Comparative characteristics of models of teaching activity. Psychology of human education. The formation of subjectivity in educational processes

The variety of educational goals leads to the fact that pedagogical activity becomes more complex, differentiated, multi-level and multi-disciplinary. And in

Since education is intended to act as an additional lever that strengthens the movement of society along the path of productive development, there is a need to give the current educational structures greater flexibility and receptivity to the pedagogical knowledge accumulated in the world. The thesis about the universal value of a single paradigm is being replaced by the thesis about the multiplicity of educational paradigms, which are not equivalent or equivalent to each other, but have the right to exist in the common educational space.

Any pedagogical system as a model pedagogical activity tries to answer four cornerstone questions: for what purpose, what, how and whom to teach? Pedagogical system is a set of interrelated means, methods and processes necessary to create organized and targeted pedagogical assistance in the formation and development of the student’s personality. The pedagogical system consists of the following elements: goals(general and private); content of training and education; didactic processes(actually education and training); students; teachers and/or technical means training (TSO); organizational forms.

The goals, objectives, content and methods of education always depend on ideas about the ideal personality or the normative canon of an adult. It is the normative canon of an adult that directly determines what people (society) achieve from the younger generation and how they do it. The image of a child and the type of attitude towards him are different in different societies. This depends both on the level of socio-economic development and on the cultural characteristics of the people. Like the normative canon of an adult, the image of a child always has at least two dimensions: what he is by nature and what he should become as a result of education.

IN European culture allocate four images of a child.

1. Traditional Christian view claims that the child bears the mark original sin and he can only be saved by merciless suppression of his will, submission to his parents and spiritual mentors.

2. According to positions of socio-pedagogical determinism a child by nature is not inclined towards good or evil, but is a blank slate on which society or teachers can write whatever they want.

3. According to point of view natural determinism The character and capabilities of a child are predetermined before birth.

4. Utopian-humanistic view suggests that a child is born good and kind and deteriorates only under the influence of society. Some Renaissance humanists interpreted the old Christian dogma of childhood innocence in this spirit.

Each of these images corresponds to a specific style of education and training. The idea of ​​original sin corresponds to repressive pedagogy aimed at suppressing the natural principle in the child; the idea of ​​socialization - pedagogy of personality formation through directed learning; the idea of ​​natural determinism - the principle of developing natural inclinations and limiting negative manifestations; the idea of ​​the initial goodness of the child - pedagogy of self-development. These images and styles not only replace each other, but also coexist, and none of these value orientations ever reigns supreme, especially if we're talking about about the practice of education. In every society at every stage of its development there coexist different styles education and training, in which numerous estate, class, national, family and other options can be traced.

The American scientist L. Demoz subdivides the whole history of childhood for six periods, each of which corresponds to a specific parenting style and form of relationship between parents and children.

1. Infatidal style(from antiquity to the 4th century AD). Characterized by mass infanticide. Those children who survived often became victims of violence. The symbol of this style is the image of Medea (according to ancient greek mythologies Medea, the daughter of the king of Colchis, helped the Argonaut Jason master the golden fleece. Medea took revenge on Jason for betraying him by killing his children).

Researchers link the prevalence of infanticide to primitive society primarily with a low level of material production. Peoples at the lowest level

historical development Those who live by gathering are physically unable to feed large offspring. The killing of newborn babies was as natural a norm here as the killing of old people. The transition to a producing economy changes things significantly. Infanticide ceases to be cruel economic necessity and is practiced primarily on qualitative rather than quantitative grounds. They killed mainly children who were considered physically inferior, or for ritual reasons. Infanticide of girls was especially common.

2. Throwing style (IV-XIII centuries). As soon as the culture recognizes that a child has a soul, infanticide decreases, but the child remains an object of projections and reactive formations for the parents. The main means of getting rid of them is abandoning the child, trying to get rid of him. The baby is sold to a nurse, or sent to a monastery or to be raised by someone else's family, or kept abandoned in his own home.

3. Ambivalent (dual) style(XIV-XVII centuries). Characterized by the fact that the child is already allowed to enter emotional life parents begin to surround him with attention, but he is still denied an independent spiritual existence. The main means of pedagogical influence of this era was the “modeling” of character, as if the child were made of soft clay. If he resisted, they beat him mercilessly, “knocking out” his self-will as an evil principle.

