Berdina V.A.

Candidate of Cultural Studies, Ukhta State Technical University

THANATOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS ABOUT THE SOUL

annotation

The article is devotedstudying pre-philosophical ideas about the afterlife of the inhabitants of ancient Hellas. The author identifies the main types traditional beliefs into the posthumous existence of the soul. Analyzes the main places of residence of the soul after death. Tries to trace the evolution of the religious ideas of the ancient Greeks, who dominated before the cult of the heavenly deity, based on the texts of Homer, Plato, Hesiod, Pausanias.

Keywords: soul; religious ideas; Ancient Greece; afterworld.

Berdina V.A.

Candidate of Culturology, Ukhta State Technical University

THANATOLOGICAL PRESENTATION OF ANCIENT GREEKS ABOUT THE SOUL

Abstract

The paper studies ideas about the afterlife inhabitants of ancient Hellas. The author reveals the main types of traditional beliefs in the existence of the soul after death. It analyzes the main seat of the soul after death. Attempts to trace the evolution of religious ideas of the ancient Greeks, to the prevailing cult of the heavenly deity, based on the texts of Homer, Plato, Hesiod, Pausanias.

Keywords: soul; religious representations; Ancient Greece; afterworld.

IN ancient art the soul was depicted in the form of butterflies, birds, etc., but often acquired a personified image (an example is the image of Psyche). Ideas about the mystical ascent of the soul were formed in the bosom of mythology and were later expressed in ideas and works ancient philosophers and poets. This shows the sequence of development of ideas about the soul, but in general it is too early to talk about the formation of a single concept of the soul, since long before this it was preceded by the thanatological views of the ancients.

In antiquity, there were three types of traditional beliefs that prevailed before the cult of the heavenly deity. Let's look at them briefly. First of all, let us highlight three main beliefs about the place of a person’s stay after death, which were widespread in ancient times: the grave, the underworld and heaven.

All these ideas about the afterlife were based on the belief in life after death. Like most other peoples, this “primitive” faith, in all likelihood, grew into the construction of an afterlife, underground world. Let's highlight the most important points here.

Firstly, another world, supposedly existing in the depths of the earth, becomes a kind of reflection of the overworld: it is inhabited by various mythical creatures; it has its own hierarchy, headed by its own ruler, as well as its own underground geography.

Secondly, there is a more than close connection between the external and underground worlds. The souls of the dead not only go to Hades after death, they go there along a certain route, along a path connecting two worlds. Most deep caves and the vents of volcanoes are entrances to the underground kingdom, and theoretically anyone can enter there. The fundamental idea is the presence of a direct connection between the upper and lower worlds and, as a consequence, the possibility of traveling to the lower world with a return return. Even in mature mythologies, not only the descent of a deceased (or living hero) into the underworld is allowed, but also his return to earth.

Thirdly, not all the dead could cross the waters of the Styx. The deceased, over whom the necessary rituals were not performed or who were not buried properly, were not allowed into the kingdom of the dead until the moment of burial.

Fourthly, the presence of an extensive hierarchy of inhabitants of the underworld is usually associated with the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution after death. After death, a person is put on trial for his earthly accomplishments and, depending on the results of the trial, ends up in a good or bad place. For example, to the Champs Elysees or to Tartarus.

It is known, however, that beliefs maintained according to the canons of classical Greek mythology, established by Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, by the beginning of our era no longer withstand the test of time or the criticism of philosophers and scientists. Religion turns into customs and superstitions. At the end of the last era, ancient beliefs experience amazing transformations: the underworld extends to heaven. This transition is described by Plato at the conclusion of the treatise “The Republic”, where Er, killed on the battlefield, tells people after his resurrection about the structure of the afterlife and how the souls of the dead are distributed by the court for their further residence either in the underworld or in heaven, describes punishments , which await sinners and tyrants, speaks of metempsychosis and the reincarnation of souls.

From the 1st century BC. In the Mediterranean, the belief in the posthumous heavenly ascension of the dead became widespread. This was obviously facilitated by philosophers, mystics and aesthetes. Subterranean regions and topographical features are transferred to the celestial spheres, and subterranean geography becomes cosmography. Now the Champs Elysees (Isles of the Blessed) are located in the sky, usually in the area of ​​seven planets (for the Pythagoreans - on the Moon, for the Stoics - just above it). The road leading to this monastery is the Milky Way. The Milky Way itself was often considered paradise. The celestial river Styx is, of course, the border sphere of the Moon. The latter often plays the role of Charon. The role of a translator, or “pusher of the soul,” Psychopomp is often assigned to the Sun. It is curious that even hell (in Latin usually read as infernus and inferi, i.e. "under the earth", a place where people cannot see, and this means both the tomb and a deeper place) has moved to heaven: it became the zone of winds, water and fire, i.e. the lowest celestial sphere.

There are many ways in which the souls of the dead ascended to heaven: on foot, up stairs, in a cart, on a boat, on a horse or on another animal; they could fly there on birds or on their own. All this indicates not just the proximity of earth and sky, thanks to which such a journey is possible, but also the incredible proximity of saving immortality.

But how exactly did the ancient Greeks imagine the kingdom of the dead - Hades? If we analyze the myths and poetic descriptions of the habitat of souls after death, a rather gloomy picture emerges. Hades seemed to the Greeks full of horror; the rivers Cocytus and Acheron flowed along its bottom, as well as the sacred river Styx, whose icy black waters even the gods swore by. According to the thanatological ideas of the inhabitants of ancient Hellas, the unfortunate souls of the dead wandered along the banks of these rivers, filling the underground kingdom with lamentations full of sadness and melancholy. Having moved to the kingdom of Hades, the dead were forever deprived of the opportunity to see the sun and communicate with the human world. Like the ancient Babylonians, the Greeks believed that the underworld was a place of eternal sorrow. In the Old Testament the dead are called rephaim, i.e. “weak”, “powerless”, and Jesus, the son of Sirach, says the following: “For in hell there is no joy to be found” (Sir.14:17). And when Homer’s Odysseus consoles Achilles - as if he continues to reign in the underworld - he responds with bitterness: “O Odysseus, do not hope to give me consolation in death; I would rather be alive, like a day laborer, working in the field, To earn my daily bread by serving a poor plowman, Than to reign dead here over the soulless dead.”

