of the 19th century V. characterized by the concretization of space, the creation of images of Moscow, St. Petersburg, a district town, an estate, etc., as discussed above in connection with the category of literary landscape.

In the 20th century Another trend has clearly emerged: a peculiar combination of concrete and abstract space within a work of art, their mutual “flowing” and interaction. In this case, a specific place of action is given symbolic meaning and high degree generalizations. A specific space becomes a universal model of existence. At the origins of this phenomenon in Russian literature were Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “The History of the Village of Goryukhin”), Gogol (“The Inspector General”), then Dostoevsky (“Demons”, “The Brothers Karamazov”); Saltykov-Shchedrin “The History of a City”), Chekhov (almost all of his mature works). In the 20th century, this tendency finds expression in the works of A. Bely (“Petersburg”), Bulgakov (“ White Guard", "The Master and Margarita"), Ven. Erofeev (“Moscow–Petushki”), and in foreign literature– in M. Proust, W. Faulkner, A. Camus (“The Stranger”), etc.

(It is interesting that a similar tendency to transform real space into symbolic is observed in the 20th century and in some other arts, in particular in cinema: for example, in the films of F. Coppola “Apocalypse Now” and F. Fellini “Orchestra Rehearsal”, the very concrete at the beginning the space gradually, towards the end, transforms into something mystical-symbolic.)

The corresponding properties of artistic time are usually associated with abstract or concrete space. Thus, the abstract space of a fable is combined with abstract time: “For the strong, the powerless are always to blame...”, “And in the heart the flatterer will always find a corner...”, etc. In this case, the most universal patterns of human life, timeless and spaceless, are mastered. And vice versa: spatial specificity is usually complemented by temporal specificity, as, for example, in the novels of Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy and others.

The forms of concretization of artistic time are, firstly, the “linking” of action to real historical landmarks and, secondly, precise definition“cyclical” time coordinates: seasons and time of day. The first form received special development in the aesthetic system of realism of the 19th–20th centuries. (thus, Pushkin insistently pointed out that in his “Eugene Onegin” time is “calculated according to the calendar”), although, of course, it arose much earlier, apparently already in antiquity. But the degree of specificity in each individual case will be different and emphasized to varying degrees by the author. For example, in “War and Peace” by Tolstoy, “The Life of Klim Samgin” by Gorky, “The Living and the Dead” by Simonov, etc. in artistic worlds, real historical events are directly included in the text of the work, and the time of action is determined with an accuracy not only to the year and month, but often to one day. But in “A Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov or “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky, the time coordinates are quite vague and can be guessed by indirect signs, but at the same time the connection in the first case to the 30s, and in the second to the 60s.

The depiction of the time of day has long had a certain emotional meaning in literature and culture. Thus, in the mythology of many countries, night is the time of undivided dominance of secret and most often evil forces, and the approach of dawn, heralded by the crowing of a rooster, brought deliverance from evil spirits. Clear traces of these beliefs can be easily found in literature up to the present day (“The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov, for example).

These emotional and semantic meanings were preserved to a certain extent in the literature of the 19th–20th centuries. and even became persistent metaphors such as “the dawn of a new life.” However, a different tendency is more typical for the literature of this period - to individualize the emotional and psychological meaning of the time of day in relation to a specific character or lyrical hero. Thus, the night can become a time of intense thought (“Poems composed at night during insomnia” by Pushkin), anxiety (“The pillow is already hot...” by Akhmatova), melancholy (“The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov). Morning can also change its emotional coloring to the exact opposite, becoming a time of sadness (“Foggy morning, gray morning...” by Turgenev, “A Pair of Bays” by A.N. Apukhtin, “Gloomy Morning” by A.N. Tolstoy). In general, individual shades in the emotional coloring of time exist in latest literature great multitude.