4. Intrusive style(XVIII century). The child is no longer considered a dangerous creature or simply an object of physical care; the parents become much closer to him. However, this is accompanied by an obsessive desire to completely control not only behavior, but also inner world, thoughts and will of the child, which increases conflicts between fathers and children.

5. Socializing style(XIX - mid-XX century). Makes the goal of education not so much the conquest and subjugation of the child, but rather the training of his will, preparation for the future. independent life. The child acts as an object rather than a subject of socialization.

6. Helping style(from the middle of the 20th century). Assumes that the child better than parents knows what he needs at every stage of life. Therefore, parents and educators strive not so much to discipline or shape his personality,

how much to help individual development. Hence the desire for emotional closeness with children, empathy, and understanding.

A philosophical and methodological approach to the systematization of pedagogical knowledge, highlighting various worldviews depending on which phenomenon is given unconditional priority - God, society, nature, man - allows us to identify and describe four main models of pedagogical activity (theocentric, sociocentric, naturecentric and anthropocentric ), which cover numerous pedagogical systems. Each of the models of pedagogical activity has both advantages and disadvantages in relation to others. Debates about which one is better are futile. Each pedagogical system contains hidden, unused reserves. Therefore, it is more productive for teaching practice to develop separate educational technologies based on the advantages of a particular model, searching for ways to combine and interact.

1. Theocentric model of pedagogical activity based on the understanding of man as a product of divine creation, an other being of the absolute spirit. The most prominent representatives of this educational model: Aurelius Augustine, Boethius, Flavius ​​Caosiodorus, W. James, S. N. Bulgakov, S. L. Frank, P. P. Florensky, V. V. Zenkovsky. This model treats education as preparation for afterlife; its goal is to help in serving God, the formation of godly personality traits. It is characterized by: the primacy of the spiritual over the physical, the commandments of humility, patience, obedience, submission to the will of God. The purpose of earthly life and the purpose of education is the salvation of the soul and the attainment of eternal bliss in paradise. The center of this pedagogical system is God as an absolute spiritual essence, the bearer of all perfections and at the same time as a concrete sensory embodiment of the pedagogical ideal.

Foundations of theocentric pedagogical systems- traditionalism and authoritarianism. The following are recognized as effective means of education: confession, repentance, prayer, fasting, etc. The dominance of elders and the unquestioning obedience of younger ones is revered. The most important authority and comprehensive environment

education - the Bible. Those brought up are instilled with contempt for all worldly relations. The personality is decisively destroyed through obedience and renunciation of one's own will. The meaning of education is seen to be to understand the path of salvation and to connect the child’s soul with the church.

Today there is a surge of interest in religion, although the emphasis in the purposes of education, its forms and means is changing. The modern religious worldview absorbs a wide range of philosophical, artistic, and ethical ideas, acting as a complement to what is collectively defined as lack of spirituality. Faith in God removes the feeling of alienation, social homelessness, and outlines the space for finding one’s own Self.

Advantages of theocentric education: spiritual, moral education personality, the presence of externally specified norms of moral regulation. These norms are understandable, tested over the centuries, accessible to everyone at any age and culture, and are included in all major moral and religious systems of the world. Spiritual quests and spiritual improvement also flow from the transcendental mystical nature of these norms.

The weakness of theocentric pedagogical systems lies in the insoluble contradiction between freedom and submission, in the suppression of individuality. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote the judgment of the Christian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev: “The truth imposed on me, in the name of which they demand that I renounce freedom, is not the truth at all... I declare a rebellion against all orthodoxy, no matter Marxist or Orthodox, when she had the audacity to limit or destroy my freedom.”

2. Sociocentric pedagogical systems characterized by the presence of a clearly defined and measurable educational goal, expressed in the form of a single universal model of personality; detailed diagnostics with predetermined criteria pedagogical process; a fairly strict logic for constructing the stages and content of education and personal development. These include the educational systems of Aristotle, T. More, T. Campanella, J. A. Comenius, J. Locke, K. D. Ushinsky, G. Noll, G. Depp-Forwald,

B. F. Skinner, A. S. Makarenko, N. E. Shchurkova, the system of developmental education by V. V. Davydov and L. V. Zankov, the concept of the gradual formation of mental actions by L. Ya. Galperin and N. F. Talyzina, the system of advanced training by S. N. Lysenkova, the system of large-block training using supports by V. F. Shatalov, the concept of the formation of moral consciousness of the individual by L. Kohlberg.

