The main content of the Rig Veda consists of hymns (suktas or rich) addressed to various deities revered by the Aryans during the period of their migration to India. The hymns praise the exploits, blessings, and greatness of these gods, and appeal to them for the “granting of wealth (primarily cow herds), numerous offspring (male), long life, prosperity, and victory. In the “ancestral books” hymns dedicated to to various gods; each book begins with hymns to Agni, the god of fire, followed by hymns to Indra - these two are the most significant deities of the Rigveda, then the sequence of groups of hymns varies. In the remaining books the principle of arrangement of hymns is less consistent (Book IX, as noted, is entirely different. dedicated to Soma), but the first hymn of the Rig Veda in the first book is also addressed to Agni.

The indicated arrangement of hymns in groups, as well as some stereotypical composition of each hymn dedicated to the praise of the deity, creates the impression of a certain monotony for the reader of the Rigveda. If the first two or three hymns can interest and attract him with the imagery and expressiveness of poetic speech, then in the subsequent long series the same images, comparisons, stereotypical expressions, and the high artistic merits of the Rig Veda, already noted by its first researchers are not always clearly distinguishable against the background of this tedious monotony.

This ancient collection of hymns was not created for aesthetic purposes; hymns had primarily religious significance; they were performed during all kinds of rituals and sacrifices. The Rigveda is usually defined as a book of religious poetry. Some researchers have emphasized the ritual content of the Rigveda hymns. However, these definitions are not entirely accurate.

First of all, only a relatively small part of the hymns is clearly and directly related to ritual. The relationship of the rest of the monument's text to the ritual is rather unclear; This issue is now difficult to resolve definitively. Not all the hymns of the Rig Veda are directly related to the worship of gods. The content of the book is quite complex and too varied to fit into the framework of this definition. The Rigveda quite broadly reflects the era of its creation, although it gives us little specific historical material. For us, this is a monument to a certain stage in cultural development human society, reflecting very early forms ideology; main interest in the Rigveda presents its mythological material. Created already in a relatively late period of historical development, it reflected in many hymns a very ancient worldview, born in previous eras of the existence of clan society. It is not for nothing that at one time the study of the contents of the Rig Veda contributed to significant progress scientific research in this area.

V.G. Erman SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF VEDIC LITERATURE

Rig Veda. Mandala 1

Rigveda - the great beginning of Indian literature and culture

Undoubtedly, the beginning of Indian literature was laid. This beginning turned out to be not uncertain and timid, but brilliant. does not in any way resemble a weak stream from which a great river eventually arose. can be compared to a huge majestic lake, which amazes more than what arose from it, and at the same time always remains a source.

Meeting Rigveda consists of 1028 hymns of varying lengths: from 1 (I, 99) to 58 (IX, 97) verses (the average length of a hymn is 10-11 verses)…Total Rig Veda 10,462 verses.

Hymns Rigveda form cycles, or mandalas (lit. mandala - circle, disk), of which there are ten in the entire collection. These hymns were passed down orally in priestly families from generation to generation.

Mandalas Rigveda It is customary to call them family ones, since often in mandalas groups of hymns are attributed to certain families of singers.

At the same time, Mandalas I, VIII and X are not each associated with one particular type of rishi.

It has been established that the earliest addition to the family mandalas is the second part of mandala I (hymns 51-191). That the first part of this mandala (hymns 1-50) was later included in its composition is confirmed by its significant similarity to mandala VIII.

More than half of the hymns Rigveda Mandala I belongs to the Kanva family, to which also belongs the first part (hymns 1-66) of Mandala VIII.

To resolve the issue of the upper chronological limit Rigveda we have to turn to some chronological guidelines that appeared in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The first definite date in Indian history is the spread of Buddhism in the 6th century. BC. Buddhism is in many ways consonant with the ideas of the Upanishads, which complete the Vedic tradition, at the beginning of which stands.

There are no traces of acquaintance with Buddhism in the Vedas, and this means that it was codified much earlier than the 6th century. BC.