The season has been mastered in human culture since ancient times and was associated mainly with the agricultural cycle. In almost all mythologies, autumn is a time of dying, and spring is a time of rebirth. This mythological scheme passed into literature, and its traces can be found in the most different works. However, more interesting and artistically significant are the individual images of the season for each writer, filled, as a rule, with psychological meaning. Here we can already observe complex and implicit relationships between the time of year and the state of mind, giving a very wide emotional range (“I don’t like spring...” by Pushkin - “I love spring most of all...” by Yesenin). Correlation psychological state a character and a lyrical hero with a particular season becomes in some cases a relatively independent object of comprehension - here we can recall Pushkin’s sensitive feeling of the seasons (“Autumn”), Blok’s “Snow Masks,” the lyrical digression in Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”: “A What time of year // Is it easier to die in war?” The same time of year is individualized for different writers and carries different psychological and emotional loads: let’s compare, for example, Turgenev’s summer in nature and the St. Petersburg summer in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”; or almost always Chekhov’s joyful spring (“It felt like May, dear May!” - “The Bride”) with spring in Bulgakov’s Yershalaim (“Oh, what a terrible month of Nisan this year!”).

Like local space, specific time can reveal in itself the beginnings of absolute, infinite time, as, for example, in “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky, in Chekhov’s late prose (“Student”, “On Business”, etc.) , in “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov, the novels of M. Proust, “The Magic Mountain” by T. Mann, etc.

Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes occurring in it. For practical analysis of a work of art, it is important to at least qualitatively (“more - less”) determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator often characterizes the style of the work. For example, Gogol’s style is characterized mainly by maximally filled space, as we discussed above. We find a somewhat lesser, but still significant saturation of space with objects and things in Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Count Nulin”), Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Gorky, Bulgakov. But in the style system, for example, Lermontov, the space is practically not filled. Even in “A Hero of Our Time,” not to mention such works as “The Demon,” “Mtsyri,” and “Boyarin Orsha,” we cannot imagine a single specific interior, and the landscape is most often abstract and fragmentary. There is also no substantive saturation of space in such writers as L.N. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. Nabokov, A. Platonov, F. Iskander and others.

The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events (by “events” we mean not only external, but also internal, psychological ones). There are three possible options here: average, “normal” time filled with events; increased time intensity (the number of events per unit of time increases); reduced intensity (saturation of events is minimal). The first type of organization of artistic time is presented, for example, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”, the novels of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Gorky.

The second type is in the works of Lermontov, Dostoevsky, Bulgakov. The third is from Gogol, Goncharov, Leskov, Chekhov.

Increased saturation of artistic space is combined, as a rule, with a reduced intensity of artistic time, and vice versa: reduced occupancy of space - with increased saturation of time.

For literature as a temporary (dynamic) art form, the organization of artistic time is, in principle, more important than the organization of space. The most important problem here becomes the relationship between the time depicted and the time of the image. Literary reproduction of any process or event requires a certain time, which, of course, varies depending on the individual pace of reading, but still has some certainty and in one way or another correlates with the time of the depicted process. Thus, Gorky’s “The Life of Klim Samgin,” which covers forty years of “real” time, requires, of course, a much shorter period of time to read.

Depicted time and image time or, in other words, real and artistic time, as a rule, do not coincide, which often creates significant artistic effects. For example, in Gogol’s “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich,” about a decade and a half passes between the main events of the plot and the last visit of the narrator to Mirgorod, which are extremely sparingly noted in the text (of the events of this period, only the deaths of judge Demyan Demyanovich and crooked Ivan Ivanovich). But these years were not completely empty: all this time the litigation continued, the main characters grew old and approached inevitable death, still busy with the same “business”, in comparison with which even eating melon or drinking tea in a pond seems like meaningful activities. The time interval prepares and enhances the sad mood of the finale: what was only funny at first becomes sad and almost tragic after a decade and a half.

In literature, rather complex relationships between real and artistic time often arise. So, in some cases, real time may even be zero: this is observed, for example, with various types of descriptions. Such time is called eventless. But the event time in which at least something happens is internally heterogeneous. In one case, we have events and actions that significantly change either a person, or relationships between people, or the situation as a whole - such time is called plot time. In another case, a picture of sustainable existence is drawn, i.e. actions and deeds that are repeated day after day, year after year. In the System of such artistic time, which is often called “chronicle-everyday”, practically nothing changes. The dynamics of such time are as conditional as possible, and its function is to reproduce a stable way of life. A good example of such a temporary organization is the depiction of the cultural and everyday way of life of the Larin family in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” (“They kept in a peaceful life // Habits of dear old times...”). Here, as in some other places in the novel (the depiction of Onegin’s daily activities in the city and in the countryside, for example), it is not dynamics that are reproduced, but statics, something that does not happen once, but always happens.