In sociocentric pedagogical systems, a person is considered as a product of the social environment, whose mission is to serve society. The main function of education is to prepare a person for life in society, to perform certain social roles. Educational goals are determined by the needs of society, and a person serves as a means of satisfying them. The pedagogical ideal here is a law-abiding citizen who puts the interests of the state above all else. main feature- a clearly expressed social order for education.

This model of pedagogical activity is characterized by authoritarianism, leveling and passivity of the student’s personality, which is considered as an average object of pedagogical influence. Prevail government forms education, the purpose of which, under totalitarian regimes, is to prepare a “cog man” for the state machine. Developed and applied educational technologies and means of manipulating individual behavior include methods of stimulation, control, reinforcement, correction, suppression and punishment.

The more totalitarian a state is, the closer its educational systems are to a sociocentric model. An example is the education system of Ancient Sparta, Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, North Korea and other militarized states.

Methodological basis Depp-Forwald’s study “The Science of Education and Philosophy of Education”, published in 1941 in Germany, became the external, formal structure of the educational process itself, determined by the purposeful actions of the subject of education to form the object of education. The meaning of education, according to author's position, comes down to an analysis of the possibilities and boundaries of conscious management of human attitudes and behavior for the purpose of political planning and timely adoption of decisions.

sheny. Depp-Forwald undertook a special analysis of political education as a special type of social education, substantiating the doctrine of “political domestication” of youth in the right political direction, which was extremely important for the then Hitler regime.

Makarenko’s pedagogical system quite clearly characterizes the sociocentric model of education. Guided by the general principles of building the Soviet socialist state, Makarenko proceeded from the fact that the new goals of education, which were discussed in detail above, were of decisive importance. In the educational goal, he included all possible characteristics of the individual, ensuring that the qualities inherent in a Soviet citizen living in a socialist society, subject to its laws and concerned with the improvement of this society came to the fore. Makarenko tried to technologize the entire education system, seeing great similarities between the processes of education and material production. Therefore, he considered it necessary to introduce a technical control department, “which could say to various pedagogical defects: You, my dears, are ninety percent defective. What you have turned out to be is not a communist personality, but a downright rubbish, a drunkard, a couch potato and a selfish person. Please pay from your salary."

Advantages of the sociocentric model of pedagogical activity consist, firstly, in predicting the results of activities both in time and in content; secondly, in the technological nature of this model, which allows you to copy and repeat this system with obtaining the same results; thirdly, in the verifiability and controllability of the activities of all subjects of the educational process, in the possibility of correcting these activities.

Limitations and disadvantages of sociocentric pedagogical systems: uniformity of content and methods of education; strict framework within which the activities of teachers and students are carried out; manipulation of the student’s behavior and consciousness, which leads to the leveling of the personality.

Research within the framework of the sociocentric model of pedagogical activity has brought a lot of new insight into

the essence of education and the essence of man as a whole, the ways of his interaction with society and the state, have enriched the arsenal of pedagogy with many unique instrumental methods of organized and controlled influence on the individual. However, the establishment of a unified sociocentric pedagogical system at the state level is fraught with many negative consequences. The application of the achievements of the sociocentric model in certain areas and time periods of the educational process not only does not cause harm, but also makes this process more effective. Such areas of application may be the army, correctional institutions, children's and youth public associations, sports, tutoring, training in vocational skills and many other areas of life. It is only necessary to take into account the limitations imposed by the sociocentric education system on the process of personal development.

3. Nature-centric pedagogical model(Plato, Democritus, Thomas Aquinas, A. Diesterweg, K. P. Yanovsky, A. P. Nechaev, G. I. Rossolimo, A. F. Lazursky, N. E. Rumyantsev, V. P. Kashchenko, P. P. Blonsky, A. Jensen, G. Eysenck, G. Gardner, representatives of various theories of differentiated learning) is based on fundamental idea that children are born with a certain set of abilities and qualities that either allow them to develop rapidly or normally (in accordance with certain standards), or complicate and inhibit the development process. Education is interpreted as following human nature. The need for a set of means of education and training in accordance with the individual and age characteristics of children is especially emphasized. The main goal of education is to develop natural inclinations, compensate for natural deficiencies and thus provide everyone with an appropriate social status.