Weaving was famous. The raw materials were sheep's wool and the fibrous grass kuca or darbha (synonyms for Tragrostis cynosuroides R. and S.). First, parallel warp threads were pulled (tantu from tan to pull), then a transverse thread was passed through - weft (oto). Weaving terminology is widely used in Rig Veda, because the poetic art of rishis - the creation of hymns is often compared to weaving.

The hymn, along with sacrifice, was considered one of the main means of influencing the deity. To please the deity, it had to be made skillfully. According to the expressions found in the hymns, the rishis wove it like precious fabric, turning it like a carpenter’s ornate chariot. They worked out their hymns according to high models imprinted in the works of former rishis, ancestors, founders of priestly families, and ancestors belonging to these families.

As it appears, latest authors Rigveda They did not create new mythological stories themselves. The number of these stories in Rig Veda very limited. In the center there are two main plots that have a cosmogonic interpretation: the killing of the snake demon Vritra by Indra and the liberation by Indra (or other mythological characters) of cows from the Vala cave, hidden there by the Pani demons (historically, perhaps two options for the development of one initial plot).

These two stories are constantly sung from hymn to hymn, which is explained by the fact that the monument is dedicated to the New Year ritual. Here we need to remind you of one more thing important characteristic creative method hymn writers Rigveda. According to the ideas of that time, the knowledge of rishis was visual, it was revealed to them by the deity in the form of a static picture. One picture replaced another, and in the change of these revelations was the knowledge of the world, encoded by the Vedic name dhi f. thought, idea, look; concept; intuition, cognition, reason; knowledge, art; prayer, as well as with the verb dhi - to imagine, to reflect.

The poet was called dhira - possessing dhi, wise, gifted. The poets asked the gods to grant them dhi. Thanks to dhi, poets became intermediaries between the gods and the ice.

came to us in two editions: Samhita (samhita) - a more ancient continuous text in which words are connected into a single sequence by the rules of phonetic assimilation and changes at the junctions, and a later padapatha (lit. reading by words), in which the rules of sandhi are removed and the text is given in the form of individual words (and in some cases in the form of individual morphemes) in the form required by the grammar.

IN Rig Veda ancient root stems are preserved more completely than anywhere else, which function as a name or as a verb depending on what type of inflections they are connected to. For example: vid - know, vid-ma - we know, vid-a - you know.

Time (kala) in the form of an ageless thousand-eyed horse with seven reins.

The sharp contrast between the Aryans and the Dasas/Dasyas is characteristic of the very initial period of Aryan migration to India, reflected in the ancient parts Rigveda. It has been noted more than once that in the hymns Rigveda dasa and dasyu are not the same thing. More often they talk about the destruction and subjugation of dasyu, rather than dasa.

There is a word dasyahatua, murder of dasyu, but there is no similar word with dasa. After Rigveda the word dasyu disappears altogether, and dasa is used to mean servant. Apparently, the more militant dasya were killed, and the dasa were not only killed, but also reduced to dependent sections of the population.

Moreover, the mixing process occurred so rapidly that in Rig Veda Apparently, a number of the ancestors-dasas converted to the Aryan religion, and thereby were included in society (cf., for example, in VIII, 46, 32 the mention of how the priest receives a reward from dasa Balbuthi).

About Indra in Rig Veda It is no coincidence that it is said that he made Dasa an aryem. Previous attempts to translate Rigveda into Western languages ​​in verse (except for some short fragments in anthologies) were considered absolutely unsuccessful. Translations published in India Rigveda into English and modern Indian languages, as a rule, are in line with the orthodox Brahmanical tradition and contain valuable information in the field of ritual and realities.

It has never been fully translated into Russian before. Apart from the translations of individual hymns.

T. Ya. Elizarenkova

Each mandala consists of hymns called sukta (sūkta IAST ), which in turn consist of individual verses called "rich" ( ṛc IAST ), in plural- “richas” ( ṛcas IAST ). Mandalas are not equal in length or age. The "family (family) books", mandalas 2-7, are considered the oldest part and include the shortest books, sorted by length, making up 38% of the text. Mandala 8 and Mandala 9 probably include hymns of various ages, making up 15% and 9% of the text respectively. Mandala 1 and Mandala 10 are the youngest and longest books, making up 37% of the text.