The ability to determine the type of artistic time in a particular work is a very important thing. The ratio of eventless (“zero”), chronicle-everyday and event-plot time largely determines the tempo organization of the work, which, in turn, determines the character aesthetic perception, forms the subjective reading time. So, " Dead Souls"Gogol, in which eventless and chronicle-everyday time predominates, create the impression of a slow pace and require an appropriate “reading mode” and a certain emotional mood: artistic time is leisurely, and the same should be the time of perception. For example, Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” has a completely opposite tempo organization, in which event time predominates (let us recall that by “events” we include not only plot twists and turns, but also internal, psychological events). Accordingly, both the mode of its perception and the subjective pace of reading will be different: often the novel is simply read “absorbedly”, in one breath, especially for the first time.

The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a very definite tendency towards complication. In the 19th and especially in the 20th centuries. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic technique; a kind of “game” begins with time and space. Her idea, as a rule, is to compare different times and spaces to identify both the characteristic properties of “here” and “now”, and general, universal laws human existence, independent of time and space; this is an understanding of the world in its unity. This artistic idea Chekhov expressed it very accurately and deeply in his story “The Student”: “The past,” he thought, “is connected with the present by a continuous chain of events that flow from one another. And it seemed to him that he had just seen both ends of this chain: he touched one end, as the other trembled<...>truth and beauty, which guided human life there, in the garden and in the courtyard of the high priest, continued uninterrupted to this day and, apparently, always constituted the main thing in human life and in general on earth.”

In the 20th century comparison, or, in Tolstoy’s apt word, “conjugation” of space-time coordinates has become characteristic of many writers - T. Mann, Faulkner, Bulgakov, Simonov, Aitmatov, etc. One of the most striking and artistic significant examples This trend is reflected in Tvardovsky’s poem “Beyond the Distance, the Distance.” The spatio-temporal composition creates in it an image of the epic unity of the world, in which there is a rightful place for the past, present, and future; and the small forge in Zagorye, and the great forge of the Urals, and Moscow, and Vladivostok, and the front, and the rear, and much more. In the same poem, Tvardovsky figuratively and very clearly formulated the principle of space-time composition:

There are two categories of travel:

One is to set off into the distance,

The other one is to sit in one’s place,

Flip back through the calendar.

This time there is a special reason

It will allow me to combine them.

And that one, and that one - by the way, both for me,

And my path is doubly beneficial.

These are the main elements and properties of that side artistic form, which we called the depicted world. It should be emphasized that the depicted world is an extremely important aspect of the entire work of art: the stylistic, artistic originality works; Without understanding the features of the depicted world, it is difficult to analyze the artistic content. We remind you of this because in the practice of school teaching, the depicted world does not stand out as a structural element forms, and therefore its analysis, are often neglected. Meanwhile, as one of the leading writers of our time, W. Eco, said, “for storytelling, first of all, it is necessary to create a certain world, arranging it as best as possible and thinking through it in detail”*.

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* Eco U. Name of the rose. M., 1989. P. 438.

CONTROL QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant in literary criticism by the term “depicted world”? How is its non-identity with primary reality manifested?

2. What is an artistic detail? What groups are there? artistic details?

3. What is the difference between a detail part and a symbol part?

4. What is it used for? literary portrait? What types of portraits do you know? What is the difference between them?

5. What functions do images of nature perform in literature? What is a “city landscape” and why is it needed in a work?

6. What is the purpose of describing things in a work of art?

7. What is psychologism? Why is it used in fiction? What forms and techniques of psychologism do you know?

8. What are fantasy and life-like as forms of artistic convention?

9. What functions, forms and techniques of fiction do you know?

10. What are plot and descriptiveness?

11. What types of spatio-temporal organization of the depicted world do you know? What artistic effects does the writer extract from the images of space and time? How do real time and artistic time relate?

Exercises

1. Determine what type of artistic details (detail-detail or detail-symbol) is typical for “Belkin’s Tales” by A.S. Pushkin, “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev, “The White Guard” by M.A. Bulgakov.