According to numerous descriptions, in the underworld there are neither green valleys nor beautiful meadows, only dried up rocky land on which not a blade of grass grows, and the river banks are covered with thickets of asphodel, whose pale petals fall into Lethe - the river of oblivion. Once he tried the waters from Lethe, he forgot about his life on Earth with its joys and sorrows, eternal darkness settled in his soul, so the souls of the dead wander among the flowers of asphodel, moaning and complaining about evil rock that interrupted their lives. No mortal can return from the underworld. Charon will not take the soul back to the world of the living. The dead man had to pay something to the carrier (2 obols). Initially, this money had a different meaning. This is shown by an epigram from the Palatine anthology, where the soul is addressed with the following words: “When you die, then take with you only an obol from your goods.” This means that the payment to Charon initially played the role of “compensation”, which the living paid to the dead so that he would no longer lay claim to his property and would not try to return for it.

There is no return from the dark kingdom, since the gates of Hades are guarded by the giant dog Cerberus, he has three heads, and snakes wriggle around his neck with a menacing hiss. And the Greeks, at least initially, imagined not one, but several such monsters, as follows from the famous myth of Hercules. After all, the Lernaean Hydra, which Hesiod calls the sister of Cerberus, and the Nemean lion - according to Hesiod, her half-brother, and the two-headed dog of the three-headed Geryon - all of them were originally guards of Hades.

Hesiod describes the genealogy mythical creatures, living in Hades: “...So, not knowing either death or old age, the nymph Echidna, the bringer of death, spent her life underground in Arimah. As they say, the proud and terrible lawless Typhon was united with that quick-eyed maiden in a hot embrace. And she conceived from him, and gave birth to strong-hearted children. For Geryon, first, she gave birth to Orph the dog; Following her - the unspeakable Cerberus, scary looking, A copper-voiced hellhound, a bloodthirsty beast, Brazenly shameless, evil, with fifty heads. She then gave birth to the third, the evil Lernaean Hydra. Also the Nemean Lion, united in love with Orff."

Near the gates of the underworld wander the restless souls of warriors who were not buried and over whom the burial rite was not performed. This is how the soul of Patroclus groans in the Iliad: “Oh! Bury me, so that I may enter the abode of Hades! Souls, shadows of the dead, are driving me away from the gates. And the shadows are not allowed to join themselves across the river; I wander in vain before wide-gate Hades."

Caring for a decent burial for the deceased and respect for his grave were considered one of the most sacred duties. They believed that the deceased would not find peace if his body was not buried properly, and that the gods would punish those who did not observe funeral rites. So, before the duel with Achilles, Hector sets a condition according to which his body, in case of death, was to be given to relatives for a decent burial. Dying, he asks Achilles not to give his body to be torn to pieces by dogs, but to return it to relatives who would mourn him and bury him. Therefore, duty obliged us to take the bodies of the dead at all costs, so that they would not be captured and disgraced by the enemy. The Iliad describes the events associated with the battle for the corpse of Patroclus as a terrible battle in which Menelaus, Ajax and Hector, leading their squads, fight with varying success - some to protect Patroclus’ body, others to drag it away to desecration.

For the relatives of the deceased there was greatest sorrow, if the corpse remained unburied. In battles between Greek tribes, with rare exceptions, there was always a mutual exchange of killed, sometimes even by agreement. The commanders were obliged to take care of the burial of the corpses of dead soldiers. Neglect of this duty entailed severe punishment, as, for example, in the case that occurred during the Battle of Arginus in 406 BC. e., described by Xenophon. Even if a Greek accidentally came across a corpse unknown person, for example, someone who was killed or drowned, in order not to commit a sin, he was obliged to bury him properly. If for some reason the body could not be buried, it was necessary to sprinkle it with several handfuls of earth and thus perform a symbolic burial. Only traitors or criminals were deprived of an honorable burial and their bodies were thrown away. The suicide was buried quietly, without any solemn funeral rites.

But let's return to the description of the underworld. The stern and unforgiving ruler of the underworld, who sits on a golden throne, and sad Persephone sits next to him. The terrible goddess of vengeance Erinyes surrounds the throne of Hades. The soul of the one who committed the crime will not find peace until he enters the underground kingdom of Hades - the Erinyes pounce on him, beat him with their whips, sting with their snakes, do not allow the unfortunate soul to forget for a minute, pursue him everywhere, subjecting him to torture and it is impossible to hide from them.

At the foot of the throne of Lord Hades sit the judges Minos and Rhadamanthus, they judge all those who appear before Hades. Here, at the throne of the ruler, is Tanat, the god of death, with a bright sword and in a black cloak, he stretches out his black wings, from which the cold of the grave emanates. It is he who appears near the bed of the dying man in order to tear out his soul by cutting off his sharp sword strands of hair, and the liberated soul goes to the kingdom of Hades.

The ancients experienced sacred horror before the kingdom of Hades also because, according to their ideas, it was there that the highest judgment was carried out over the souls of the dead. Confirmation of this can be found in Plato, as already mentioned in the previous paragraph, who in his treatise “On the State” cites the myth of Er. Er had a chance to visit the afterlife - and this is what he, upon waking up, said: “... The soul, as soon as it left the body, went along with many others, and they all came to some wonderful place where there were two clefts in the ground, one against the other, but on the contrary, above, in the sky, there are also two. In the middle between them sat the judges. After the verdict was passed, they ordered fair people go to the right, up to heaven, and they hung a sign of sentence in front of them, and to the unjust - to go to the left, down, and these also had - behind - a designation of all their misdeeds.”