Preservation

The Rig Veda is preserved by two main sakhas ("branches", that is, schools or editions): Shakala ( Śākala IAST ) and Bashkala ( Bāṣkala IAST ). Given the age of the text, it is very well preserved, so that the two editions are practically identical and can be used equally without significant notes. Aitareya the Brahmana contacts Shakala. Bashkala includes Khilani and is associated with Kaushitaki Brahmana. These redactions include the order of the books and orthoepic changes like the regularization of the sandhi (called "orthoepische Diaskeunase" by G. Oldenberg), which occurred in the centuries after the composition of the earliest hymns almost simultaneously with the redaction of other Vedas.

Since its composition, the text has existed in two versions. The Samhitapatha applies all the Sanskrit rules for sandhi and its text is used for recitation. In Padapatha, each word is isolated and it is used for memorization. Padapatha is essentially a commentary on Samhitapatha, but both seem to be equivalent. The original text restored on metrical grounds (original in the sense that it seeks to restore the hymns as they were composed by the Rishis) lies somewhere between them, but closer to the Samhitapatha.

Organization

The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and verse (and, if necessary, by foot ( pada) - a, b, c etc.) For example, the first pada -

• 1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ IAST - “I praise Agni, the high priest”

and the last one pada -

• 10.191.4d yáthāḥ vaḥ súsahā́sati IAST - “for your stay in good society”

• Mandala 1 consists of 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni and his name is the first word of the Rig Veda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 - 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu.
• Mandala 2 consists of 43 hymns, dedicated mainly to Agni and Indra. She is usually attributed to the rishi Gritsamada Shaunohotra ( gṛtsamda śaunohotra IAST ).
• Mandala 3 consists of 62 hymns addressed mainly to Agni and Indra. Verse 3.62.10 is of great importance in Hinduism and is known as the Gayatri Mantra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vishwamitra Gathina ( viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ IAST ).
• Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vamadeva Gautama ( vāmadeva gautama IAST ).
• Mandala 5 consists of 87 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra, the Vishvedevas, the Maruts, the dual deity Mitra-Varuna and the Ashwins. Two hymns are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and Savitar. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Atri family ( atri IAST ).
• Mandala 6 consists of 75 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to barhaspatya( barhaspatya IAST ) - the Angiras family.
• Mandala 7 consists of 104 hymns addressed to Agni, Indra, Vishwadevs, Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, Ashwins, Ushas, ​​Varuna, Vayu (wind), two - Saraswati and Vishnu, as well as other deities. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vasistha Maitravaurni ( vasiṣṭha maitravaurṇi IAST ). It is in it that the “Mahamrityumjaya mantra” is first found (Hymn “To the Maruts”, 59.12).
• Mandala 8 consists of 103 hymns addressed to various gods. Hymns 8.49 - 8.59 - apocryphal Valakhilya ( vālakhilya IAST ). Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Kanwa family ( kāṇva IAST ).
• Mandala 9 consists of 114 hymns addressed to Some Pawamana, a plant from which the sacred drink of the Vedic religion was made.
• Mandala 10 consists of 191 hymns addressed to Agni and other gods. It contains a prayer to rivers, important for reconstructing the geography of the Vedic civilization, and the Purusha Sukta, which has great importance in the Hindu tradition. It also contains the Nasadiyya Sukta (10.129), perhaps the most famous hymn in the West relating to Creation.

Rishi

Each hymn of the Rigveda is traditionally associated with a particular rishi, and each of the “family books” (Mandalas 2-7) is considered to have been compiled by a particular family of rishis. The major families, listed in descending order of the number of verses attributed to them:

• Angiras: 3619 (especially Mandala 6)
• Canvas: 1315 (especially Mandala 8)
• Vasishtha: 1267 (Mandala 7)
• Vishwamitra: 983 (Mandala 3)
• Atri: 885 (Mandala 5)
• Kashyapa: 415 (part of Mandala 9)
• Gritsamada: 401 (Mandala 2)

Translating to Russian language

"Rigveda" in 1989-1999 was completely translated into Russian by T. Ya. Elizarenkova. The translation takes into account the work of European predecessors on the text, being an unconditional most valuable contribution to domestic Indology, linguistics and philology.