Supporters of nature-centric pedagogical systems are not searching for a universal educational model suitable for everyone, but for ways in which it is possible either to most effectively “bring” children with certain abilities to a certain standard, or to “bring” each child to the maximum level of his development. In order for the educational process to proceed most optimally and

painless for all students, it is proposed to differentiate it taking into account the typological characteristics of students.

Representatives of the nature-centric model of education made a great contribution both to the general understanding of human nature and the patterns of development of his psyche, and to the development of fundamentally new ideas and methods of teaching and education. The rational grain of this model is that it, being based on the principle of natural conformity of education , is associated with close attention to the biological substructure of a person, its influence on the process of personal development, learning ability, cultural development. At the same time, from the moment of their inception, nature-centric ideas developed in two fundamentally different directions.

First direction was intended to justify the idea of ​​stratification of education and society, going in its extreme directions to justify segregation, racism and fascism.

Thus, the French sociologist C. Letourneau argued in his works that morality and moral relations between people have not a social, but a biological basis. The founder of the anthropological trend in criminology and criminal law, C. Lombroso (1835-1909), laid a biological basis for the deviant behavior of criminals. The author of the genetic theory of intelligence, F. Galton, published his book “Hereditary Genius” in 1896, where he attempted to explain why outstanding people are most often born into privileged families. Galton was at the origins of the science of eugenics, designed to “prevent the reproduction of the unfit” and “improve the race.”

The first eugenic law was passed in 1907 in Indiana, and by 1935 eugenic laws had been passed in Denmark, the USA, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Iceland. However, in the 1930s. Criticism of eugenic ideas began to intensify. The Nazis, who came to power in Germany, began to carry out their own eugenics program, which included the destruction and sterilization of people on an unprecedented scale. The barbarity of Nazi policy was caused by

There was a powerful anti-eugenic reaction from the world community. IN post-war years The term "eugenics" began to be viewed with distinct suspicion by scientists, educators, and the general public. A new generation of human geneticists is taking a more pluralistic view of traditional eugenics - they are not rejecting it out of hand general principles, but insist on the need to understand the polygenic mechanism of inheritance of most human traits, which prevents their manipulation by traditional or new methods.

Eugenic ideas gave rise to another area of ​​research - psychometry, testology. Tests as a means of selection began to be used since 1905 in education and other areas. Their application was based on the thesis that a person performing labor functions that correspond to his mental abilities works more efficiently and feels socially comfortable. The main question in psychometrics is what determines the level of intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual: heredity or education.

The dispute on this issue remains unresolved to this day. And the intensity of passions around it is largely explained by the political and social context of the discussion. The most acceptable judgment seems to be A. Anastasi: “The intelligence of an individual at any given time is the end product of a large and complex series of interactions of hereditary and environmental factors. At any stage of this causal chain there is the possibility of interaction with new factors, and since each interaction itself determines the direction of subsequent interactions, it means that there is an ever-expanding network possible outcomes. The connection between the genes under study and any of the behavioral characteristics of an individual is very indirect and extremely confusing.”

Second direction the development of nature-centric ideas, which was practically hushed up in Soviet pedagogy, is associated with the development of educational concepts and technologies that allow not only to overcome socially determined differences in children, but also to help those who experience difficulties for reasons to develop and learn most productively

individual psychological differences. A consequence of the fact that different people not only different speed thought processes, but also different ways perception, processing, storage and use of information, is the conclusion that it is impossible to use a single educational strategy in relation to different students.

The fundamental idea of ​​education, according to representatives of the nature-centric model of pedagogical activity, is the idea of ​​differentiation, i.e. the identification of certain typological groups of students and the development in relation to these groups of specific methods, methods and techniques of education, the construction of a certain logic of study educational material, the use of specific methods of control and evaluation. Using various systems of level, profile, external and internal differentiation, teachers ultimately come to the construction of an individual development trajectory of the emerging personality. However, this individual trajectory is set from the outside through external design of personality development based on compliance or non-compliance with certain norms and standards in various phases of development.