If we talk about the judgment of the dead, then among the Greeks this idea existed only in certain circles. Homer, in any case, did not yet know it. Thus, Odysseus, having descended into the underworld, sees Minos judging the dead, but this judgment concerns the long-standing inhabitants of the underworld. Minos seeks to put an end to the discord between them, as he had to do before on earth. Aeschylus and Pindar, however, speak of a certain judgment immediately after death. Plato first mentions the three judges about whom we later hear so often: Aeacus, Minos and Rhadamanthus; in the “Apology of Socrates” he names Triptolemus (the hero to whom Demeter gave a golden chariot and grains of wheat; traveling all over the world, Triptolemus sowed the earth and taught people to do so. For his righteousness he became one of the judges in Hades) and other righteous people.

In ancient times there was no clear idea of ​​heaven and hell. As for the descriptions of the Champs Elysees or the Isle of the Blessed by Homer or Hesiod, they do not go beyond what can be found among other peoples. If the Iliad talks about the punishment of individual people, namely oathbreakers who “promised themselves to the underworld,” then this is due to this specific situation. The very descriptions of hellish punishments, which are deployed in the Odyssey, but only in relation to Tityus, Tantalus and Sisyphus, are of late, namely Orphic origin: “... I also saw Tityus, the son of the famous Gaia... There he lay; two kites sat on his sides, tore his liver and tormented his womb with their claws...”

But how was it possible to overcome this reverent fear of the afterlife that settled in the souls of mortals? Some Greeks sought to overcome this fear in the Eleusinian mysteries and sacraments, which were associated with the cult of Dionysus.

In the 7th century BC. e. Various ancient authors are already beginning to appear texts in which praises of the benefits bestowed by the mysteries of the Eleusinian goddesses prevail. After all, those people who were initiated into the mysteries of the goddesses received a fate in the afterlife that was different from the fate of the uninitiated: only the initiated found bliss in communication with the celestials. For the rest, only suffering awaited them after death. The high priests of Eleusis were not afraid of suffering beyond the grave and considered death a blessing bestowed from above. In this regard, we can cite an inscription composed by a certain Hierophant (the high priest who initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries), which said the following: “Truly, a wondrous secret was revealed by the blessed gods: Death for mortal people is not a curse, but grace.”

The golden tablet of the “initiates”, found in Lower Italy, says: “From a man you became a god - the soul that came from a god returns to him.” It is not possible to describe the fate of the “initiates” in more detail; according to Plato, the Orphics promised their adherents eternal intoxication and numerous descendants. In his “Republic,” the philosopher describes this as follows: “And Musaeus and his son give to the righteous from the gods blessings more excellent (than those of Homer). In their stories, when the righteous descend into Hades, they are laid out on beds, a feast is arranged for these pious people and they make sure that they spend the rest of the time intoxicated, with wreaths on their heads... And according to other teachings, the rewards bestowed by the gods are spread even further: after a pious man there remain the children of his children and all his offspring.”

However, all these expectations for wide circles"uninitiated" had no meaning. In this regard, it is very significant that in the image of the underworld that Polygnotus painted for the Cnidian building at Delphi (“Above [source] Cassotis there is a building in which there are paintings of Polygnotus. This is a donation of the inhabitants of Cnidus. This building is called by the Delphians a lesch, a place for talking , because in ancient times they gathered here for serious conversations and for all kinds of jokes and fairy tales ... ") and which we know from the detailed description of Pausanias, appear first of all Titius, Tantalus and Sisyphus, famous from Homer, then also Ocnus, whose donkey again and again chews the rope he has woven, and, finally, the robber of the temple, together with the disrespectful son and the detractors of the Eleusinian Mysteries - but there are no other sinners here. And most importantly, the reward received by the righteous for their good deeds is also not depicted; however, those initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries generally tried not to disclose their aspirations too much. The fact that Aristophanes parodied these beliefs in his Frogs does not at all indicate their widespread use. Countless texts have been preserved where they could have been mentioned if they had become the property of mass consciousness, however, they were of a sacred nature and no direct narratives about them have been preserved.

Thus, we can draw a general conclusion that it is religious ideas that can lift the veil, show and explain many philosophical and everyday ideas about the soul in Ancient Greece, and explain its images in works of art and literature. Religious views initially contain everything, not only providing an explanation, but also giving rise to the analysis of philosophical sources in their processing by the wisest ancient authors, who are also supporters of any religious ideas.

Literature

1. Bible: Books of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. – M.: United Bible Societies, 1991. –1371 p.
2. Hesiod. On the origin of the gods (Theogony) // On the origin of the gods / Comp. entry Art. I. V. Stahl. M., 1990. S. 200-201.
3. Homer. Odyssey/Homer. Per. from ancient Greek V. Zhukovsky; Afterword by A. Tahoe-Godi; Notes by S. Osherov. – M.: Moscow. worker, 1982. – 350 p.
4. Homer. Iliad/Homer. Per. from ancient Greek N. Gnedich; Note M. Tomashevskaya. – M.: Artist. lit., 1987. – 379 p.
5. Plato. State // Philebus, State, Timaeus, Critias / Trans. from ancient Greek General ed. A. F. Loseva, V. F. Asmusa, A. A. Takho-Godi; Auto. Will join. Art. and Art. in note A. F. Losev; Note A.A. Tahoe-Godi. – M.: Publishing house “Mysl”, 1999. – 656 p.
6. Plato. Apology of Socrates // Apology of Socrates, Crito, Ion, Protagoras / Trans. from ancient Greek General ed. A. F. Loseva and others; Auto. will enter. Art. A. F. Losev; Note A. A. Tahoe-Godi; Per. from ancient Greek – M.: Publishing house “Mysl”, 1999. – 864 p.
7. Pausanias. Description of Hellas. Books V-X / Trans. from ancient Greek S. P. Kondratieva. Under. ed. E. V. Nikityuk. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house “ALETEYA”, 1996. – 538 p.

