Features of scientific observation in psychology. Observation (psychology)

Observation is usually called a purposeful, intentional and specially organized perception, determined by the task of the observer and not requiring him to “intervene” by creating special conditions in the “life” of the observed process or phenomenon. Observation differs from aimless passive “gazing,” which also does not in any way change the conditions of existence of the phenomenon under consideration, primarily in that it is subordinated to a specific goal, is carried out according to a pre-developed plan, and is equipped with objective means for carrying out the observation process itself and recording its results.

Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects of observation, or test initial assumptions associated with them. It is precisely because observation provides knowledge through direct contact through the senses with the object of study that it became historically the first scientific method.

The term “observation”, as E.A. rightly believes. Klimov, is used in three different meanings: observation as an activity, as a method and as a technique. Let's look at them one by one.

Observation is used not only in scientific research, but also in various types of social practice, retaining its basic features. The power system operator observing the instrument readings carries out the inspection according to a specific plan; the doctor, conducting a systematic examination of the patient, gets an idea of ​​his state of health; The investigator, observing the behavior of the criminal during interrogation, checks which of the hypotheses about the role of the interrogated in the crime is most plausible. Whether observation is scientific or practical is determined primarily by the nature of the goals. Scientific observation always pursues research, educational "goals. Observation included in practical activity is aimed at its maintenance; the results of observation are immediately used to achieve the main goal of practical activity: by a doctor to make a diagnosis, by an operator to control the distribution of electricity, by an investigator to solve a crime. Thus In this way, the truth and objectivity of the observation results are immediately verified.

The term "method" was used in the ancient world as a synonym for "teaching". Currently, in philosophical literature, method is broadly understood as “a form of practical and theoretical mastery of reality, based on the laws of the object being studied” ( Philosophical Encyclopedia, vol. 3, p. 409). In other words, the method includes, on the one hand, a system of regulatory principles of practical and cognitive theoretical activity, that is, methods of manufacturing products or methods of research and presentation of material, and, on the other hand, a method of interpreting facts (A.P. Kupriyan). In agreement with this point of view, B.A. Klimov believes that observation method in psychology is system of provisions about the essence and specificity of psychological observation, about its capabilities and limitations as a method of scientific research, about tools, about the structure and types of activities of a psychologist in the role of an observer. Observation is one of the methods of collecting data, such as an experiment, conversation, survey or analysis of the products of activity, and differs from them either in the type of relationship to the object of study (in experiment 1, a conversation, the researcher causes the phenomenon he is studying by creating special conditions), or in the presence of direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study (this is absent when analyzing the products of activity and does not always occur in experiments). Main characteristics psychological method observations are purposeful, mediated by theoretical concepts and planned. From a methodological point of view, observation in psychology is characterized by “universality,” that is, its application to the study of such a wide range of mental phenomena that, perhaps, no other method of psychology has, flexibility, that is, the ability to change the “field of coverage” as necessary during the course of observation. the object being studied or the hypothesis being tested, and the absence or minimal requirements for the hardware for conducting the observation. These characteristics allow it to still retain its significance as the main method of psychology.

In relation to this specific research task, taking into account the specific nature of the reality being studied, the situation, the conditions in which the research should be carried out, the availability of certain objective means for carrying out observation and recording its results, the observation method is implemented in the form of a specific technique. Under observation technique usually understood (E.A. Klimov, G. Faznakht) socially fixed, stated clearly for others, objectively presented collection and processing system empirical data, which is adequate to a certain limited range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, the term “observation techniques” is used as a synonym for the understanding of the technique given here. Observation methods differ in the ways of organizing observation activities, methods of dismembering (quantifying) the observed flow of the reality under study, the nature and size of observation units, methods of recording what is observed (hand recording, film, photo, video recording) and methods of analyzing the results (qualitative, quantitative ). The methodology, as the most complete description of the entire observation procedure, includes: the choice of situation and object of observation, which is determined primarily by the purpose of the study and, to a certain extent, theoretical ideas about the reality being studied; observation program (scheme) in the form of a variable list of signs (aspects) of observed behavior, units of observation with their detailed description, as well as the method and form of recording the results of observation; description of the requirements for organizing the work of the observer; description of the method of processing and presenting the obtained data.

This section of the general practicum in psychology is aimed at familiarizing students with the features of psychological observation and mastering the basics of constructing observation methods in relation to a specific research problem.

Features of the observation method in psychology

The specific features that distinguish the observation method in psychology from the characteristics of this method in other sciences are due to a number of factors, which we will consider below. All of them are in one way or another connected with the characteristics of the psyche as a subject studied by our science. Mental life is inaccessible to direct observation from the outside, hidden from the eyes of outsiders. Part of it is revealed to the inner gaze and is known through introspection. Related to this circumstance is the fact that during an entire period in the history of psychology, introspection (introspection) remained the only method of our science. But only a small part is revealed to self-observation, like the tip of an iceberg protruding from the water, if all mental life is an iceberg. As psychology turned into an independent science, methods for objective research of the psyche and the method of observation, among them, developed 2. Observation serves as one of the methods of knowing psychic reality to the extent that the latter has external manifestations, and with the subtlety and depth that can be provided by the theory within the framework of which certain observations are carried out and its data are interpreted.

Soviet psychology proceeds from the Marxist understanding of the active transformative essence of human activity. Research by domestic psychologists is based on the principles of the unity of consciousness and activity, the general structure of external and internal activity, the relationship between the meaning and personal meaning of the constituents of consciousness (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev). These principles constitute the methodological basis for the application of the observation method in empirical psychological research and suggest the possibility of studying different levels of mental reflection based on identifying their regulatory role in activity.

What can you observe? The object of psychological observation is the one being observed - an individual person (or animal), a group of people in their joint activities, community. Subject of observation there can only be external exteriorized components of activity: a) motor components of practical and gnostic actions; movements, movements and immobile states of people; speed and direction of movement; distances between them; contacts, shocks, blows; joint actions (groups of people); b) speech acts, their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical and phonetic structure; c) facial expressions and pantomimes, expression of sounds; d) external manifestations of some vegetative reactions: redness or paleness of the skin, change in breathing rhythm, sweating, etc. , a combination of the listed characteristics. Observables can be situations, arising in natural life and artificially created in an experiment, differing in types of activities, interactions of people with each other, spontaneous and organized, etc.

The factors that primarily determine the complexity of knowing the “internal through observation of the external” are, firstly, the polysemy of connections between external manifestations and the subjective mental reality behind it, and, secondly, the multi-level hierarchical structure mental phenomena. Due to the first, the same behavioral event can be associated with different mental processes. For example, the famous Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky, who relied mainly on observations in the “Science of Characters” he developed, considered the presence of a large number of automatic reflex “spontaneous” movements after a period of rest as a manifestation of mobility - a stable characteristic of the human motor sphere, noting that a sharp increase in the number of such movements can be caused by a number of other reasons - affect, excitement under the influence of alcohol, etc. And vice versa, the same emotional experience can have different manifestations: one person turns pale in anger, another blushes. Due to the second of these points, the same observed motor act may indicate different levels of mental regulation of the effector. For example, prolonged fixation of gaze on any object may be a manifestation of perceptual attention during a person’s conscious attempts to identify this object, that is, a consequence of high-level regulation of the oculomotor center. But the same immobility of gaze can manifest itself as a result of the lack of activation of the oculomotor centers due to the “load” of consciousness with some other task.

In connection with these specific features of the subject studied by psychology, a number of rules were formulated for the application of observation:

1. Conduct repeated systematic observations of this behavior in repeating and changing situations, which makes it possible to separate random coincidences from stable regular relationships.

2. Do not make hasty conclusions; be sure to put forward and test alternative assumptions regarding what mental reality is behind the observed behavior.

3. Compare the particular conditions for the appearance of the observed behavior with the general situation. Consideration in the general context of large communities (the general situation, the individual as a whole, in relation to the child - the stage of mental development, etc.) often changes the psychological meaning of the observed.

Another feature of psychological observation is that observer presence can significantly change the observed behavior, since both the person and the animal are not indifferent to the fact that they are being observed. To minimize this influence, it is necessary to make sure that the observer can see while remaining invisible. There are several ways to do this: a) “become familiar,” that is, often be present in the environment surrounding the observed, being deep in one’s work and, as if not paying attention to the observed; b) explain the presence of the observer for some purpose acceptable to the observed, for example, explain to the school teacher his presence in the lesson with the desire to master the methodology of teaching his subject; c) replace the observer with recording equipment (cinema camera, video recorder, television transmitter), which, firstly, confuses the observed somewhat less and, secondly, ensures accurate recording; d) conduct observation from a dark room, separated from the room where the observed are located, by glass with one-way light conductivity - Gesell glass and e) photography and filming with a hidden camera. The last three methods are not always available, and the last two, moreover and mainly, pose a difficult ethical problem, since they encroach on a person’s inner world without his permission. Therefore, we can agree with P. Fress, who believes that since the observer is most often openly present and thereby introduces new conditions into the observed process itself, only his modesty, tact, and ability to be as close as possible to the observed weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.

Specific difficulties for observation in psychology are represented by such features of mental phenomena as their unique nature, uniqueness And very small(fractions of a second) or very long duration. Due to the dependence on many factors, which may also be present in different combinations, the manifestations of the same mental property or process are unique. Here we mean not only such complex formations as personality or interpersonal interactions - even simple working movements in strictly constant conditions become stereotypical, identical to one another after thousands of repetitions. In Landis' experiments in which subjects experienced genuine emotions of fear and embarrassment, it was not possible to establish the typical involuntary facial expressions that expressed them: each subject had his own characteristic set of facial reactions 3.