Hindu tradition

According to Hindu tradition, the hymns of the Rig Veda were collected by Paila under the direction of Vyasa ( Vyāsa IAST ), who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to Shatapatha Brahmana ( Śatapatha Brāhmana IAST ), number of syllables in Rig Veda is 432,000, equal to the number of muhurtas in forty years (30 muhurtas equal 1 day). This emphasizes the claims of the Vedic books about the existence of a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, physiological and spiritual.

Dating and historical reconstruction

Rig Veda older than any other Indo-Aryan texts. Therefore, the attention of Western science has been focused on it since the time of Max Muller. Records of the Rig Veda on early stage The Vedic religion is strongly related to the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. Zoroastrianism and the Vedic religion are believed to have developed from the early common religious Indo-Iranian culture.

The text of the Rig Veda (as well as the other three Vedas), according to the statement contained in the Vedas themselves, states that the Vedas have always existed - from the beginning of time. And they were passed on, from generation to generation, by rishis (sages), to their students, orally. In a time horizon closer to us, they were put into text form - at least 6 thousand years ago. Today, it appears to be the only copy of Bronze Age literature preserved in a continuous tradition. Its composition is usually attributed to 1700-1000. BC e.

In subsequent centuries, the text underwent standardization and revision of pronunciation (samhitapatha, padapatha). This edition was completed around the 7th century BC. e.

Records appeared in India around the 5th century BC. e. in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts comparable in length to the Rigveda were most likely not written down until the early Middle Ages, when the Gupta script and the Siddham script appeared. In the Middle Ages, manuscripts were used for teaching, but before the advent of the printing press in British India, they played a minor role in preserving knowledge due to their fragility, because they were written on bark or palm leaves and were quickly destroyed in a tropical climate. The hymns were preserved in oral tradition for about a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rig Veda, and the entire Rig Veda was preserved in its entirety in the shakhas for the next 2500 years, from the redaction up to editio princeps Müller is a collective feat of memorization unparalleled in any other known society.

Some of the names of gods and goddesses contained in the Rig Veda are found in other religious systems, also based on Proto-Indo-European religion: Dyaus-Pithar is similar to the ancient Greek Zeus, the Latin Jupiter (from deus-pater) and Germanic Tyr ( Tyr); Mithras ( Mitra) similar to the Persian Mithra ( Mithra); Ushas - with Greek Eos and Latin Aurora; and, less reliably, Varuna - with the ancient Greek Uranus and the Hittite Aruna. Finally, Agni is similar in sound and meaning to the Latin word “ignis” and the Russian word “fire”.

Some authors have traced astronomical references in the Rig Veda, which place it back to the 4th millennium BC. e. , by the time of the Indian Neolithic. The rationale for this view remains controversial.

Kazanas (2000), in a polemic against the "Aryan Invasion Theory", suggests a date around 3100 BC. BC, based on the identification of the early Rigvedic rivers Sarasvati and Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. While at odds with the mainstream scholarly view, this view is diametrically opposed to mainstream historical linguistics and supports the still controversial Out of India theory, which places late Proto-Indo-European language around 3000 BC. e.

However, the argument with the Sarasvati River is not particularly convincing, since it is known that the Indo-Aryans, when they came to Hindustan, brought with them Indo-Iranian hydronyms. In particular, the Iranians also had an analogue of the Sarasvati River - Harahvaiti (in Iranian the sound “s” turns into “x”).

Flora and fauna in Rig Veda

Horses Asva, Târkshya and cattle play an important role in the Rig Veda. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra), especially in Mandala 8, buffalo (Mahisa), lion (Simha) and gaur. . The Rig Veda also mentions birds - the peacock (Mayura) and the red or “Brahman” duck (Anas Casarca) Chakravaka.

More modern Indian views

Hindu perception of the Rig Veda has shifted from its original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, descriptions of animal sacrifice are seen not as literal killing, but as transcendental processes. It is known that the Rig Veda considers the Universe to be infinite in size, dividing knowledge into two categories: “lower” (relating to objects, filled with paradoxes) and “higher” (relating to the perceiving subject, free from paradoxes). Dayananda Saraswati, founder of the Arya Samaj, and Sri Aurobindo emphasized spirituality adhyatimik) interpretation of the book.