References

1. Biblija: Books Svjashhennogo Pisanija Vethogo i Novogo Zaveta. – M.: United Bible Societies, 1991. –1371 s.
2. Gesiod. O proishozhdenii bogov (Teogonija) // O proishozhdenii bogov / Sost. vstup. St. I. V. Shtal'. M., 1990. S. 200-201.
3. Gomer. Odisseja/Gomer. Per. s ancient Greek. V. Zhukovsky; Posleslovie A. Taho-Godi; Primechanija S. Osherova. – M.: Mosk. rabochij, 1982. – 350 s.
4. Gomer. Iliad/Gomer. Per. s ancient Greek. N. Gnedicha; Primech. M. Tomashevskoj. – M.: Hudozh. lit, 1987. – 379 s.
5. Plato. Gosudarstvo // Fileb, Gosudarstvo, Timej, Kritij / Per. s ancient Greek. Obshh. red. A. F. Loseva, V. F. Asmusa, A. A. Taho-Godi; Avt. Vstupit. st. i st. v primech. A. F. Losev; Primech. A.A. Taho-Godi. – M.: Izd-vo “Mysl’”, 1999. – 656 s.
6. Plato. Apologija Sokrata // Apologija Sokrata, Kriton, Ion, Protagor / Per. s ancient Greek. Obshh. red. A. F. Loseva i dr.; Avt. vstupit. St. A. F. Losev; Primech. A. A. Taho-Godi; Per. s ancient Greek. – M.: Izd-vo “Mysl’”, 1999. – 864 s.
7. Pavsanij. Description Jellady. Book V-X / Per. s ancient Greek. S. P. Kondrat’eva. Pod. red. E. V. Nikitjuk. – SPb.: Izd-vo “ALETEJJa”, 1996. – 538 s

Religious ideas and religious life of the ancient Greeks were in close connection with all their historical life. Already in ancient monuments Greek creativity is clearly reflected in the anthropomorphic nature of Greek polytheism, which is explained national characteristics all cultural development in this area; concrete representations, generally speaking, prevail over abstract ones, just as in quantitative terms humanoid gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines prevail over deities of abstract meaning (who, in turn, receive anthropomorphic features). In this or that cult, this or that writer or artist, one or another general or mythological (and mythographic) ideas are connected with this or that deity.

We know, further, different combinations, hierarchies of the genealogy of divine beings - “Olympus”, various systems of “twelve gods” (for example, in Athens - Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, Hestia). Such connections are explained not only from the creative moment, but also from the conditions of the historical life of the Hellenes; in Greek polytheism one can also trace later layers (eastern elements; deification - even during life). In the general religious consciousness of the Hellenes, there apparently did not exist any specific generally accepted dogma. The diversity of religious ideas was also expressed in the diversity of cults, the external environment of which is now becoming increasingly clear thanks to archaeological excavations and finds. We find out which gods or heroes were worshiped where, and which one was worshiped where or where which one was worshiped predominantly (for example, Zeus - in Dodona and Olympia, Apollo - in Delphi and Delos, Athena - in Athens, Hera in Samos, Asclepius - in Epidaurus) ; we know shrines revered by all (or many) Hellenes, like the Delphic or Dodonian oracle or the Delian shrine; We know large and small amphictyony (cult communities).

One can further distinguish between public and private cults. The all-consuming importance of the state also affected the religious sphere. The ancient world, generally speaking, knew neither the internal church as a kingdom not of this world, nor the church as a state within a state: “church” and “state” were concepts in it that absorbed or conditioned each other, and, for example, the priest was the one or state magistrate.

This rule could not, however, be carried out with unconditional consistency everywhere; practice caused particular deviations and created certain combinations. Further, if a well-known deity was considered the main deity of a certain state, then the state sometimes recognized (as in Athens) some other cults; Along with these national cults, there were also individual cults of state divisions (for example, the Athenian demes), and cults of private significance (for example, household or family), as well as cults of private societies or individuals.

Since the state principle prevailed (which did not triumph everywhere at the same time and equally), every citizen was obliged, in addition to his private deities, to honor the gods of his “civil community” (changes were brought by the Hellenistic era, which generally contributed to the process of leveling). This reverence was expressed purely externally- feasible participation in well-known rituals and celebrations performed on behalf of the state (or state division), - participation to which the non-civilian population of the community was invited in other cases; then, both citizens and non-citizens were left to seek satisfaction of their religious needs, as they could, wanted and were able. One must think that in general the veneration of the gods was external; the internal religious consciousness was, from our point of view, naive, and among the masses superstition did not decrease, but grew (especially at a later time, when it found food for itself coming from the East); But in an educated society, an educational movement began early, timid at first, then more and more energetic, with one end (negative) touching the masses; religiosity weakened little in general (and sometimes even - albeit painfully - rose), but religion, that is, old ideas and cults, gradually - especially as Christianity spread - lost both its meaning and its content. Approximately this is, in general, the internal and external history of the Greek religion during the time available for closer study.

In the nebulous region of the original, primordial Greek religion scientific work I have outlined only some general points, although they are usually stated with excessive harshness and extremeness. Already ancient philosophy bequeathed a threefold allegorical explanation of myths: psychological (or ethical), historical-political (not entirely correctly called euhemerical) and physical; She explained the emergence of religion from the individual moment. A narrow theological point of view also joined here, and in essence, on the same basis, Kreutzer’s “Symbolik” (“Symbolik und Mythologie der alt. Völker, bes. der Griechen”, German Kreuzer, 1836) was built, as were many other systems and theories who ignored the moment of evolution.