Very short-term actions are not directly visible. For example, some distinguishable emotional expressions last 1/8 s and go unnoticed even by experienced observers, as Haggard and Isaacs showed. To observe and record them, high-speed filming is usually used. If the duration of the process under study is too long, when it is not possible to observe it continuously (for example, the development of interaction between a group of people while performing a common task throughout the entire working day), a time sampling technique is used, that is, observation is carried out intermittently.

The second group of specific characteristics of observation in psychology is associated with the characteristics of the human observer.

One of the main characteristics of human perception is selectivity, which is determined by the general focus of the activity (toys are “catchy” for a child, tailoring is “catchy” for a tailor, etc.). Selection in perception occurs under the influence of semantic, target and operational installations person, and also depends on the physical parameters of the object - its intensity, proximity, size, etc. It is known that the beneficial effect of attitudes consists in sensitizing perception (that is, increasing sensitivity) to influences that are significant to the observer. However, overly fixed attitudes are a kind of blinders on the eyes; if there is some uncertainty in stimulation, they lead to errors of perception and contain the danger of unnecessary bias in the interpretation of what is observed.

Another source of observer bias may be the well-known phenomenon of self-projection onto observed behavior. He appeared most clearly in anthropomorphic interpretations of animal behavior. The phenomenon of projection is provoked by the fact that the inner side of behavior is open to self-observation; a person has the illusion that much is becoming clear, and therefore there is a temptation to transfer this explanation to the behavior of another. A special critical position of the observer is needed when interpreting observation data in order to eliminate the influence of this source of error.

The possibilities of direct observation are also limited by a number of individual characteristics observer. The volume of human simultaneous perception does not exceed 5-7 discrete objects. To simultaneously monitor a large number objects, it is necessary either to increase the number of observers, or to use recording equipment (cinema, video recording) in addition to human perception. Observers differ in their susceptibility to influences from different modalities (mainly visual or auditory types), the predominant development of the ability to concentrate or distribute attention, memory characteristics, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc. 4 All these individual properties of the observer leave an imprint on the quality and content of observations and are one of the reasons leading to significant differences in observations made simultaneously by several observers of the behavior of the same object. Some reduction in the influence of these factors can only be achieved through targeted observation training.

Relationship between observation and theory. One of the significant specific characteristics of the psychological method of observation is the much closer connection between observation and the theoretical position of the observer than in any other science. Here we mean the influence of the initial theoretical premises of the study (up to the understanding of the subject of psychology) not only on the choice of object and subject of observation, but also on the organization of the observation process itself and the interpretation of its results. Let's illustrate this with an example. For a behaviorist, the whole interest lies in the study of behavior. Thinking for Watson is a “skill of the larynx,” and therefore, when exploring the nature of thinking, he limits himself to observing subtle movements of the muscles of the speech apparatus. For the Gestalt psychologist Köhler, the main thing in solving intellectual problems was “insight” (sudden grasp of the relations of the situation as a whole), therefore, in his studies of the thinking of great apes, he observed the whole variety of their behavior in a free field, isolating from it behavioral acts leading to a solution. Consequently, with a common goal - studying the nature of thinking - different theoretical positions led to the creation of a fundamentally different methods observations (different subjects of research, different objects and subjects of observation, different observation schemes and interpretation of its results) and, of course, to fundamentally different conclusions.

Thus, the theoretical idea of ​​the nature and properties of the psychic reality being studied is included in the observation methodology that determines it integral part. This state of affairs is consistent with the understanding of the essence of the scientific method as “a theory put into action,” in the words of the Bulgarian Marxist N. Stefanov.

The validity of the statement about the connection between observation and theory is obvious for observations aimed at testing hypotheses. It seems, however, that this statement should also be extended to exploratory studies, in which the general direction of interpretation of observations is determined by the entire sum of psychological knowledge and ideas of the researcher and, consequently, his theoretical orientation.

Let's move on to the issues of organizing scientific research using the observation method. All the main points of the organization are recorded, as noted above, in a specific observation technique.

Purposes of surveillance

From the point of view of preliminary knowledge about the reality being studied, scientific research is divided into exploratory research, the purpose of which is to first become acquainted with the subject of research and the development of hypotheses, and research aimed at testing hypotheses.

Typically, the so-called exploratory research, which is carried out at the beginning of the scientific development of any field, is carried out extensively, since its goal is to obtain the most complete description of all phenomena inherent in a given field, to cover it entirely. This is the goal of the famous Soviet psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on observation methods, calls the goal generally observe, to observe everything that an object manifests itself in, without selecting any specific manifestations of it. Moyman called this observation expectant. An example of such a study is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova, whose goal was to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents through systematic, detailed, daily observation of students during lessons, preparation of homework, pioneer, club work, various competitions, behavioral characteristics and relationships with comrades, teachers, parents, facts related to interests , plans for the future, attitude towards oneself, claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations between children, arguments, and remarks were recorded. Even little things were recorded. Thus, the general goal is to obtain a description of all manifestations of new development of the child’s mental development in adolescence determined the widest possible coverage of all types of adolescent activities.

Observation is structured completely differently if the purpose of the research is specific and strictly defined. Under the pressure of this goal, only the necessary facts and phenomena are selected during observation. Maiman called this observation exploring or choosing. Let us take an example of such an observation from the study of J. Piaget, who considered the idea of ​​an object as a prototype of cognitive development as a whole. To study one of the stages of development in which a child combines general idea about an object with an “inside” relationship, the researcher, from all possible types of child activity, chose for observation only manipulative games and only with toys (objects) that have a cavity accessible from the outside. Observations have shown that the ability to nest objects within each other occurs later than the motor skills required for this. Observations (combined with theory!) have revealed the nature of the difficulties that a child faces when trying to fit one object into another: he thought that two objects cannot be in the same place at the same time, but now he learns that one object can to be inside another. He must somehow combine this information and make the discovery that the two objects - one inside the other - are similar to one in terms of movement (the "container" and its contents move as a single unit), but remain two objects that can be separated from each other .

Thus, cognitive goals lead to the selection of the subject content of observation - what to watch and what is considered observed fact, and thereby set requirements for the degree of selectivity of observation, and the division of the observed into units. Only in very rare cases, observations that are external to the direction of the practical or research work in which they were made by a psychologist - random observations - lead to major discoveries. Thus, the psychoneurologist Feret discovered the psychogalvanic reflex in 1888. He noticed the concern of a woman who had very dry skin and felt, especially in cold, dry weather, sparks from her skin and hair. In collaboration with the famous doctor D'Arsonval, he measured the static charge of the skin, and then discovered that under the influence of certain stimuli (blue glass in front of the eyes, the smell of ether, fairly strong emotions), this charge disappears.

The objectives of observation may differ in the degree of generality of the issue being studied. Moreover, the more specific the goal, the more selective the observation and the more it is determined “from above,” that is, the more strongly it depends on the observer’s prior knowledge about the area being studied as a whole. This position is illustrated using the example of highlighting M.Ya. Basov 3 levels of goals in research on child psychology. The main goal is to study the development of the child’s personality, the goal of the second level is to study the individual characteristics of the personality of an individual child, and, finally, a private goal concerns the study of any one aspect of the child’s mental life, for example, the study of his emotional sphere. To obtain a reliable result in the latter case, you need to know what in the observed emotional expressive movements is a manifestation of the child’s individual characteristics, and what is inherent to a given age.

Observation program (scheme)

It was noted above that the observation scheme includes a list of observation units, language and form of description of the observed.

Selecting Observation Units. After the object and the situation in which the observation of its activity will occur is selected in accordance with the purpose of observation, the researcher is faced with the task of conducting observation and describing its results. An observed event becomes an empirical fact for science only if it is somehow described by the observer. Any description system requires that the process being described be discrete. Therefore, before observing, it is necessary to isolate from the continuous flow of behavior certain aspects of it, individual acts accessible to direct observation - units of behavior, which at the same time are units of observation. Isolating them allows you to: a) limit observation to a certain framework: indicate in what properties, manifestations, relationships the process being studied is perceived by the observer; b) choose a specific language for describing what is observed, as well as c) a form of recording observation data, d) systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical “view” of the phenomenon being studied. The selected units of observation must be consistent with the purpose of the study and provide possible interpretations of the observation results from the adopted theoretical position. This position is well illustrated by the above example of the study of thinking within the framework of behaviorist and gestalt theories: Watson chose micromovements of the muscles of the human articulatory apparatus as units of observation, Köhler - holistic behavioral acts, each of which consists of a number of movements and is ensured by the inclusion of almost the entire motor monkey apparatus.

So, units of observation can vary greatly in the size and complexity of the isolated “segment” of behavior and in content (see p. 6, where an approximate list of what can be the subject of observation is indicated).

Recording Observations. The choice of description language is dictated by the purpose of observation and the theoretical tradition adopted by the researcher. Since the goals of hypothesis testing and exploratory research are different, the methods for recording observational data are often also different.