Thus, positive in nature-centric pedagogical systems is that the student’s individuality with its characteristics and differences comes to the fore. A good goal is clearly visible - to help everyone develop to the best of their abilities. Her flaws: firstly, any goal in its extreme manifestations can result in its opposite (the dangers of segregation, selection, racism were mentioned above); secondly, operating with categories such as “age norms and development standards”, which hide traditional ideas or misconceptions of adults about the capabilities of students, does not seem convincing enough from the standpoint of scientific validity. Differentiation and individualization of education is, on the one hand, the path of improvement, the search for new forms, means of methods, technologies of teaching and upbringing. However, on the other hand, it is obvious that by constantly deepening differentiation, it is possible to reach cumbersome structures, practical use which will be so difficult that it can lead to the opposite effect - a decrease in the effectiveness of education.

The variety of educational goals leads to the fact that pedagogical activity becomes more complex, differentiated, multi-level and multi-disciplinary. And since education is called upon to act as an additional lever that strengthens the movement of society along the path of productive development, there is a need to give current educational structures greater flexibility and responsiveness to the pedagogical knowledge accumulated in the world. The thesis about the universal value of a single paradigm is being replaced by the thesis about the multiplicity of educational paradigms, which are not equivalent or equivalent to each other, but have the right to exist in the common educational space.

Any pedagogical system as a model of pedagogical activity tries to answer four cornerstone questions: for what purpose, what, how and whom to teach? Pedagogical system is a set of interrelated means, methods and processes necessary to create organized and targeted pedagogical assistance in the formation and development of the student’s personality. The pedagogical system consists of the following elements: goals(general and private); content of training and education; didactic processes(actually education and training); students; teachers and (or) technical teaching aids (TSO); organizational forms.

The goals, objectives, content and methods of education always depend on ideas about the ideal personality or the normative canon of an adult. It is the normative canon of an adult that directly determines what people (society) achieve from the younger generation and how they do it. The image of a child and the type of attitude towards him are different in different societies. This depends both on the level of socio-economic development and on the cultural characteristics of the people. Like the normative canon of an adult, the image of a child always has at least two dimensions: what he is by nature and what he should become as a result of education.

In European culture there are four images of a child For more information, see: Kon I. S. Child and society. M., 1988..

1. Traditional Christian view claims that the child bears the mark of original sin and can only be saved by merciless suppression of the will, submission to his parents and spiritual mentors.

2. According to positions of socio-pedagogical determinism a child by nature is not inclined towards good or evil, but is a blank slate on which society or teachers can write whatever they want.

According to the point of view natural determinism The character and capabilities of a child are predetermined before birth.

Utopian-humanistic view suggests that a child is born good and kind and deteriorates only under the influence of society. Some Renaissance humanists interpreted the old Christian dogma of childhood innocence in this spirit.

Each of these images corresponds to a specific style of education and training. The idea of ​​original sin corresponds to repressive pedagogy aimed at suppressing the natural principle in the child; the idea of ​​socialization - pedagogy of personality formation through directed learning; the idea of ​​natural determinism - the principle of developing natural inclinations and limiting negative manifestations; the idea of ​​the initial goodness of the child - pedagogy of self-development. These images and styles not only replace each other, but also coexist, and none of these value orientations ever reigns supreme, especially when it comes to the practice of education. In every society, at every stage of its development, different styles of education and training coexist, in which numerous class, class, national, family and other options can be traced.

The American scientist L. Demoz subdivides the whole history of childhood for six periods, each of which corresponds to a specific parenting style and form of relationship between parents and children.

1. Infatidal style(from antiquity to the 4th century AD). Characterized by mass infanticide. Those children who survived often became victims of violence. The symbol of this style is the image of Medea (according to ancient Greek mythology, Medea, the daughter of the king of Colchis, helped the Argonaut Jason take possession of the Golden Fleece. Medea took revenge on Jason for treason by killing the children he had with him).