Gradually, however, they came to the realization that the ancient Greek religion had its own complex historical origin that the meaning of myths should be sought not behind them, but in them. Initially, ancient Greek religion was considered only in itself, for fear of going beyond Homer and generally beyond the boundaries of purely Hellenic culture (this principle is still adhered to by the “Königsberg” school): hence the localistic interpretation of myths - from the physical (for example, Forkhammer, German Forchhammer) or only from a historical point of view (for example, Müller, German K. O. Müller).

Some paid their main attention to the ideal content of Greek mythology, reducing it to phenomena of local nature, others - to the real, seeing traces of local (tribal, etc.) characteristics in the complexity of ancient Greek polytheism. Over time, one way or another, the original significance of eastern elements in Greek religion had to be recognized. Comparative linguistics gave rise to "comparative Indo-European mythology". This hitherto predominant direction in science was fruitful in the sense that it clearly showed the need for a comparative study of ancient Greek religion and collated extensive material for this study; but - not to mention the extreme straightforwardness of the methodological methods and the extreme haste of judgment - it was engaged not so much in the study of Greek religion using the comparative method, but in the search for its main points, dating back to the time of pan-Apian unity (moreover, the linguistic concept of the Indo-European peoples was too sharply identified with the ethnic ). As for the main content of myths (“disease of the tongue”, according to M. Müller), it was too exclusively reduced to natural phenomena - mainly to the sun, or the moon, or thunderstorms.

The younger school of comparative mythology considers the heavenly deities to be the result of a further, artificial development of the original “folk” mythology, which knew only demons (folklorism, animism). Recently, the reaction against Indo-European mythology has intensified. An excellent exposition and criticism of this comparative Indo-Germanic mythology, as well as other explanations of the origin of cult and myth, can be found in the first chapter of O. Gruppe's work "D. griech. Kulte und Mythen in ihr. Bez. zu den orient. Religionen" (German O. Gruppe, vol. 1, 1887).

In Greek mythology, one cannot help but recognize later layers, especially in the entire external form of myths (as they have come down to us), although they cannot always be determined historically, just as it is not always possible to distinguish the purely religious part of myths. Beneath this shell lie general Aryan elements, but they are often as difficult to distinguish from specifically Greek elements as it is to determine the beginning of a purely Greek culture in general. It is no less difficult to determine with any accuracy the basic content of various Hellenic myths, which is undoubtedly extremely complex. Nature with its properties and phenomena played here big role, but perhaps mainly service-related; Along with these natural historical moments, historical and ethical moments should also be recognized (since the gods generally lived no differently and no better than people).

The local and cultural division of the Hellenic world remained not without influence; The presence of oriental elements in Greek religion is also undeniable. It would be too complex and too difficult a task to explain historically, even in the most general terms, how all these moments gradually coexisted with each other; but some knowledge in this area can be achieved, especially based on experiences preserved both in the internal content and in external environment cults, and, moreover, taking into account, if possible, the entire ancient historical life of the Hellenes (the path in this direction was especially indicated by Curtins in his “Studien z. Gesch. d. griech. Olymps”, in “Sitzb. d. Berl. Akad.”, German. E. Curtins, 1890). It is significant, for example, the relation in the Greek religion of the great gods to the small, folk deities, and of the supermundane world of gods to the underground; Characteristic is the veneration of the dead, expressed in the cult of heroes; The mystical content of Greek religion is curious.

The first ideas of the Greeks about the Black Sea region and the peoples who inhabited it were formed long before colonization thanks to travelers and traders. The sea was rich in fish, and the coastal lands were rich in ship and construction timber, and iron ore. But sailing in the Black Sea was dangerous for sailors. Due to the weak indentation of the banks there were few convenient places for harbors, there were almost no islands and peninsulas, so familiar to the Mediterranean Greeks. For a long time, the northern borders remained unexplored.
The sea, which the Greeks called Pontus, was considered part of the Ocean that surrounded the inhabited earth, its gulf. In the Ocean, according to ancient ideas, there was an entrance to the kingdom of the dead, so sailing along it was equivalent to traveling to Hades. There, in the Ocean, where chaos reigned, one could find the “islands of the blessed”, where the souls of heroes lived. Such ideas, as well as the difficulties of navigation, for a long time hampered the development of the shores of the Black Sea and were reflected in the very name of the sea - Pont Aksinsky -. Later, during the period of colonization, it will be called Euxinian - “hospitable”.
Numerous information about the Black Sea region, often colored by fiction, is preserved in myths, tales and poems.

Achilles, the son of King Peleus and the Nereid (sea goddess) Thetis, was one of the most famous and beloved heroes in Greece, who was revered as a god. He is one of the main characters of Homer's Iliad, who undertook a campaign against Troy under the leadership of Agamemnon. Many legends are devoted to his posthumous fate.

A descendant of Io in the thirteenth generation became the most famous and beloved hero of Hellas - Hercules, the son of Zeus and Alcmene. At the behest of Apollo, in order to atone for a serious crime, Hercules entered the service of King Eurystheus and, fulfilling his tasks, performed twelve labors.

Buildings and sculptures, poems and thoughts of great philosophers - all these are components of the “Greek miracle”, as scientists call it today.

If you are interested in culture, you can briefly familiarize yourself with it in this article. So, what has fascinated even the most inexperienced person in art for four thousand years? Let's take a closer look.

General information

The ancient period, which is characterized by the rise and prosperity of Hellas (as the ancient Greeks called their country), is the most interesting for most art historians. And for good reason! Indeed, at this time the origin and formation of the principles and forms of almost all genres of modern creativity took place.

In total, scientists divide the history of the development of this country into five periods. Let's take a look at the typology and talk about the formation of some types of art.