General requirements for recording observations. I. The main requirement is that the surveillance recording must be factual, that is, the person reading it can “see” the picture of the observed phenomenon with his own eyes. “Every fact, every observation must be recorded in the form in which this fact or phenomenon existed as something real” (M.Ya. Basov, p. 125). 2. The entry must include description of the whole situation(objective and social) in which the observed event occurs (recording the “background” in the terminology of M.Ya. Basov). 3. The record must be complete in the sense that it must reflect the reality being studied as completely as possible in accordance with the purpose.

Recording Observations in an Exploratory Study. Since, when conducting exploratory research, preliminary knowledge of the reality being studied is minimal, the observer’s task is to record manifestations of the activity of the object of observation in all their diversity, the recording must be quite complete, most often it is made in the form of a free description in terms of a naturally formed language. You need to write down events as such - what happened and how exactly, and not your impressions of what happened. M.Ya. Basov believes that in terms of completeness, accuracy and the absence of assessments and interpretive aspects, the recording of observations should approach photography and calls it “photographic” in contrast to interpretive and generalized descriptive. However, this requirement that the recording be “photographic” should not be taken literally. As a rule, it is very difficult for an observer to get by in a description without including the psychological interpretation of certain moments, which cannot themselves be the subject of observation from the outside and are deduced by the observer from behavioral facts as their internal basis. According to A.P. Boltunov one or two apt words that give psychological characteristics The experiences of the observed person, discerned from his behavior, are better than a stream of long descriptions in which the forest is not visible from behind the trees, since in this case the objectivity of the description is not reduced, and the understanding of the inner side becomes more accessible and justified due to the presence of a direct subjective impression. An example of a good diary entry for observing the behavior of a girl in an orphanage is the following. The words underlined in the text give a psychological interpretation of what is observed.

“Then she gets up (from the bed), takes the boards and with these boards rushes at the older girls who came for me. Swings at those lying in bed; with fear jump up; screaming and roaring begins. She is very happy that she did all this: “Oh, how they are afraid of me!” - she says with laughter" (Boltunov A.P. Pedagogical characteristics of a child. M.;L., 1926, p. 12). An example of a bad recording of a generalized evaluative type:

“The children listened with interest to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale “The Starry Sky” and made their own conclusions about the beauty of good and the ugliness of evil.” (Ibid., p. 18).

The recording does not indicate in what form the children made this conclusion and therefore nothing can be concluded about the degree of understanding of the fairy tale and the level of development in children moral judgments- what is most interesting to a psychologist and teacher.

Typically, exploratory studies use forms of observational records in the form of a continuous protocol or diary - an observation is carried out, the date, time, place and situation of observation are indicated in the record, the social and subject environment and, if necessary, the context of previous events (for example, observation of a person’s behavior in the evening, after a stressful working day, at home in the common kitchen of a communal apartment, during a conflict with a neighbor).

Continuous protocol is a regular one without any headings entered in advance on the sheet where the recording is made. In order for the record to be complete, it is written during observation and requires, firstly, the observer’s complete concentration on observation and recording, and, secondly, it is highly desirable to use conventions or shorthand to speed up the recording. A continuous protocol is also used for so-called preliminary observations in initial phase research that is aimed at solving a particular problem. Preliminary observations are aimed at clarifying the object and situation of observation and determining the repertoire of behavior (compiling a list of observation units).

Students will be able to become familiar with the features of continuous recording during preliminary observations when working on two tasks, one of which is devoted to the analysis of the work activity of press workers at a garment factory, the other - the behavior of a child in an unfamiliar situation.

Diary form Observational records are used for multi-day observations, sometimes lasting months and years, such as in longitudinal studies of child mental development 5 . The diary is kept in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of entries. To maintain the accuracy of observations, the accuracy of terminology and its unambiguous use throughout the duration of the study is necessary. The record should reflect as fully as possible what was observed. The criterion for the appropriate completeness of registration can be the accurate transmission of the meaning of the observed phenomena. It is advisable to record during observation; If this is not possible, then write it down from memory. At the same time, you shouldn’t put off recording for a long time. Stern's research (A.P. Boltunov) showed that distortions in the description of pictures viewed by intelligent adults increase by about 0.3% per day compared to direct reproduction and consist of the transformation of objects (for example, a ball turned into the sun), attributing to objects possible but absent actions in the picture, distortion of spatial relationships and meaning, etc. In practice, combined recording has proven its worth, when significant moments are recorded during the observation, and details are recorded immediately after the observations, and better in the situation where the observations were made, since the situation itself contributes to a more complete reproduction of everything that happened.

Recording observations in a study designed to test initial theoretical assumptions. The significant difference between recording observations and the previous case is determined by the fact that, firstly, the purpose of the study is to study only a certain type of activity, that is, not as wide as in search studies, and, secondly, the observer has preliminary theoretical knowledge about the subject research expressed as a hypothesis to be tested. Both of these circumstances allow the researcher in advance, before conducting the observation, to indicate the most appropriate categories for the purpose of the study in which the observed activity will be recorded 5 .

Categories are concepts meaning certain classes of observed phenomena (A. Panto, R. Grawitz). They must be defined operationally, not overlap with other categories, have the same degree of generality as others, and express a certain aspect of solving the research problem. For example, theoretical basis The method of motor-temporal analysis of elementary working movements, proposed by F. Gilbert, was Bernstein's understanding of biomechanical operation as a simple sum of successive movements, which can be sifted like grain in a sorting room. In the light of Gilbreth's task of “economizing labor movements by eliminating unnecessary ones,” the most detailed analysis (16 out of 18 categories) was subjected to various options preparatory operations: remove, move, install, etc.

The categories may correspond to different levels of conceptualization of observation. They may emerge as a result of empirical generalization in preliminary research and be used to classify observed behaviors. Most high level conceptualization takes place if the categories form a system, that is, a set of categories that covers all theoretically permissible manifestations of the process being studied. An example of such an observation system can be seen in the standard procedure proposed by R. Bales to describe the interaction of members of a small group when jointly solving a problem. The given 12 categories (participant “proposes a solution,” “expresses an opinion,” “expresses an attitude,” etc.) are based on assumptions about the stages of problem solving by the group and fully cover the possible units of observation reflecting the interactions of the participants in the discussion. During observation, the observer divides the statements of the discussion participants into these 12 classes, taking into account not only What each of them speaks, but also to whom he addresses, what is the emotional connotation of his statement, his place from the point of view of the 6 supposed stages of progress in solving the problem. Since it is assumed that any possible action can be subsumed under any of these categories, a number of them fully defined - relative to each other. In this sense, they represent a system as opposed to a list. Below we will call observation based on a system of categories systematized observation.

The “unit of observation - category” relationship is specified by the definition of the category. Sometimes a class of observed phenomena contains only one unit, but more often several different observation units are classified under the same category. For example, when analyzing the stages of solving a problem in a study using the “reasoning out loud” method, all speech utterances of the subject, each of which contains a complete thought (the subject asks himself a question, evaluates the condition, makes a decision, etc.) and is considered as a unit of observation, is broken down by gelstatt psychologist K Dunker into two categories: intermediate and functional solution. Only one unit falls into the last category, since one “functional solution” is enough for the subject to instantly grasp the essence - the structure of the problem, and, therefore, the solution to the problem. There can be many “intermediate” solutions that fall under the same category, which reflects their equality as preliminary attempts in relation to a functional solution.

It should be emphasized that subsuming a unit of observation into a category - essentially the initial stage of interpreting what is being observed - can occur not only after the observation, as shown in the example with Duncker, but also during the observation itself. This is especially the case in the case of pre-selected and rigid, precisely
limited categories, as, for example, in the Bales technique 7 which does not provide for a meaningful description of units of behavior. An observer, identifying a unit of behavior during a group discussion, must immediately place it under one of 12 categories and record this in the observation protocol.

Above, we discussed the issues of choosing means of qualifying observed events, that is quality their descriptions. However, the observation method allows us to obtain quantitative descriptions observed events during the observation itself, if the categories for description are defined in advance. There are 2 main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: I) assessment by the observer of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling; 2) measuring the duration of the observed event - timing.

Scaling in observation is carried out mainly by the scoring method. The differentiation of intensity assessment increases in proportion to the number of points on the scale. Typically 3-10 point scales are used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as a descriptive adjective, for example: very strong, strong, average, weak, very weak. Sometimes a graphical form of the scale is used, in which the assessment is expressed by the value of a segment on a straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper points. Attribution of scores can also be carried out retrospectively, as a result of long-term observations in Everyday life. This method is sometimes used to test individual characteristics of a person. In a study by Ya. Strelyau, based on retrospective assignments of ratings to specific forms of student behavior in ordinary school life (assessed on a 5-point system of 10 categories of behavior), a scale was developed to determine reactivity as a property of temperament.

Timing is one of the variants of the time interval method. Its second type - the time sampling method - is described above. To time-measure a behavioral act or some other external manifestation in the process of direct observation, you must: a) be able to quickly and accurately isolate it from the observed behavior (qualify it); b) establish in advance the so-called fixation points - what is considered the beginning and end of the act; d) have hardware in the form of a chronometer, stopwatch or watch with a second hand. The choice of a time meter is dictated not only by the required measurement accuracy and available capabilities, but also by some ethical issues due to the fact that timing the activity of the observed person may be unpleasant and disturb him. The timing technique is described in more detail in training task No. I.