Researchers associate the prevalence of infanticide in primitive society primarily with a low level of material production. Peoples at the lowest level of historical development, living by gathering, are physically unable to feed large offspring. The killing of newborn babies was as natural a norm here as the killing of old people. The transition to a producing economy changes things significantly. Infanticide ceases to be a cruel economic necessity and is practiced mainly on qualitative rather than quantitative grounds. They killed mainly children who were considered physically inferior, or for ritual reasons. Infanticide of girls was especially common.

Throwing style (IV--XIII centuries). As soon as the culture recognizes that a child has a soul, infanticide decreases, but the child remains an object of projections and reactive formations for the parents. The main means of getting rid of them is abandoning the child, trying to sell him off. The baby is sold to a nurse, or sent to a monastery or to be raised by someone else's family, or kept abandoned in his own home.

Ambivalent (dual) style(XIV-XVII centuries). It is characterized by the fact that the child is already allowed to enter the emotional life of his parents and begins to be surrounded by attention, but he is still denied an independent spiritual existence. The main means of pedagogical influence of this era was the “modeling” of character, as if the child were made of soft clay. If he resisted, they beat him mercilessly, “knocking out” his self-will as an evil principle.

Intrusive style(XVIII century). The child is no longer considered a dangerous creature or simply an object of physical care; the parents become much closer to him. However, this is accompanied by an obsessive desire to completely control not only behavior, but also the inner world, thoughts and will of the child, which increases conflicts between fathers and children.

Socializing style(XIX - mid-XX century). The goal of education is not so much the conquest and subjugation of the child, but rather the training of his will, preparation for a future independent life. The child acts as an object rather than a subject of socialization.

Helping style(from the middle of the 20th century). Assumes that the child knows better than the parents what he needs at each stage of life. Therefore, parents and educators strive not so much to discipline or shape his personality, but to help individual development. Hence the desire for emotional closeness with children, empathy, and understanding.

A philosophical and methodological approach to the systematization of pedagogical knowledge, highlighting various worldviews depending on which phenomenon is given unconditional priority - God, society, nature, man - allows us to identify and describe four main models of pedagogical activity (theocentric, sociocentric, naturecentric and anthropocentric), which cover numerous pedagogical systems See: Fomicheva I. G. Models of pedagogical activity: experience of systematization. Tyumen, 1997. Each of the models of pedagogical activity has both advantages and disadvantages in relation to others. Debates about which one is better are futile. Each pedagogical system contains hidden, unused reserves. Therefore, it is more productive for pedagogical practice to develop individual educational technologies based on the advantages of one or another model, and to find ways to combine and interact with them.

1. The theocentric model of pedagogical activity is based on the understanding of man as a product of divine creation, an other being of the absolute spirit. The most prominent representatives of this educational model: Aurelius Augustine, Boethius, Flavius ​​Caosiodorus, W. James, S. N. Bulgakov, S. L. Frank, P. P. Florensky, V. V. Zenkovsky. This model treats education as preparation for the afterlife; its goal is assistance in serving God, the formation of godly personality traits. It is characterized by: the primacy of the spiritual over the physical, the commandments of humility, patience, obedience, submission to the will of God. The purpose of earthly life and the purpose of education is the salvation of the soul and the attainment of eternal bliss in paradise. The center of this pedagogical system is God as an absolute spiritual essence, the bearer of all perfections and at the same time as a concrete sensory embodiment of the pedagogical ideal.

The foundations of theocentric pedagogical systems are traditionalism and authoritarianism. The following are recognized as effective means of education: confession, repentance, prayer, fasting, etc. The dominance of elders and the unquestioning obedience of younger ones is revered. The most important authority and comprehensive means of education is the Bible. Those brought up are instilled with contempt for all worldly relations. The personality is decisively destroyed through obedience and renunciation of one's own will. The meaning of education is seen to be to understand the path of salvation and to connect the child’s soul with the church.

Today there is a surge of interest in religion, although the emphasis in the purposes of education, its forms and means is changing. The modern religious worldview absorbs a wide range of philosophical, artistic, and ethical ideas, acting as a complement to what is collectively defined as lack of spirituality. Faith in God removes the feeling of alienation, social homelessness, and outlines the space for finding one’s own Self.