Aegean era

This period is most clearly represented by two monuments - the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces. The latter is better known today as the Labyrinth from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. After archaeological excavations, scientists confirmed the veracity of this legend. Only the first floor has survived, but there are more than three hundred rooms in it!

In addition to palaces, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is known for the masks of Achaean leaders and small Cretan sculptures. The figurines found in the palace's hiding places amaze with their filigree. Women with snakes look very realistic and graceful.

Thus, the culture of Ancient Greece, a brief summary of which is presented in the article, arose from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and the arriving Achaean and Dorian tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula.

Homeric period

This era is significantly different in material terms from the previous one. From the 11th to the 9th centuries BC, many important events took place.

First of all, the previous civilization died. Scientists suggest that due to a volcanic eruption. Then there was a return from statehood to a communal structure. In fact, society was being formed anew.

The important point is that against the backdrop of material decline, spiritual culture was fully preserved and continued to develop. We can see this in the works of Homer, which reflect precisely this turning point.

Refers to the end of the Minoan period, and the writer himself lived at the beginning of the archaic era. That is, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the only evidence about this period, because apart from them and archaeological finds, nothing is known about it today.

Archaic culture

At this time there is rapid growth and formation of state-policies. Coins begin to be minted, the alphabet is formed and writing is formed.

In the archaic era, the Olympic Games appeared, and the cult of a healthy and athletic body was formed.

Classical period

Everything that the culture of Ancient Greece fascinates us with today (a summary is in the article) happened precisely in this era.

Philosophy and science, painting and sculpture, and poetry - all these genres are experiencing a rise and unique development. The apogee of creative self-expression was the Athens architectural ensemble, which still amazes viewers with its harmony and elegance of forms.

Hellenism

The last period of development of Greek culture is interesting precisely because of its ambiguity.

On the one hand, there is a unification of Greek and eastern traditions due to the conquests of Alexander the Great. On the other hand, Rome captures Greece, but the latter conquers it with its culture.

Architecture

The Parthenon is probably one of the most famous monuments ancient world. And Doric or Ionian elements, such as columns, are found in some later architectural styles.

We can mainly trace the development of this type of art through temples. After all, it was in this type of construction that the most effort, money and skills were invested. Even palaces were valued less than places for sacrifices to the gods.

The beauty of ancient Greek temples lies in the fact that they were not formidable temples of mysterious and cruel celestial beings. In terms of their internal structure, they resembled ordinary houses, only they were more elegantly equipped and richly furnished. How could it be different if the gods themselves were portrayed as similar to people, with the same problems, quarrels and joys?

Subsequently, three orders of columns formed the basis of most styles of European architecture. It was with their help that the culture of Ancient Greece briefly, but very succinctly and lastingly entered the life of modern man.

Vase painting

Works of this type of art are the most numerous and studied to date. At school, children study information about what the culture of Ancient Greece was like (briefly). 5th grade, for example, is a period of acquaintance only with myths and legends.

And the first monuments of this civilization that students see are black-glazed ceramics - very beautiful, copies of which served as souvenirs, decorations and collectibles in all subsequent eras.

Vessel painting went through several stages of development. At first these were simple geometric patterns, known since the times of the Minoan culture. Then spirals, meanders and other details are added to them.

In the process of formation, vase painting acquires the features of painting. Scenes from mythology and Everyday life ancient Greeks, human figures, images of animals and everyday scenes.

It is noteworthy that the artists managed not only to convey movement in their paintings, but also to give personal features to the characters. Thanks to their attributes, individual gods and heroes are easily recognized.

Mythology

The peoples of the ancient world perceived the surrounding reality a little differently than we are used to understanding it. Deities were the main force that was responsible for what happened in a person’s life.

At school they are often asked to do something on the topic “Culture of Ancient Greece” short message, briefly, interestingly and in detail describe the legacy of this amazing civilization. In this case, it is better to start the story with mythology.

The ancient Greek pantheon included many gods, demigods and heroes, but the main ones were the twelve Olympians. The names of some of them were already known during the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. They are mentioned on clay tablets with Linear writing. It is noteworthy that on at this stage they had female and male counterparts of the same character. For example, there was Zeus-on and Zeus-on.

Today we know about the gods of Ancient Greece thanks to monuments of fine art and literature that have remained for centuries. Sculptures, frescoes, figurines, plays and stories - all of this reflected the Hellenic worldview.

Such views have outlived their time. The artistic culture of Ancient Greece, in short, had a primary influence on the formation of many European schools various types of arts. Renaissance artists resurrected and developed ideas of style, harmony and form that had been known since classical Greece.

Literature

Many centuries separate our society from the society of ancient Hellas, and besides, in fact, only crumbs of what was written have reached us. The Iliad and the Odyssey are probably the most popular works, thanks to which the culture of Ancient Greece is known. A summary (about Odysseus and his adventures) can be read in any anthology, and the exploits of this wise man still impresses society today.

Without his advice there would have been no victory for the Achaeans in the Trojan War. In principle, both poems form the image of the ruler in an ideal light. Critics perceive him as a collective character who contains many positive traits.

Homer's work dates back to the eighth century BC. Later authors, such as Euripides, introduced a completely new spirit into their works. If before them the main thing was the relationship between heroes and gods, as well as the tricks of the celestials and their interference in life ordinary people, then now everything changes. The tragedies of the new generation reflect the inner world of man.

Culture, in short, in the classical period tries to penetrate deeper and answer the majority eternal questions. This “research” involved such areas as literature, philosophy, art. Speakers and poets, thinkers and artists - everyone tried to understand the diversity of the world and pass on the received wisdom to their descendants.

Art

The classification of art is based on the elements of vase painting. The Greek (Achaean-Minoan) period is preceded by the Cretan-Mycenaean period, when an advanced civilization existed on the islands, and not on the Balkan Peninsula.