In real research, various methods for describing observed behavior (qualitative and quantitative) can be used simultaneously, complementing each other. For example, in a study by S. Meshcheryakova, the identification of various components of the animation complex in an infant during direct observation of the child’s reaction to a toy or an adult communicating with him included a quantitative assessment of the intensity of vocalization, motor animation, smile, and concentration of gaze using a scoring method. Ratings were given separately for each of the four components of the revitalization complex during specified periods of observation (time sampling method) after the appearance of an adult or a toy in the child’s field of vision. Standardization of observation conditions included the organization of influences, control of side factors (noise, other people) that cause the child’s orientation, specified observation periods, and their number.

The most common ways to categorize observations are two: symbolic recording and standard protocol.
Recording in characters. Preliminary knowledge of the categories in which the results of observations will be recorded makes it possible to introduce manual methods of recording observations faster than verbal recording - various options for symbolic recording, in addition to shorthand, in which each category is indicated by one symbol. The following types of symbols are used: pictograms - graphic images-signs, letter designations, mathematical signs and combinations of the last two.

Below is a protocol of observations of the work of a multi-loom weaver from the study of E.A. Klimova. The specific purpose of these observations is to establish a “photograph” of the weaver's working time. This “photograph” makes it possible to judge the quantity and sequence of different types of work, transitions, and the quantitative relationships of different indicators. Essentially, to produce such a “photograph,” it is necessary to maintain a protocol of selective observation, in which the observer, from the entire variety of external manifestations of various aspects of mental life, selects and records only one specific aspect, in this case, the performance of labor actions. This protocol uses continuous notation in alphabetical and mathematical symbols. The recording is made in a specially lined notebook. Column I indicates the serial number of the action or the “current time” every 60 seconds; in column 2 - the labor action being performed; in column 3 - the machine that is idle at that moment.

The entries in column 2 from top to bottom mean: on the working loom No. I the weaver inspects the fabric, on loom 2 the thread breaks and the work is completed, on loom 3 she inspects the fabric, the weaver herself stopped loom No. 3. The implementation of such a protocol entry turns out to be more compact in time than maintaining a text protocol by about 10 times.
Students will become familiar with another type of symbolic recording (in the form of pictograms) of elementary working movements using the example of a sample observation protocol when working on educational task No. I.

It should be emphasized that since all symbolism is developed before observation, it goes without saying that this method of recording is applicable to recording only cyclically repeating behavior with a relatively small (no more than 50) variety of behavioral acts. Therefore, most often, recording in symbols is used when observing labor processes.

Standard Protocol It is also used for selective observation in cases where the number of categories is very limited (10-15)> and the researcher can be satisfied with recording only the frequency of their occurrence. A significant limitation in the number of categories can be achieved by isolating a single and fairly narrow aspect of behavior while ignoring all others. For example, in N. Flanders’ method, 10 categories are used to analyze the interaction between teacher and student in the classroom, the list of which is given below.

From the table above it can be seen that Flanders’ method selects only verbal interaction from all possible implementations and considers verbal interaction only from the standpoint of balance in the ratio of teacher initiation - student response and the nature of interaction (directive - non-directive). For example, category 9 (“Teacher asks a question”) includes many student questions with different expressions interpersonal relationship, the emotional state of the student. All these aspects of interaction are ignored and completely lost for the researcher, since the protocol contains only information that the student’s response was initiated by himself or caused by the teacher. The noted disadvantage is a continuation of the great advantages of this method of registration, namely: firstly, the completeness and accuracy of recording all cases of verbal interaction in various situations (in different lessons different teachers in different subjects) and, Secondly, leveling the influence of the personality and individual characteristics of the observer on the results of observation. P. Fress drew attention to the first of these points, arguing that only analytical observation can be complete. The importance of the second point (the problem of observer agreement) is so great that it can negate all the results of the study due to the unreliability of the results when there is disagreement in the data obtained by different observers in the same situation.

The standard protocol is in the form of a table. In Flanders' method it looks like this.

The proposed form of recording coded events is convenient for subsequent mathematical processing of data.

Types of organization of psychological observation 8

Psychological research employs a wide variety of forms of observation; there is no single and comprehensive classification of them, so we will limit ourselves to naming the most important types of observation.

Systematic observation versus random characterized primarily by the regularity of observations throughout the entire study period. The time intervals between individual observations are determined by the nature of the subject being studied, external conditions that determine the timing of funding, and can vary widely. In literature, especially foreign language literature, the term “systematic” is used in the sense of “systematized,” the definition of which was introduced earlier in this text.

Depending on the observer's position in relation to the object, observation can be open or hidden when an observer, for example, looks at an object of observation through a Gesell glass. How the subspecies is distinguished included observation: the researcher is a member of the group of people he observes, a full participant in the observed events. Participant observation, like observation from the outside, can be open or hidden (when the observer acts incognito, without informing other members of the group about the fact of observation). Participant observation, on the one hand, allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events may affect the objectivity of the observer's report. Some types of observation may be intermediate between participant observation and non-participant observation. For example, a teacher’s observations of a class during classes, a psychotherapist’s observation: here the observer is included in the situation differently than the observed individuals; their positions are “not equal” from the point of view of managing the situation.

Depending on the situations observations can be distinguished observation field, laboratory And provoked in natural conditions. Field observation is carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed person or animal and its requirement is the lack of initiative on the part of the observer of the phenomena being studied. Field observation makes it possible to study the natural life of the “object” of observation with minimal distortion (due to the limitations of the situation), but its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive, and also that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control; observation here is often expectant and unsystematic.

Laboratory observation allows you to study a person in a more convenient and controlled situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can significantly distort the results obtained. In developmental psychology, provoked observations approach the form of a “natural experiment” - a method proposed by A.F. Lazursky.
(M.Ya.Baoov).

An important criterion is chronological organization of observation. From this point of view, we can highlight longitudinal("longitudinal"), periodic And single observation. Longitudinal observation is carried out over a long period of time, usually a number of years, and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The results of such studies are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed person.

Periodic observations are the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Unlike longitudinal, it is carried out over certain, usually precisely specified periods of time.

Single or single observations are usually presented in the form of a single case report. They can be either unique or typical manifestations of the process or phenomenon being studied.

In conclusion, it must be said that the listed classifications do not oppose one another, but reflect independent criteria of classifications that complement each other. Therefore, the methodology of a real concrete study can combine different types, for example, field observation can be carried out as a systematic one within the framework of an exploratory * study.

Literature

Basov M.Ya. Favorites psychological works. M., 1975. 432 p.
Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975. 302 p.
Rubinstein SL. Fundamentals of general psychology. M., 1946, p. 31-37.
Experimental psychology: In 6 issues/ Ed. P. Fressa, J. Piaget. M., 1966, issue. I, 611 pp.

1. For more details on the relationship between observation and experiment, see the Appendix.
2. IN scientific literature Quite often the terms “observation”, “external observation” and “objective observation” are used interchangeably.
3. The idea that one can judge the emotion a person is experiencing by facial expression is valid only in relation to generally accepted conventional forms of expression.
4. For a detailed analysis of the influence of individual characteristics of the observer on the quality of observations, see the book: Basov M.Ya. Favorite psychological works. M., 1975, p. 44-50.
5. An observation diary dedicated to this particular topic can be found in the book of the Soviet psychologist N.A. Menchinskaya "Diary of the development of a child (from birth to 8 years)."
6. This type of observation is called categorized.
7. Practical processing of the Bales technique is the subject of one of the training assignments.
8. Different types of observation imply differences in the conditions of observation and, consequently, different activities of the observer.

Many natural sciences rely on it to control and study natural phenomena. By examining the perception or interaction of a person with the environment (hearing, touching, visually, tasting), the observer compares the data obtained and makes objective conclusions.

There are many types of observation that are used in social, educational, clinical psychology, as well as in developmental and occupational psychology.

Observation in psychology

This is a rather complex and in-depth process that allows you to get the most accurate results. Let's consider what types of observations there are in psychology:

1. External and internal. With the external method, the observer studies processes from the outside, but remains indifferent. Internal observation is based on studying one's own reactions and sensations.
2. Direct and indirect. With the direct method of observation in psychology, the researcher observes the events being studied personally. In the indirect method, the results of observations made by someone else are studied.
3. Explicit and covert observation in psychology. In the explicit observation method, the object can see the observer and be aware of his presence. During the covert surveillance process, the subject of the study is unaware that he is being watched (surveillance through opaque glass or through a hidden camera).
4. Systematic and selective. A systematic tracking method in psychology is periodically repeated observation over a certain time period. At sampling method a single process or phenomenon is studied.
5. Long-term and short-term. For a long time psychological process observation, the study of an object, event or phenomenon occurs over a long period of time (for example, 2-3 years). Short-term observation is limited to a certain time frame (for example, 1-2 hours).
6. Natural and laboratory. With natural observation in psychology, the study of an object occurs in natural conditions familiar to the observed. In the laboratory, accordingly, the conditions are created artificially.

The observer must keep a diary of his observations and be able to accurately and truthfully reflect on paper the entire essence of the event taking place.

The complexity of this method of psychological research lies in the fact that it is not always possible to conduct repeated observations. The thing is that the phenomena being studied during the research process are influenced by many additional circumstances that are difficult to repeat.

Methods of psychological research and the problem of objective method in psychology.

Methods of psychological research.

From Lectures:

Classification of psychology methods:

· Researcher position

Passive

Active

· Questionnaire

· Testing

Projective methods

Method is an expression of the relationship between the object and the subject of cognition.

The Object and Subject of cognition are not opposed as in observation (method of introspection or reflection).

The experimental method is the active opposition of an object to a subject.