2. What type of portrait (portrait-description, portrait-comparison, portrait-impression) belongs to:

a) portrait of Pugachev (“The Captain’s Daughter” by A.S. Pushkin),

b) portrait of Sobakevich (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol),

c) portrait of Svidrigailov (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky),

d) portraits of Gurov and Anna Sergeevna (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov),

e) portrait of Lenin (“V.I. Lenin” by M. Gorky),

f) portrait of Beach Saniel (“Running on the Waves” by A. Green).

3. In the examples from the previous exercise, establish the type of connection between the portrait and character traits:

– direct correspondence,

– contrast discrepancy,

- complex relationship.

4. Determine what functions the landscape performs in the following works:

N.M. Karamzin. Poor Lisa,

A. S. Pushkin. Gypsies,

I.S. Turgenev. Forest and steppe

A.P. Chekhov. Lady with a dog,

M. Gorky. Okurov town,

V.M. Shukshin. The desire to live.

5. In which of the following works does the image of things play a significant role? Determine the function of the world of things in these works.

A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from mind

N.V. Gogol. Old world landowners

L.N. Tolstoy. Resurrection,

A.A. Block. Twelve,

A.I. Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich,

A. and B. Strugatsky. Predatory things of the century.

6. Identify the predominant forms and techniques of psychologism in the following works:

M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,

N.V. Gogol. Portrait,

I.S. Turgenev. Asya,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Teenager,

A.P. Chekhov. New dacha,

M. Gorky. At the bottom,

M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart.

7. Determine in which of the following works fantasy is an essential characteristic of the depicted world. In each case, analyze the predominant functions and techniques of fiction.

N.V. Gogol. The missing certificate

M.Yu. Lermontov. Masquerade,

I.S. Turgenev. Knocking!,

N.S. Leskov. The Enchanted Wanderer,

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Chizhikovo grief, conscience has disappeared,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Bobok,

S.A. Yesenin. Black man,

M.A. Bulgakov. Fatal eggs.

8. Determine in which of the following works the essential characteristic of the depicted world is plot, descriptiveness and psychologism:

N.V. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled, Marriage,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,

A.N. Ostrovsky. Wolves and sheep

L.N. Tolstoy. After the ball,

And P. Chekhov. Gooseberry,

M. Gorky. Life of Klim Samgin.

9. How and why space-time effects are used in the following works:

A.S. Pushkin. Boris Godunov,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Daemon,

N.V. Gogol. Enchanted place

A.P. Chekhov. Gull,

M.A. Bulgakov. Diaboliad,

A.T. Tvardovsky. Ant Country,

A. and B. Strugatsky. Noon. XXII century.

Final task

Analyze the structure of the depicted world in two or three of the works below using the following algorithm:

1. For the depicted world the following are essential:

1.1. plot,

1.2. descriptiveness

1.2.1. analyze:

a) portraits,

b) landscapes,

c) the world of things.

1.3. psychologism

1.3.1. analyze:

a) forms and techniques of psychologism,

b) functions of psychologism.

2. For the depicted world it is essential

2.1. lifelikeness

2.1.1. determine life-like functions,

2.2. fantastic

2.2.1. analyze:

a) type of fantastic imagery,

b) forms and techniques of fiction,

c) functions of fiction.

3. What type of artistic details predominates

3.1. details-details

3.1.1. analyze, using one or two examples, artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of details,

3.2. symbol details

3.2.1. analyze, using one or two examples, artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of symbolic details.

4. Time and space in the work are characterized

4.1. concreteness

4.1.1. analyze the artistic impact and functions of a specific space and time,

4.2. abstractness

4.2.1. analyze the artistic impact and functions of abstract space and time,

4.3. abstractness and concreteness of time and space are combined in an artistic image

4.3.1.analyze the artistic impact and functions of such a combination.

Make a summary of the previous analysis about artistic features and the functions of the depicted world in this work.