The actual culture of Ancient Greece, short description which we present in the article, formed at the end of the second millennium BC. The most ancient monuments were temples (for example, the temple of Apollo on the island of Thera) and vessel paintings. The latter are characterized by an ornament in the form of the simplest geometric shapes. The main tools of this era were the ruler and compass.

IN archaic period Beginning around the seventh century BC, the art becomes more developed and bold. Corinthian black-glazed ceramics appeared, and the poses of people depicted on vessels and bas-reliefs were borrowed from Egypt. A so-called archaic smile appears in sculptures that become more and more natural.

In the classical era there was a “lightening” of architecture. The Doric style gives way to Ionic and Corinthian. Marble is being used instead of limestone, and buildings and sculptures are becoming more airy. This civilizational phenomenon ends with Hellenism, the heyday of the empire of Alexander the Great.

Today, many institutions study the culture of Ancient Greece - briefly for children, more fully for teenagers and in depth for researchers. But even with all our desire, we do not fully cover the material left to us by the representatives of this solar people.

Philosophy

Even the origin of this term is Greek. The Hellenes were distinguished by a strong love of wisdom. It is not for nothing that throughout the ancient world they were considered the most highly educated people.

Today we do not remember any of the scientists of Mesopotamia or Egypt, we know a few Roman researchers, but the names of Greek thinkers are well known to everyone. Democritus and Protagoras, and Pythagoras, Socrates and Plato, Epicurus and Heraclitus - they all contributed huge contribution into global culture, enriched civilization with the results of their experiments so much that we still benefit from their achievements.

The Pythagoreans, for example, absolutized the role of numbers in our world. They believed that with their help they could not only describe everything, but even predict the future. The sophists mainly paid attention to the inner world of man. They defined good as something that is pleasant, and evil as a thing or event that causes suffering.

Democritus and Epicurus developed the doctrine of atomism, that is, that the world consists of tiny elementary particles, the existence of which was proven only after the invention of the microscope.

Socrates turned the attention of thinkers from cosmology to the study of man, and Plato idealized the world of ideas, considering it the only real one.

Thus, we see that the cultural features of Ancient Greece, in short, were reflected through the prism of a philosophical worldview on modern life person.

Theater

Those who have visited Greece will remember for a long time the amazing feeling that a person experiences while in the amphitheater. Its magical acoustics, which even today seem like a miracle, have been captivating hearts for thousands of years. This is a structure in which there are more than a dozen rows, the stage is located in the open air, and the viewer sitting in the farthest place can hear a coin falling on the stage. Isn't this a miracle of engineering?

Thus, we see that the culture of Ancient Greece, briefly described above, formed the foundations contemporary art, philosophy, science and social institutions. If it were not for the ancient Hellenes, it is unknown what the modern way of life would be like.

Before presenting this side of the culture of the Greek people, it is worth recalling a very famous myth. It tells about a couple in love: Eurydice and Orpheus. The girl died from a cobra bite, and her boyfriend could not come to terms with the cruel loss. He went for his beloved to the underworld of the dead to King Hades himself in order to persuade him to return his beloved to him.

In addition, Orpheus was known for his supreme skill in playing various musical instruments, in particular on kefar. With his art, he enchanted the god Charon, and he transported him along the river of the dead to the underground ruler. But there was one condition: Orpheus could not turn back, because Eurydice was following him through the afterlife, led by Hermes. According to the condition, the lovers could return to earth only if Orpheus passed this test. But Orpheus could not resist and looked at Eurydice. From that second she disappeared, sinking into the kingdom of the dead forever.

Orpheus returned to earth. He did not live long. A couple of years later, the man met his beloved, because during one of the Greek holidays he was brutally murdered. His soul came to Hades and was reunited with Eurydice.

We can conclude that since ancient times the Greeks believed that a person has a soul, that it is eternal and capable of living both on earth and in the afterlife.

Legends of the kingdom of the dead

In almost all myths concerning the life of the gods and associated with the kingdom of the dead, Hermes accompanied the deceased to the world of Hades. He led souls through holes in the earth's crust and brought them to the shores of the Styx. According to legend, this river encircled the kingdom of the dead as many as 7 times.

The Greeks placed a coin in the mouth of the deceased. It was believed that he would need to pay off Horon, who was transporting across the Acheron. This is a tributary of the Styx. The exit from the underground kingdom was guarded by the giant dog Cerberus (according to other sources, Kerberus). The dog did not let the living into the kingdom of the dead, just as he did not let the dead out of Hades.

2. Minos.

3. Rhadamantha.

These judges interrogated the deceased who came to their kingdom. Should a person live in the kingdom of the dead in goodness, be in fear or without joy? Everything depended on what kind of life a person spent on earth. The ancient Greeks believed that only a few ever experienced mercy. By the way, even today some basic burial customs have been preserved. The Greeks still place coins in the mouths of the deceased.

Disfavor awaited insidious, evil and envious people in the afterlife. None sunlight, joy, fulfillment of desires. Such souls were thrown into tartarus - the underworld itself. However, most of the people ended up in the meadow of Asphodel. It was a foggy area in which there were fields of tulips, very pale and wild. It was through these fields that restless souls wandered, finding their last abode here. It was a little easier for such souls if relatives on earth remembered them and performed various ceremonies in their honor. That's why in modern world remembering deceased relatives is considered a good deed.

Harsh Dwelling of Shadows

This is exactly how the kingdom of the dead seemed to the ancient Greeks. This is how people “see” him different nations and now. But it was in ancient Greece that ideas about this unknown, dark and terrible world were laid down.

There is eternal night, the waters of the black Ocean are constantly rustling. The world of the dead is mournful, gloomy rivers flow in it, almost dead black trees grow, vile, terrible monsters live. Titan criminals are executed there. It is impossible to find consolation in the kingdom of the dead, like peace and quiet. According to legend, even the gods are afraid to go there.