A variety of classifications of general scientific methods.

All methods modern science are divided into theoretical and empirical. This division is very conditional. As an independent method, we can distinguish a modeling method that has its own specifics. In addition, interpretive methods, in particular methods of representing data processing, are distinguished from theoretical and empirical methods.

• When conducting theoretical research, a scientist deals not with reality itself, but with its mental representation - representation in the form of mental images, formulas, spatial-dynamic models, diagrams, descriptions in natural language, etc. Theoretical work is done “in the mind.”
• Empirical research is conducted to test the validity of theoretical constructs.
• When modeling, the researcher uses the method of analogies, inference “from particular to particular” (the experimenter uses the induction method, the theorist uses deduction).

According to Druzhinin.

Method as a way of understanding reality.

Ways and methods of understanding objective reality are usually called research methods. Using methods, each science obtains information about the subject being studied, analyzes and processes the data obtained, and is included in the system of known knowledge.

According to its composition scientific method represents
a set of techniques or operations carried out by a researcher
when studying any object. The method in its unity with the subject of psychology constitutes a scientific approach to the reality being studied.

Classification of methods of psychological research.

The main methods of psychological research include methods that are used in modern psychology to collect so-called primary data, i.e. information subject to further clarification and processing.

The main methods of psychological research and their variants used to collect primary data:

General conceptual (illustrative) and comparative characteristics of the main empirical methods of psychology. Observation. Experiment. Survey. Testing.

Observation.

Observation is meaningful, interpretive and goal-directed perception.

At different stages of development of observation in a child, the following changes: a) the content available for interpretation and the depth of cognitive penetration into it, b) the complexity of the composition that can be grasped by the child as a whole, in the unity and interconnection of all its parts, c) consciousness, plannedness, systematicity of the observation process itself.

At the first stage in the development of observation, with limited experience and knowledge, interpretation is based not so much on connections and cause-and-effect dependencies between phenomena, but on their similarity (similar interpretation). As the child’s knowledge expands and his thinking develops, along with the likening one, he develops an inferential interpretation, which initially comes primarily from external, sensory properties, random, but more or less familiar combinations, connections, relationships. And finally, the third stage in the development of observation is formed by inferential interpretation, which reveals the already abstract, sensory data, internal properties of objects and phenomena in their essential relationships.

Experiment.

One of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and recording accompanying changes in the behavior of the studied object. A correctly set up Experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships, not limiting yourself to stating the connection (correlation) between variables.

Survey.

A survey is a method of collecting primary information. The survey method is used in psychology in two forms: questionnaires and conversations (interviews). The source of information in the survey is the written or oral judgments of the individual. The survey method is often criticized: doubts are expressed about the reliability of the information obtained from the direct responses of the subjects. To obtain more reliable information, special questionnaires are created to obtain information that corresponds to a certain hypothesis, and this information should be as reliable as possible. In psychology, special rules have been developed for composing questions, arranging them in the required order, grouping them into separate blocks, etc. If a survey is conducted in writing using a questionnaire, then we speak of a survey method, the advantage of which is that a group of people can participate in it at the same time. The data obtained during the survey can be statistically processed. In pedagogical practice, questionnaires are used quite widely, but it must be remembered that obtaining reliable and reliable facts requires professional knowledge from the questionnaire compilers. A poorly designed questionnaire not only does not provide reliable information, but also compromises the method itself. Assessing the survey method as a whole, it can be noted that it is a means of primary orientation and preliminary reconnaissance. The data obtained from the survey outlines directions for further study of the individual or group. Obtaining information in the process of direct communication between the researcher and the interviewee is characteristic of the conversation method (interview). A conversation is a more “psychological” form of questioning.

Testing.

(From the English test - experiment. sample) - method psychological diagnostics, using standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. Used for standardized measurement of individual differences. There are three main areas of testing: a) education - due to the increase in the duration of education and the complication of curricula; b) professional training and selection - due to the increasing growth rate and increasing complexity of production; c) psychological counseling - in connection with the acceleration of sociodynamic processes.

Method as a relationship to the reality being studied?

Correlation between the concepts research and examination?

Observation method in psychology.

Observation is a purposeful, organized perception and recording of the behavior of an object. Maintaining external validity is a precondition for conducting an observation.

Observation is an empirical method consisting of deliberate, purposeful, direct perception and registration of exteriorized actions that have a verbal and motor basis.

Evolutionarily born before all methods. Observation is one of the oldest methods of scientific research. Any scientific knowledge obtained experimentally is based on observations of natural phenomena or human activity.

Observation is based on an unconditional reflex reaction. The observed reality - of the external world or psychological - is not changed by the researcher.

General sign observation as a method – the activity of the observer in organizing the observation process, preparing and selecting observation conditions and recording data obtained through observation. The following feature distinguishes psychological observation from the point of view of the observer’s involvement in the interpretation of the obtained facts as scientific and psychological. It involves dividing the types of observation - descriptive and explanatory, including interpretive components in the units of description.

The following are considered observable in psychology:

1. behavior of the subject;

2. externally distinguishable forms of interaction between people in a group (in particular, methods of non-verbal communication);

3. linguistic consciousness of the individual, expressed in speech;

4. expressive forms of the subject’s emotional states;

5. personality traits manifested in his actions, biographical path of the individual.

Types of observations:

1. Observation and types of observer report. The organization of the observer's report is included, along with the purpose and creation of the situation, in the observation plan. Depending on the chosen method of describing data, we can distinguish:

Standardized - the observer is prescribed in a more or less clear form the identified categories of observation and the “units” that he must record, as well as the order of observation, its sequence, etc. Such observation is usually used where the observer is required to highlight already known manifestations of psychological events rather than describe new ones.

Non-standardized - the observer records data for a specific purpose, but without special restrictions on what to pay attention to, what moments to record. It allows you to get acquainted with those manifestations of the reality that interests the researcher, which are not yet known to him and for which a repertoire of “units” of description has not been developed. In addition, it is used if a holistic description of psychological reality is required rather than an analytical representation of it.

2. Observation from the point of view of taking into account the position of the observer:

External - observation from the outside, when the observer is completely separated from the object being studied. Can be open or hidden.

Included - the researcher is himself a member of the group of people he observes, a full participant in the observed events.

Open - those being observed know that their behavior is being recorded by the researcher (studying the dynamics of behavior of the submarine crew).

Hidden - the observed do not know that their behavior is being recorded by the researcher (Gesell's mirror).

Participant observation has its advantages and disadvantages: on the one hand, it allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events can affect the objectivity of the observer’s report. Some types of observations may represent an intermediate option between participant and external observation (observation of a teacher in a class during classes, observations of a psychotherapist).

3. Types of observation depending on its organization:

ü Laboratory - allows you to study the forms of manifestation of psychological regulation in the behavior of a person or animal in a more convenient and controlled situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can significantly distort the results obtained.

ü Field – carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed object. The requirement of this observation is the lack of initiative on the part of the observer of the phenomena being studied. Allows you to explore the natural forms of human life and communication with minimal distortion. Its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive and that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control. Such observation is often wait-and-see and unsystematic.

ü Provoked in natural conditions – often approaches the form of a natural experiment.

4. Observation depending on the level of “units”.

In addition to the description of psychological reality in repertoires of units or categories, another aspect of dividing the holistic process of observation into separate “units” is implied - from the characteristics of the observed events.

ü Systematic – carried out according to certain rules for structuring the observer’s concepts to classify events. Includes whether the observation program is appropriate for the purposes of the study; highlighting the sides of the object that need to be described; language for describing observation data, the method of recording them and the order of observation.

ü Non-systematic – carried out during field research, widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology. What is important for the researcher is not the fixation of causal relationships and a strict description of the phenomenon, but the creation of some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions.

5. Observation and objectives of the study. Depending on the content of the research objectives, the following are distinguished:

Free – minimal restrictions on what and when to observe.

Purposeful—The design or plan clearly defines the goals, organization of the observation, and how the observer will report. It can be continuous or selective depending on what is being observed: all manifestations of the process of interest or only some.

6. Observation in relation to hypothesis testing:

observation as a method of data collection is applicable at the preliminary stages of research, when there are no developed hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. If an observation is not associated with testing specific hypotheses, it remains “targeted” and is not heuristic, although it is on the basis of such observation that hypotheses can be formed. The established tradition classifies as heuristic observation those types of observation that are aimed at testing hypotheses. Heuristic, therefore, is not observation at the preliminary stages of studying the “object” and observation in cases of a consciously adopted goal of minimal selectivity and maximum coverage of various manifestations and aspects of the observed object (process, phenomenon).

7. Chronological organization of observation:

ü Longitudinal – carried out over a long period of time, usually several years. It involves constant contact between the researcher and the “object” of study. The results of such studies are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed.

ü Periodic – the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Conducted over certain, usually precisely specified periods of time.

ü Single or one-time – presented as a description of a single case. It can be either unique or standard, i.e. typical, is the result of both systematic and random observation.

Benefits of surveillance:

ü Immediacy – direct representation of the observed phenomenon in place and time. The absence of mediating links between the subject and the object of research;

ü Naturalness – the functioning of the psyche in a normal, comfortable, familiar mode.

ü Multidimensionality of coverage of psychological manifestations (panoramicness).

Disadvantages of surveillance:

Objective (related to the observation procedure itself):

ü Possible interference of the researcher in the natural course of events;

ü Initial fundamental passivity of the observer.