River Sarasvati, glorified in RV 7.95 as greatest river, flowing from the mountain to the sea, is sometimes identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which dried up perhaps before 2600 BC. e. and definitely before 1900 BC. e.. There is another opinion that originally Saraswati was a river

ऋग्वेद

Rig Veda is a collection of inspired hymns or songs and is the main source of information about the "Rigvedic civilization". This ancient book in an Indo-European language, which contains the oldest forms of Sanskrit mantras dating back to the period 1500 - 1000 AD. e. Some scholars believe that the Rig Veda was created in such early period, like 12,000 BC – 4000 BC e.

The Rigvedic "samhita" or collection of mantras consists of 1017 hymns or suktas, which include 10,600 verses divided into eight "ashtakas", each of which contains eight "adhyayas" or chapters; these, in turn, are divided into different groups. There are ten books of the Rig Veda, called mandalas (literally “circles”). These hymns are the creations of many authors or sages called “rishis”. There are seven main rishis: Atri, Kanva, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bhardwaja.

Rig Veda contains detailed descriptions social, religious, political and economic realities of Rigvedic civilization. Although some of the hymns of the Rig Veda are characterized by monotheism, in the religion of the Rig Veda one can discern features of naturalistic polytheism and monism. Being one of the oldest and most important religious texts ancient india, Rig Veda is the oldest of the four collections of hymns and other sacred texts known as . These writings are considered to be the "sacred knowledge" of the people who invaded India around 1600 BC. When the Aryans settled in India, their beliefs gradually developed into the religion of Hinduism, and the Rig Veda and other Vedas became the most sacred Hindu texts.

The Vedas were compiled between 1500 and 1000 BC. e. on Vedic Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-European language. For centuries they were passed down through oral tradition until they were eventually written down. By 300 n. e. The Vedas took their present form. The Rig Veda contains more than a thousand mantras or hymns addressed to the gods and natural elements.

According to ancient Hindu tradition, mantras are based on divine revelations received by members of certain families. Some families grouped mantras to form new mandalas. In each mandala, the mantras are grouped according to the deities with which they are associated.

Vedic ideas about time

The Vedas are primordial knowledge. Where did the Vedic texts come from? Four Vedas. Rig Veda. Veda itself. Yajur Veda. Atharva Veda. The discoveries of modern scientists have long been described in the Vedas. Vedas - practical knowledge. The hidden power of the Vedas. Puranas in the goodness of passion and ignorance. Sutra. Vedic time scale. Maha kalpa. Satya Yuga is the golden era. Tretta Yuga - Silver Age. Dvapara Yuga - copper era. Kali Yuga - Iron Age. Confirmations in ancient scriptures. Ancient Greek sources. Indian legends. Scandinavian sagas. Astronomical records. Evidence from the Bible. Kali Yuga Society. The story of Siddhartha Gautama. The story of Isha putra. Levels of consciousness. Level 1 - anomaia. Level 2 - pranamaya. Level 3 - manomaya. Level 4 - vigyanamaya. Level 5 - anandamaya. Different perceptions

(Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद, ṛgveda IAST, “veda of hymns”) - a collection of primarily religious hymns, the first famous monument Vedic literature. Written in Sanskrit. The Rigveda is one of the four Vedic texts known as the Vedas. The Rig Veda is one of the oldest Vedic texts and one of the oldest religious texts in the world. The most ancient mandalas of the Rig Veda are considered to be II-VII. For centuries it was preserved only in oral tradition and was probably first written down only in the early Middle Ages. The Rig Veda is the most ancient and significant of the Vedas, a valuable source for the study of ancient Vedic heritage and mythology. In 2007, UNESCO included the Rig Veda in the Memory of the World register.

The Samhita of the Rig Veda is considered to be the oldest surviving Vedic text. The Rig Veda consists of 1,028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit and 10,600 texts, which are divided into ten books called mandalas. The hymns are dedicated to the Rigvedic gods.