Texts for analysis

A.S. Pushkin. Captain's daughter, Queen of Spades,

N.V. Gogol. May Night, or Drowned Woman, Nose, Dead Souls,

M.Yu. Lermontov. Demon, Hero of our time,

I.S. Turgenev. Fathers and Sons,

N.S. Leskov. Old years in the village of Plodomasovo, Enchanted wanderer,

I.A. Goncharov. Oblomov,

ON THE. Nekrasov. Who lives well in Rus',

L.N. Tolstoy. Childhood, Death of Ivan Ilyich,

F.M. Dostoevsky. Crime and Punishment,

A.P. Chekhov. On matters of service, Bishop,

E. Zamyatin. We,

M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart,

A.T. Tvardovsky. Terkin in the next world,

A. I. Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich.

§ 10. Time and space

Fiction is specific in its exploration of space and time. Along with music, pantomime, dance, and stage direction, it belongs to the arts, the images of which have a temporal extension - they are strictly organized in the time of perception. The uniqueness of its subject is connected with this) as Lessing wrote: in the center of a verbal work - actions, i.e. processes occurring in time, because speech has a temporal extension. Detailed descriptions of motionless objects located in space, Lessing argued, turn out to be tedious for the reader and therefore unfavorable for verbal art: “... the comparison of bodies in space here collides with the sequence of speech in time.”

At the same time, the literature invariably includes spatial concepts. Unlike what is inherent in sculpture and painting, here they do not have direct sensory authenticity, material density and clarity, they remain indirect and are perceived associatively.

However, Lessing, who considered literature to be designed to master reality primarily in its temporal extent, was largely right. The temporal principles of verbal imagery are more concrete than the spatial ones: in the composition of monologues and dialogues, the depicted time and the time of perception more or less coincide, and the scenes dramatic works(like related episodes in narrative genres) capture time with direct, immediate authenticity.

Literary works are permeated with temporal and spatial ideas that are infinitely diverse and deeply significant. Here there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth, maturity, old age), historical (characteristics of the change of eras and generations, major events in the life of society), cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar (change of seasons, everyday life and holidays) , daily (day and night, morning and evening), as well as ideas about movement and stillness, about the correlation of the past, present, future. According to D.S. Likhachev, from era to era, as ideas about the changeability of the world become wider and deeper, images of time acquire more and more significance in literature: writers realize more clearly and intensely, more and more fully capture the “diversity of forms of movement,” “taking possession of the world in its time dimensions."

The spatial pictures present in literature are no less diverse: images of closed and open space, earthly and cosmic, actually visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity close and distant. Literary works have the ability to bring together, as if to merge together the spaces of the various kinds: “In Paris, from under the roof / Venus or Mars / They look at what’s on the poster / A new farce has been announced” (B.L. Pasternak. “In boundless spaces the continents are burning...”).

According to Yu.M. Lotman, “language of spatial representations” in literary creativity"belongs to the primary and basic." Turning to the work of N.V. Gogol, the scientist characterized the artistic significance of spatial boundaries, directed space, everyday and fantastic space, closed and open. Lotman argued that the basis of the imagery of Dante's Divine Comedy is the idea of ​​up and down as the universal principles of the world order, against the background of which the movement of the main character takes place; that in the novel M.A. Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita”, where the motif of the house is so important, “spatial language” is used to express “non-spatial concepts.

Temporal and spatial ideas captured in literature constitute a certain unity, which, following M.M. Bakhtin is usually called chronotope(from etc. - gr. chronos - time and topos - place, space). “The chronotope,” the scientist argued, “determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality<…>Temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature<…>always emotionally and value-laden.” Bakhtin considers idyllic, mystery, carnival chronotopes, as well as chronotopes of the road (path), threshold (sphere of crises and turning points), castle, living room, salon, provincial town (with its monotonous life). The scientist talks about chronotopic values, the plot-forming role of the chronotope and calls it a formal-substantive category. He emphasizes that artistic-semantic (actually meaningful) moments do not lend themselves to spatio-temporal definitions, but at the same time, “any entry into the sphere of meanings occurs only through the gates of chronotopes.” To what Bakhtin said, it is right to add that the chronotopic beginning literary works is capable of giving them a philosophical character, “deducing” the verbal fabric into an image of being as a whole, into a picture of the world - even if the heroes and narrators are not inclined to philosophize.

Time and space are imprinted in literary works in two ways. Firstly, in the form of motives and leitmotifs (mainly in lyrics), which often acquire a symbolic character and indicate a particular picture of the world. Secondly, they form the basis of the plots to which we will turn.

Transforming space The next stage in geographical fiction can be considered the transition from plots describing unknown or lost worlds to works based on the active development, use and change of the natural environment. And this time