ü Ambiguous connection between external manifestations and internal experiences.

ü Labor intensity.

ü There are areas of the psyche that are inaccessible to observation

ü Presence

ü The impossibility of the researcher to cover the entire set of phenomena characterizing the process being studied;

ü Difficulties associated with an adequate description of the phenomena being studied;

ü Impossibility of completely avoiding subjectivity

ü Irreversibility of observed events.

Subjective (related to the personality of the observer):

A) psychological errors observer (related to the psyche of the observer):

ü Halo effect - the generalized impression of the observer leads to a rough perception of behavior, ignoring subtle differences (the observer attributes positive characteristics to an object that has a high social status, age status).

ü The leniency effect is the tendency to always give a positive assessment of what is happening.

ü Error of central tendency - the observer’s desire to give an average assessment of observed behavior; a person is not inclined to give phenomena an extreme assessment.

ü Correlation error - an assessment of one behavioral characteristic is given on the basis of another observed characteristic (intelligence is assessed by verbal fluency).

ü Contrast error - the tendency of the observer to have observed traits that are opposite to his own.

ü First impression error - the first impression of an individual determines the perception and assessment of his further behavior.

ü Selectivity of perception.

ü Influence of mood.

ü Commitment to hypotheses.

B) unconscious limitations:

ü Psychophysiological limitations

ü Sensory limitations

ü Functional - emotional limitations (associated with fatigue)

ü Rhythm of nervous processes.

The way in which observed events are described is of paramount importance for evaluating the data obtained in the study.

Observation protocol. The observation design includes determining the moments of the observer's report during the observation or immediately after certain stages of the observation. Observation data is recorded in the form of a protocol, diary or separate entries (notes).

The protocol is the most commonly used form of recording during periodic observations and is most often carried out directly during the observation. It can be formalized to varying degrees.

A diary is a form of recording used in longitudinal observation. Records are usually made once a day or several days, and the observer writes down from memory in free form everything that attracted his attention.

Separate records are kept when recording a single observation or using observation as an auxiliary technique.

The protocol in which the observer records data can be continuous or selective. In a continuous protocol, the observer fully reflects all observed events in the order in which they occurred. Usually they indicate the time that a particular event took. The complete protocol is more or less formalized. Since without formalization it is quite difficult to keep up with events while recording time. It is used, as a rule, at the preliminary stages of research and gives a general idea of ​​the observed reality.

The selective protocol also records events in chronological order, but not all, but only those of interest to the researcher. Used in later stages of the study.

The observation procedure includes 4 main stages:

1. Preparation stage - drawing up initial ideas about the object of observation, the situation, the subjects and choosing an observation technique.

2. Stage of developing an observation scheme:

ü Determination of essential features of the object of observation

ü Determination of behavioral indicators of the object of observation

ü Determination of observation situations, their number and duration

ü Development of a protocol form and coding system

ü Conducting flight observation (“dress rehearsal”). As a result, correction of the observation scheme

ü Development of a program for quantitative processing of observation data and their visual presentation

ü Development of an algorithm for high-quality processing of observation data

3. Conducting observation – the process of obtaining empirical material, recording the observed events in the protocol.

4. Stage of processing analysis and interpretation of results.

In this article, we invite you to consider one of the main techniques that is included in psychology. Observation involves purposeful and intentional perception of the object of study. In the social sciences, its application is most difficult, since the subject and object of research are people, which means that the results can be influenced by the subjective assessments of the observer, his attitude and attitudes.

Observation is one of the main empirical methods, the simplest and most common in natural conditions. For his results to be accurate, the observer must remain aloof, unnoticed, or become part of the group that includes the object of observation, blending in so as not to attract attention. The researcher must record and evaluate events related to the purpose of observation.

Elements of this technique include theoretical thinking (various monitoring of results, comprehension) and quantitative scaling, etc.).

When studying the basic methods of psychology, observation should certainly be noted and, if possible, applied. After all, this is one of the main techniques used by modern science.

It must be said that observation in psychology is necessarily somewhat subjective. The degree of subjectivity can be reduced by the rejection of quick conclusions and generalizations, repeated observations, as well as the use of other methods along with it. It is better for several observers to participate in the study. To increase the effectiveness of this method, various observation cards and questionnaires are often used. They allow you to concentrate on the most important points and not be distracted by unimportant ones.

Distinctive Features of Observation

Observation in psychology is always carried out for a specific purpose, according to a predetermined plan, and is equipped with various objects necessary to record the results and carry out the process itself.

This method allows you to collect empirical data, form ideas about the objects of research, and also test various guesses and theories associated with it.

Observation carries out cognition through direct contact, based on the readings of the senses, therefore it is the first scientific technique in history.

Methods of psychology (observation, experiment, etc.) have their own characteristic features. These features make it possible to distinguish them as a separate type of research. Observation in psychology is distinguished by the type of relationship to the object (for example, in a conversation or experiment, a specialist creates special conditions that cause this or that phenomenon), the presence of direct contact with it (which is absent when studying the products of activity, and is also not always present in the experiment).

From a methodological point of view, it is characterized by universality, that is, the ability to use observation in relation to a wide range of different mental phenomena, as well as flexibility (the ability to change the “field of coverage” of an object or hypothesis during the research process) and minimal requirements for the technical and hardware support of the procedure. In this, the methods of psychology, observation, experiment and others, are very different.

In the scientific literature, the terms "observation", "objective observation" and "external use" are often used interchangeably. Mental life is a complex phenomenon, inaccessible to direct view from the outside, hidden from prying eyes. Therefore, initially the only method of psychology was introspection (self-observation), and only with the development of science did external observation begin to be used when observing a person (psychology, sociology and other sciences).

In Russian psychology, the basic principles of observation are described in the works of such scientists as S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev.

Types of objects

Observation and experiment in psychology, as well as other methods, can have the following objects of study:

Human (or animal);

A whole group of people.

The subject of observation can, as a rule, only be the external component of activity (movements, movements, contacts, joint actions, speech acts, facial expressions, external manifestations of vegetative reactions, as well as various situations, both spontaneous and organized).

Observation Rules

There are a number of rules when applying this method:

1. Systematic, repeated studies should be conducted in changing and repeating situations to highlight patterns and random coincidences.

2. Don'ts: You should definitely make alternative assumptions about what is behind a particular behavior and test them.

3. Particular situations and conditions must be compared with general ones, considering them in the context of various communities (the individual as a whole, the general situation, the stage of mental development, for example, in relation to a child, etc.), since such consideration often completely changes the psychological the meaning of what is observed.

In order to minimize inaccuracies and errors in the research and ensure its objectivity, as already noted, it is necessary that the researcher does not give away his presence. It is necessary to make sure that the observer can see, while remaining unnoticed as a researcher. Features of observation in psychology suggest, if possible, least participation there is a subject in it.

This can be achieved by the following:

- “to become familiar”, that is, to make the object of study accustomed to the presence of the observer - to often be present in his field of vision, as if not paying attention to him;

Explain the presence of an outsider with some goal acceptable for the object of study, for example, tell the teacher at school that you would like to be present at the lesson in order to master his methodology;

Replace the observer with recording equipment (video camera, for example), which will ensure accurate recording and will be less embarrassing for the observed;

Carry out the study from a dark room adjacent to the one where the observed are located, for example, separated from it by a special Gesell glass with one-way light conductivity;

Use hidden camera footage.

The goal must be clearly defined, since only in very rare cases do random observations lead to important discoveries.

Types of observation

Psychology is very diverse. There is no comprehensive unified classification, so we will list only the main ones.

1. Systematic and random. Systematic is characterized by regularity and repetition throughout the entire period of study. The time intervals between observations are determined by external conditions and the nature of the object being studied.

2. Open or hidden. These types of observation in psychology characterize the observer’s position towards the object of study. For example, with hidden observation, the researcher looks through Gesell glass at the object of study, and with open observation, the observed one also sees the researcher.

As a subtype, this also includes participant observation, when the subject himself is a member of a group, a participant in events. Participant observation can be either open or hidden (for example, if the researcher does not disclose that he is such to other members of the group).

Some types of observation are intermediate between included and non-involved observation. For example, when a teacher studies the behavior of students during a lesson: here the researcher is involved in the situation, but differently than the objects of study, their positions are unequal in relation to managing the situation.

3. Field and laboratory. Field research is carried out in natural conditions for the observed and implies the absence of any initiative on the part of the researcher. This observation in psychology allows us to study the natural life of the observed object. Its disadvantages include labor intensity, as well as the uncontrollability of the situation by the researcher, and the impossibility of systematic observation. Laboratory research provides the opportunity to study an object in a controlled, convenient situation for the researcher, but can significantly distort the results of the study.

4. Longitudinal, periodic and single. These types are distinguished by the time of organization of the study. Longitudinal (“longitudinal”) is carried out over a long time, often several years, and also involves continuous contact of the observer with the object. The results of such a study are recorded in the form of diaries, which widely cover the lifestyle, behavior, and various habits of the object being studied.

Periodic observation is the most common type of temporary research organization. It is carried out over certain precisely defined periods of time. Single, or one-time, observations are carried out in the form of a description of a single case, which can be either typical or unique in the study of a particular phenomenon or process.

Observation units, their registration

Units of observation are simple or complex actions of the object of study that are accessible to the observer. To register them, special documents are used:

1. Observation card. It is necessary to register certain characteristics in a formalized and often coded form. During the course of the study, several such cards can be used, separately for each unit of study.