However, this idea of ​​​​the kingdom of Hades did not last long among the Greeks. Over time, views changed and people found a different explanation for the afterlife. After all, all people are different, live different lives, do different things. Therefore, the outcome cannot be identical.

Of course, some residents of the policies did not even think about the kingdom of the dead and what was beyond the “line.” Scientists explain this by the lack of ideas about good and evil among other tribes. In another case, a more advantageous position in the afterlife could be occupied by a person who lived honestly, committed heroic deeds, was decisive, had a strong character, was valiant, and courageous. Over time, the doctrine of the bright Elysium became very popular among the ancient Greeks. According to beliefs, a person who lived his life honestly went to heaven.

By the way, many residents of the policies knew and believed that retribution for evil would definitely come. Underground spirits are able to see everything that happens on earth and if injustice is happening somewhere, they will definitely punish for this act.

According to other versions of the ancient Greeks, the souls of the dead remain in their graves or hide in underground caves. At the same time, they are able to turn into snakes, lizards, insects, mice, including bats. But at the same time they will never have a human appearance.

There is also a legend. According to it, souls “live” in visible form, living on the islands of the dead. At the same time, they can again turn into the image of a person. To do this, they need to “settle” in nuts, beans, fish and other foods that their future mothers eat.

According to another legend, the souls or shadows of the dead fly to the northern part of the globe. There is no sun and light. But they can return to Greece in the form of rain.

There is also this version: souls are carried away to the west. Far, far away. Where the sun sets. It is there that the world of the dead exists. It is very similar to our white light.

It is especially worth noting that the ancient and modern Greeks believed in receiving retribution for sins and bad deeds. The dead receive punishment depending on how they lived their lives on earth. In turn, there were beliefs regarding the transmigration of souls. By the way, this process could be controlled. To do this it was necessary to use magical formulas. And the science of applying these formulas was called “metempsychosis.”

The ancient Greeks hated death and were afraid of it. In life we ​​tried to have more fun and not indulge in grief.

Rituals

The burial ceremony was necessary and has been done since ancient times. The deceased thereby received the opportunity to cross the river of the dead and get to Hades. This was the only way his soul could achieve peace. The worst thing for the ancient Greeks was the absence of a burial ceremony for any of the relatives.

A relative who was not buried in the earth, who died in war, is a terrible sin for his family. Such people could even be punished with death.

Views on the existence of souls after death and the afterlife changed, but the rituals of the ancient Greeks remained unchanged, like traditions and rituals. In order to prevent the wrath of the gods on the day of the death of a relative or friend, one had to look mournful.

The deceased were buried in places specially prepared for this. These were either the basements of their own houses, or crypts. To prevent epidemics from breaking out, burial sites gradually began to be moved to islands that were uninhabited. City residents found another way out. They buried the dead behind the walls of the policies.

The Greeks chose one of the forms of funeral rites. The first involved burning the body of the deceased at the stake, the other - burying him in the ground. After cremation, the ashes were placed in a special urn, and it was buried in the ground or stored in a tomb. Both methods were welcomed and did not cause any complaints. It was believed that if you bury it in one of these ways, you can save the soul from torment and restlessness. Even in those days, graves were decorated with flowers and wreaths. If the body was interred without being cremated, all the values ​​that the person treasured during life were put into the grave with it. It was customary for men to put down weapons, and for ladies - precious jewelry and expensive dishes.

Changing priorities

Over time, the Greeks came to the conclusion that the human body is something very complex, and the soul has a higher world beginning. After death, she must be reunited with this whole.

The old views about Hades slowly began to collapse in the minds of the Greeks, becoming meaningless. Only ordinary citizens living in villages were still afraid of the formidable punishment of Hades. By the way, some views about the kingdom of the dead coexist well with the dogmas of Christianity.

If we look at Homer's poems, his heroes are quite individual people. All this affected the nature of death. For example, Achilles was sure that only after being put to sleep would he gain eternal glory and always openly and fearlessly walked towards his fate. But in the face of the true face of death, Homer's hero gave up. Achilles begged for mercy and mercy from fate. So Homer made it clear to his contemporaries and descendants that man is just a weak part of this world.

In more late times The ancient Greeks developed ideas of secondary and even multiple births. Allegedly, the human soul comes to earth in different periods and eras in the form of different people. But in all ideas it was the same: man is powerless before fate, the will of fate and death.

Attractions in Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki beautiful city With great history, which spans centuries. What is worth seeing in Thessaloniki. Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki M. Andronikos 6, Tel: (+30) 2310830538, Fax: (+30) 2310830538, Opening hours: (1 April - 31 October) Saturday: 13.00-19.30 Tuesday-Sunday: 8.00-19.30 and (1 November - March 31) Monday: 10.30-17.00, Tuesday-Sunday: 8.00-17.00. The museum remains closed: 25 and 26/12, 1/1, 25/3, 1/5 and Easter.

Funeral rites in Greece

Since ancient times, the Greeks thought about what was there, “beyond the line.” Is there any possibility of existence human soul after physical death? What happens to the soul when it passes into another world? Humanity has not found answers to these questions to this day. However, the features of people’s burials also depended on some assumptions about the existence of the afterlife in ancient Greek civilization.

What to bring from Greece

If you are going to spend your holiday in sunny Greece, then, of course, it is better to know in advance what exactly you can bring home as souvenirs. In this article we will tell you about the most popular Greek souvenirs and goods that you will be happy to treat yourself and your loved ones with. And you will also save your precious nerves by knowing in advance about all the intricacies of Greek products and souvenirs.

Corinthian Canal

a narrow strip of land 6 km wide, located between two gulfs - the Saronian in the east and the Corinthian in the west, uniting the Peloponnese with Megaris and the rest of Greece: “the same (isthmus) made the country inside a continent” (Pausanias).

Children's camp "Sintrivanis"