Scholars believe that the books of the Rig Veda were compiled by poets from various groups of priests over a period of five hundred years. According to Max Muller, based on philological and linguistic features, the Rig Veda was compiled between the 18th and 12th centuries BC. in the Punjab region. Other researchers give slightly later or more early dates, and some believe that the period of compilation of the Rig Veda was not so long and took about one century between 1450-1350 BC.

There are great linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rig Veda and the early Iranian Avesta. This kinship goes back to pre-Indo-Iranian times and is associated with the Andronovo culture. The most ancient chariots drawn by horses were discovered in the Andronovo excavation sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka area in Ural mountains and approximately date back to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC.

Each mandala consists of hymns called sukta (sūkta IAST), which in turn consist of individual verses called rich (ṛc IAST), plural richas (ṛcas IAST). Mandalas are not equal in length or age. The "Family (Family) Books", mandalas 2-7, are considered the oldest part and include the shortest books, sorted by length, making up 38% of the text. Mandala 8 and Mandala 9 probably include hymns of various ages, making up 15% and 9% of the text respectively. Mandala 1 and Mandala 10 are the youngest and longest books, making up 37% of the text.

The main gods of the Rig Veda are Agni (the sacrificial flame), Indra (the heroic god praised for killing his enemy Vritra) and Soma (the sacred drink or the plant from which it is made). Other prominent gods are Mitra, Varuna, Ushas (dawn) and Ashvins. Savitar, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati, Brahmanaspati, Dyaus (sky), Prithivi (earth), Surya (sun), Vayu (wind), Apas (water), Parjanya (rain), Vach (word), Maruts are also invoked , Aditya, Ribhu, All-gods, many rivers (especially Sapta Sindhu (seven streams) and the Saraswati river), as well as various lesser gods, persons, concepts, phenomena and objects. The Rig Veda also contains fragmentary references to possible historical events, especially the struggle between the Vedic Aryans and their enemies, the Dasas.

"Rigveda" in 1989-1999 was completely translated into Russian by T.Ya. Elizarenkova. The translation takes into account the work of European predecessors on the text, being an unconditional most valuable contribution to domestic Indology, linguistics and philology.

Mandala 1 consists of 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni and his name is the first word of the Rig Veda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 - 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu.

Mandala 2 consists of 43 hymns, dedicated mainly to Agni and Indra. She is usually attributed to the rishi Gritsamada Shaunohotra (gṛtsamda śaunohotra IAST).

Mandala 3 consists of 62 hymns, addressed mainly to Agni and Indra. Verse 3.62.10 is of great importance in Vedism and is known as the Gayatri Mantra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ IAST.

Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns, addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vāmadeva Gautama (vāmadeva gautama IAST).

Mandala 5 consists of 87 hymns, addressed primarily to Agni and Indra, the Vishvedevas, the Maruts, the dual deity Mitra-Varuna and the Ashwins. Two hymns are dedicated to Ushas (dawn) and Savitar. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Atri family (atri IAST).

Mandala 6 consists of 75 hymns, addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Barhaspatya (bārhaspatya IAST) family of Angiras.

Mandala 7 consists of 104 hymns, addressed to Agni, Indra, Vishwadevs, Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, Ashwins, Ushas, ​​Varuna, Vayu (wind), two - Saraswati and Vishnu, as well as other deities. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vasishtha Maitravaurni (vasiṣṭha maitravaurṇi IAST). It is in it that the “Mahamrityumjaya Mantra” is first found (Hymn “To the Maruts”, 59.12).

Mandala 8 consists of 103 hymns addressed to various gods. Hymns 8.49 - 8.59 - apocryphal Valakhilya (vālakhilya IAST). Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Kanva family (kāṇva IAST).

Mandala 9 consists of 114 hymns, addressed to Soma Pavamana, the plant from which the sacred drink of the Vedic religion was made.

Mandala 10 consists of 191 hymns, addressed to Agni and other gods. It contains the Nadistuti Sukta, a prayer to rivers, important for reconstructing the geography of Vedic civilization, and the Purusha Sukta, which is of great importance in the tradition. It also contains the Nasadiyya Sukta (10.129), perhaps the most famous hymn in the West relating to Creation.

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