2. Observation protocol. Designed to record combined results in formalized and informal procedures. It reflects the interaction of observation cards.

3. Observation diary. Psychology often uses various observation logs. They are necessary in order to record the results of the study. They indicate not only various information about the object itself, but also the actions of the observer committed during the study.

When recording the results, various film and video equipment can also be used.

Observation Example

Examples in psychology reveal this well. Let's look at a specific example where this technique is used.

For example, a military researcher needs to find out which military personnel are prone to various offenses, for example, money-grubbing, drunkenness, and violence. The objects of observation are newly arrived soldiers.

First, the researcher collects information about them through the officers of the units to which the research objects belong. This information can be obtained, for example, from those who accompanied new arrivals to the place of service from the recruiting station, through conversation, and analysis of documents. In this case, it is necessary to especially pay attention to the social environment in which the soldier grew up and was brought up (prosperous or disadvantaged, complete or incomplete family, belonging or not belonging to a group with negative value orientations), on his behavior (whether or not he was brought to criminal or administrative responsibility, the presence or absence of negative characteristics from work or study), on his psychological and physiological characteristics (character traits, level of development, etc.).

At the same time, the observer determines special signs that make it possible to judge the tendency of objects to deviate behavior. It is believed that persons with deviant behavior include soldiers whose behavior does not correspond to the moral and legal norms accepted in this society. This could be, for example, a dishonest attitude towards official duties, disobedience to commanders, insulting colleagues, stubbornness, attempts to dominate, etc.

Based on these signs, researchers collect detailed information about all soldiers through mostly random observation, and then draw up a detailed research program.

The student identifies situations, categories and units of observation, prepares tools (protocols, cards, observation diaries).

Example of observation situations

The observation method in psychology is implemented using examples of typical situations, among which it is worth noting:

Training sessions. During such activities, the general level of training, skills, knowledge, the degree of diligence of the soldiers is determined, the level of cohesion of the team as a whole, and the degree of its desire to obtain knowledge are revealed.

Breaks, leisure hours. In these situations, the observer may be interested in the topics of conversation, the leaders and their influence on other participants in the dialogues, and the different opinions and points of view of the soldiers.

Household work. Of interest here may be the attitude towards the work of those being studied, the various relationships between military personnel when performing household work, as well as leaders and subordinates. It is important to note that in the presence of large volumes of work, as well as in critical situations (earthquake, fire, flood), qualities such as endurance, determination, cohesion, and mutual assistance of team members are especially evident.

Changing of the guard, divorce and service. In these situations, the degree of military training, the level of skills and abilities, motivation to perform duties, and the beliefs of the soldiers are revealed.

Here you can pay attention to general discipline, the reaction of the military to official duties and their distribution.

A special role is played by various conflict situations, in which the relationships between soldiers and their behavior are most clearly manifested. It is important to note the instigators, as well as indicate the causes, dynamics and outcome of the conflict, and determine the roles of the various participants.

Observation in educational psychology

This type of research is used mainly in studying the behavioral characteristics of students and teachers and the style of their activities. Here it is important to comply with two basic conditions: the observed person should not know what is the object of the study; the researcher should not interfere with the activities of the observed.

Observation in social psychology should be carried out according to a pre-developed program. It is necessary to record only those manifestations of object activity that correspond to the tasks and goals of the research being conducted. It is best to use video recording, as it allows you to study phenomena repeatedly and ensures maximum reliability of the conclusions obtained.

IN educational psychology Mostly non-participant observation is used, but sometimes participant observation can also be carried out, allowing the researcher to experience first-hand what experiences those being observed experience. However, one should especially strive to maintain objectivity.

Observation in developmental psychology

Here it can be either continuous or selective. If observation covers many aspects of the observed behavior simultaneously, over a long period of time, and is carried out in relation to either one or several children, it is called continuous. In this case, some selectivity is often noted: novelty is the selection criterion. When carrying out selective observation, only one specific aspect of the behavior of the child being studied is indicated and assessed, or his behavior in separate, specific situations, at certain intervals of time (the following examples implement such observation in psychology: C. Darwin observed the manifestation of emotions of his son, and the domestic linguist A. N. Gvozdev recorded the speech of his child during the first eight years of his life).

The value of this technique in developmental psychology is that for the application of this method there are no age restrictions for the object being studied. Tracking the life of the observed over a long period of time allows you to find turning points, critical periods in its development.

Observation in psychology, examples of which we have just indicated, is most often used here to collect data at the initial stage of research. But sometimes it is used as the main method.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to note once again that only external results can be recorded and observed. mental activity people and their manifestations. However, a number of important psychological components that explain behavior remain externally unmanifested and, therefore, cannot be recorded through observation. For example, it is impossible to trace mental activity, various hidden emotional experiences and states.

Therefore, even where the observation method is the main, leading one, a number of other techniques are used along with it, such as a survey, conversation, and other additional methods. Observation and experiment in psychology are also often used together.

1) observation as a research method in psychology;

2) classification of observations;

3) typical mistakes and psychological observation.

Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably involves the perception of the features of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. Moreover, experiment, testing, oral or written survey, expert assessment, content analysis, etc. can well be considered as types of observations, differing in their conditions and the nature of the procedures performed. However, the scientific tradition has long been entrenched in the identification of a special observational method, relatively independent from all others, combining observation and introspection (introspection).

Of course, within the framework of one science or another this method acquires its specific content. However, it is certainly based on two principles:

Passivity of the subject of cognition, expressed in refusal to interfere in the processes being studied in order to preserve the naturalness of their flow;

Immediacy of perception, which implies limiting the possibility of obtaining data within the limits of a clearly presented situation of the present time (what is usually observed is what is happening “here and now”).

In psychology, observation is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals based on recording manifestations of their behavior.

It is impossible to observe the internal, subjective essences of thinking, imagination, will, temperament, character,

abilities, etc., taken by themselves, but to themselves, outside of specific external manifestations. The subject of observation is verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment. It is they, identified and registered properly, that become characteristics of intellectual and personal development, the dynamics of achievements, the severity of states and much more.

Thus, when studying people, a researcher can observe:

1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity...);

2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);

3) position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement...);

4) physical contacts(touches, pushes, hits, passes, joint efforts...).

In this case, a lot depends, naturally, on observation - the ability to notice significant, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena. Without developing this quality in oneself, it is impossible to effectively carry out research activities. However, the matter does not stop there.

If, for example, a very observant person looks around, without having specific goals for observation and without recording its results in any way, then he will only see many faces and witness various events. The information he collects cannot be considered as proof or refutation of facts, patterns, or theories. Such a person saw and heard a lot, but did not conduct observations in the strict sense of the word.

Scientific observation differs from everyday observation in the following properties:

Purposefulness; the observer must clearly understand what he is going to perceive and why, otherwise his activity will turn into the registration of individual bright and distinct secondary stimuli, and essential material will remain unaccounted for;

Systematicity, which will reliably distinguish the random from the typical, natural;

Planned, since following a plan or program helps to increase the efficiency of the study, determining how the observation will be carried out; when, where, under what conditions;

Analyticity, because it involves not only a statement of observed facts, but also their explanation, the identification of their psychological nature;

Registration of results, which eliminates memory errors, thereby reducing the subjectivity of conclusions and generalizations;

Operating with a system of unambiguous concepts, special terms that contribute to a clear and unambiguous designation of the observed material, as well as the uniformity of possible interpretations.

Because of this, scientific observation acquires fundamental repeatability of results. Tc data that the researcher received under certain conditions, with high probability will be confirmed by another researcher if he works under the same conditions and the object of observation has not changed. For the results of scientific observation, while maintaining a certain subjectivity, depend less on the personality of the perceiver than the results of everyday observation.

As a method of psychological research, observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Let's look at their approximate list:

Psychological research is not complete without using the observation method at any stage, but it is extremely rare that the matter is limited to using only this method, without including others. The study of complex mental phenomena requires the researcher, as a rule, to consistently apply a whole complex of empirical methods of cognition.

So far we have been talking about the general characteristics of psychological observation. However, this method has many varieties, distinguished for one reason or another. Let's move on to the question of classification of observations.

Depending on the degree of involvement of the researcher in the environment being studied, two types of observations are distinguished:

included when there is personal participation of the observer in the activity perceived and recorded by him. At the same time, other people usually consider him a participant in the event, and not an observer;

third-party, when an event occurs without the direct participation of an observer acting as if “from the outside.”

It should be noted that in most cases, people's behavior changes dramatically if they notice that they have become the object of research. This violates the requirement to preserve the naturalness of the conditions of the activity being studied. But in practice, for ethical or other reasons, it is not always possible to study their mental characteristics unnoticed by the subjects.

Therefore, according to the nature of interactions with an object, there are the following types of observations:

- hidden, in which people do not know that they are being observed. (In this case, the psychologist is either “disguised” as an ordinary participant in the events, that is, his behavior for others is quite consistent with what is expected in a given situation, does not arouse suspicion, or he observes them indirectly, “from the outside,” using, say, Gesell’s mirror or a hidden video camera);

- open, in which people are aware of the observation being made. Usually, after some time, they get used to the presence of a psychologist and begin to behave more naturally, unless, of course, the observer provokes close attention to themselves.

-external, behind the behavior of other people;- introspection(from Lat. “I look inside”, “I peer”),

that is, introspection. The results of the latter in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but are taken into account as facts that require objective scientific interpretation.

Regarding the time of the study, observations are distinguished:

-one-time, single, produced only once; periodic carried out over certain periods of time;

- longitudinal (from the English “longitude”), characterized by a special extent, constancy of contact between the researcher and the object for a long time.

By the nature of perception, observation can be:

- continuous, when the researcher turns his attention equally to all objects available to him;

- selective when he is only interested certain parameters behavior or types of behavioral reactions (for example, such as the frequency of manifestations of aggression, the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, the characteristics of speech contacts between children and teachers, etc.).

Based on the nature of data recording, observation is divided into:

- stating where the researcher’s task is to clearly record the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior and collect facts;

- evaluative, where the researcher compares facts according to the degree of their expression in a certain range. In doing so, he uses a rating scale, which will be discussed later.

And finally, according to the degree of standardized procedures, they are distinguished:

free or exploratory observation, which, although associated with a specific purpose, is devoid of clear restrictions

in choosing what to pay attention to, what points to record, etc. It is permissible to change the subject of research and rules if the need arises. This type of observation is usually used in the early stages scientific work;

- structured or standardized when events occurring are recorded without the slightest deviation from a pre-developed program. At the same time, the rules of observation are clearly defined, the entire content of research activities is prescribed, and uniform methods of recording and analyzing data are introduced. Such observation is usually used where the researcher is required to highlight already known and expected characteristics of reality, and not to look for new ones. Thus, of course, the field of observation is narrowed to some extent, but the comparability of the results obtained increases.

These are the main types of observation. As a training exercise, we will try, as far as possible, to characterize the examples of research given below according to all the classification bases we have considered.

Let's start with the fact that the process of effective observation is impossible without artificially isolating certain units of object activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Similar units of activity are expressed using ordinary words or scientific terminology. They are recorded in the observation protocol.

Typically, there are three types of procedures for recording results. Namely"

1)use of attribute (sign) systems. Moreover, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, they record which of them and how often they appeared during the observation period. Each sign must be formulated unambiguously for understanding by different people and require additional clarification.

For example, what are the signs that students are interested in the content? training session Can you name it? What are the signs that they are not interested in the material they are learning?

Of course, among the designations you named there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, etc., which need to be specified in meaning. And such signs as “animated gestures”, “chewing a pencil”, etc. indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.

It is obvious that the proposed system of features is not exhaustive. During the observation, some significant characteristic may well emerge that we had previously missed. With this method of recording results, the set of characteristics is considered open. If necessary, it is allowed to make certain additions to it after the start of observation.

2)application of the category system. Such a system contains a complete description of all types of possible behavior. You cannot add anything new to it during the observation process.

The fact is that the set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied.

Bales, through free observation of the work of groups, identified more than eighty signs interpersonal communication, which, when systematized, were combined into 12 categories, and the latter into four classes. Here's what they look like (but T.V. Kornilova):

Lowercase Latin letters here indicate connections between categories. More precisely, a - problems of orientation, b - problems of assessment, c - problems of control, c - problems of finding a solution, c - problems of overcoming tension, f - problems of integration. The identification of these connections is based on the corresponding concept of the stages of group work when solving problems.

Working with R. Bales' system of categories, the observer has the opportunity to record the formal (but not substantive) side of the group discussion. To do this, he, having learned a list of categories, correlates them with the remarks of the participants in the communication. What is observed can be recorded as follows:

Who's speaking? (message source);

Who is he addressing? (destination);

When analyzing a recording, the category number indicates both the type of statement, its emotional coloring, and the stage of problem solving. The frequency of speech acts also reflects the peculiarities of the discussion, in particular, in the form of percentages of different types of acts at different stages of the discussion.

It is believed that the described system of categories is mainly adapted for observing discussions on a given topic and student groups. It is actively used to this day, despite a number of significant criticisms (the formality of the analysis, the arbitrariness of identifying the number and content of categories, etc.).

3) Rating scale, (or English "assessment", "order", "classification"). With this method of recording results, the researcher’s attention is drawn not to the presence of this or that characteristic, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence and representation. In this case, the work is carried out according to a pre-prepared ordinal scale.

For example: What interest does the student show during class?

Weak average strong

The specificity of the rating scale is that it is usually filled out either at the last stage of observation or at its end. Of all the data recording methods, this is the most subjective. The researcher acts here not so much as an observer, but as an expert comparing behavioral signs with “standard” samples known only to him. Therefore, the rating scale is often used not independently of other registration methods, but along with them. Then filling it out on the basis of a system of signs or a system of categories becomes the beginning of procedures for interpreting the observation results.

Let's study the typical mistakes of researchers using the observation method. Here are the most common ones:

In an effort to confirm his hypothesis, the researcher sometimes unconsciously ignores everything that may contradict it;

Mixing the main and the secondary, the random and the natural in the process of observation;

Premature generalizations and conclusions;

An assessment of one mental phenomenon is made on the basis of a sign of behavior related to another phenomenon (for example, many people tend to draw conclusions about intelligence based on fluency of speech);

Focusing the observer's attention on the opposite character traits or forms of behavior of the observed;

The determining influence on the results of observation is the first impression about a person or group;

Failure to take into account possible motives for actions, observed well-being, and significant changes in the conditions of the situation.

These are the “traps” of psychological observation. To increase its reliability, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions and resist the temptation to superficially interpret complex processes.

In order to objectify observation procedures in psychology, collective studies of an object by researchers working independently of each other are used, technical means recording and processing of data, observation programs are developed in detail, and repeated observations of the same objects are practiced.

EXPERIMENT

BASIC METHOD

PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1) experiment as the main method of psychological research;

2) types of experiments;

3) reasons for distortion of experimental data;

4) quasi-experimental studies.

Experiment ( from lat. "test, experience") is the leading method of scientific knowledge, including psychological research. Aimed at identifying cause-and-effect relationships. It is characterized by the creation of optimal conditions for the study of certain phenomena, as well as targeted and controlled changes in these conditions.

Unlike observation, experiment is an active way of understanding reality; it involves the systematic intervention of a scientist in the situation under study., managing it. If passive observation allows us to answer the questions “How? How does something happen?”, then experiment will make it possible to find an answer to a different kind of question - “Why does this happen?”?"

One of basic concepts when describing an experiment - variable. This is the name for any real condition of the situation that can be changed. The experimenter manipulates the variables, while the observer waits for whatever change the experimenter makes to occur as he sees fit.

Types of variables:

Independent- this is the one that the experimenter changes.

Dependent- a factor that changes in response to the input of an independent variable.

Intermediate Variables- factors that cannot be strictly controlled, but certainly taken into account, in practice located between independent and dependent variables, mediating their influence on each other. For example: the physiological or psychological state of the subjects (stress, fatigue, interest in work, indifference, etc.). The logic of the experiment requires that such characteristics not be overlooked, since they can significantly

change the behavior of the subjects, thereby influencing the quality of the results obtained.

Controlled Variables- conditions that should not change during the experiment. Otherwise, the validity of the empirical evidence will be violated: the dynamics of the dependent variable can be explained not by the influence of the independent variable, but by other, unplanned and unnoticed influences by the experimenter himself.

Thus , experimenting means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of the controlled variables and the intermediate ones taken into account.

In science, there are two types of experimental plans:

- traditional, where only one independent variable changes;

- factorial, where several independent variables change simultaneously.

Of course, the psychologist does not have the ability to directly, “directly” control the mental reality of the subjects. He can influence only through the external conditions of the situation, introducing certain independent variables. And the latter will be changed either one by one (traditional plan), or by several interconnected ones (factorial plan). But, in any case, the researcher seeks to vary only the independent variables. An experiment where this condition is met is called “pure”. It is extremely important in advance, even when planning experiments, to identify independent variables and isolate them from all others.

Eg When studying the influence of workplace illumination on the rate of onset of fatigue in subjects, we do not have the right to use the powerful lighting equipment used on television. The fact is that television spotlights emit intense heat rays, significantly changing the temperature of the room. Therefore, we will not be able to unambiguously interpret the occurrence of fatigue only through changes in illumination in the future. And if we do this, the results of our experiment will be disputed.

An experiment of this kind has its own advantages and disadvantages. Here is an approximate listing of them:

Many significant achievements psychological science resulted from the use of laboratory experiments. However, the results obtained are not always amenable to legitimate transfer to the surrounding reality.

For example, at the beginning of the 20th century, teaching spelling to schoolchildren was carried out in accordance with Art. n. "image theory" developed by German scientists Lai and Maimann. The essence of this theory is the following: students’ visual perception of incorrect spellings becomes a condition for consolidating the distorted images of words in their minds. Therefore, schoolchildren “must be protected” from any meetings with them.

In this case, the work on mistakes took place in a unique way: teachers usually covered them up thickly or taped them up and wrote the words correctly next to them. In pedagogical magazines of that time, discussions were held about how to properly “hide” spelling irregularities. Dictation was considered a harmful, scientifically unsubstantiated form of work. The main way to teach spelling was to copy from samples...

This theory was confirmed by long-term laboratory experiments in which subjects learned to correctly write the words of an invented “language”...

Indeed, the spelling of such meaningless sets of letters is best learned by copying. Thus, laboratory experiments, for all their accuracy, became in this case proof of the admissibility of the wrong direction in the development of pedagogical science.

A natural experiment is carried out under real conditions with the purposeful variation of some of them by the researcher. In psychology, as a rule, it is used to study behavioral characteristics.