Advantages of theocentric education: spiritual, moral education of the individual, the presence of externally specified norms of moral regulation. These norms are understandable, tested over the centuries, accessible to everyone at any age and culture, and are included in all major moral and religious systems of the world. Spiritual quests and spiritual improvement also flow from the transcendental mystical nature of these norms.

The weakness of theocentric pedagogical systems lies in the insoluble contradiction between freedom and submission, in the suppression of individuality. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote the judgment of the Christian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev: “The truth imposed on me, in the name of which they demand that I renounce freedom, is not the truth at all... I declare a rebellion against all orthodoxy, no matter Marxist or Orthodox, when she had the audacity to restrict or destroy my freedom" Berdyaev N. A. Self-knowledge. M., 1990. P. 438..

2. Sociocentric pedagogical systems are characterized by the presence of a clearly defined and measurable educational goal, expressed in the form of a single universal model of personality; detailed diagnostics with predetermined criteria for the pedagogical process; a fairly strict logic for constructing the stages and content of education and personal development. These include the educational systems of Aristotle, T. More, T. Campanella, J. A. Comenius, J. Locke, K. D. Ushinsky, G. Noll, G. Depp-Forwald,

B. F. Skinner, A. S. Makarenko, N. E. Shchurkova, the system of developmental education by V. V. Davydov and L. V. Zankov, the concept of the gradual formation of mental actions by L. Ya. Galperin and N. F. Talyzina, the system of advanced training by S. N. Lysenkova, the system of large-block training using supports by V. F. Shatalov, the concept of the formation of moral consciousness of the individual by L. Kohlberg.

In sociocentric pedagogical systems, a person is considered as a product of the social environment, whose mission is to serve society. The main function of education is to prepare a person for life in society and to fulfill certain social roles. Educational goals are determined by the needs of society, and a person serves as a means of satisfying them. The pedagogical ideal here is a law-abiding citizen who puts the interests of the state above all else. The main feature is a clearly expressed social order for education.

This model of pedagogical activity is characterized by authoritarianism, leveling and passivity of the student’s personality, which is considered as an average object of pedagogical influence. State forms of education predominate, the purpose of which, under totalitarian regimes, is to prepare a “cog man” for the state machine. Developed and applied pedagogical technologies and means of manipulating personal behavior include methods of stimulation, control, reinforcement, correction, suppression and punishment.

The more totalitarian a state is, the closer its educational systems are to a sociocentric model. Examples include the education systems of Ancient Sparta, the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, North Korea and other militarized states.

The methodological basis of Depp-Forwald’s study “The Science of Education and Philosophy of Education”, published in 1941 in Germany, was the external, formal structure of the educational process itself, determined by the purposeful actions of the subject of education to form the object of education. The meaning of education, according to the author's position, comes down to the analysis of the possibilities and boundaries of conscious control of human attitudes and behavior for the purpose of political planning and timely decision-making. Depp-Forwald undertook a special analysis of political education as a special type of social education, substantiating the doctrine of “political domestication” of youth in the right political direction, which was extremely important for the then Hitler regime.

Makarenko’s pedagogical system quite clearly characterizes the sociocentric model of education. Guided by the general principles of building the Soviet socialist state, Makarenko proceeded from the fact that the new goals of education, which were discussed in detail above, were of decisive importance. In the educational goal, he included all possible characteristics of the individual, ensuring that the qualities inherent in a Soviet citizen living in a socialist society, subject to its laws and concerned with the improvement of this society came to the fore. Makarenko tried to technologize the entire education system, seeing great similarities between the processes of education and material production. Therefore, he considered it necessary to introduce a technical control department, “which could say to various pedagogical defects: You, my dears, are ninety percent defective. What you have turned out to be is not a communist personality, but a downright rubbish, a drunkard, a couch potato and a selfish person. Please pay from your salary." Makarenko A. S. Pedagogical works: In 8 vols. M., 1983-- 1986. T. 3. P. 397..

Advantages of the sociocentric model of pedagogical activity consist, firstly, in predicting the results of activities both in time and in content; secondly, in the technological nature of this model, which allows you to copy and repeat this system with obtaining the same results; thirdly, in the verifiability and controllability of the activities of all subjects of the educational process, in the possibility of correcting these activities.

Limitations and disadvantages of sociocentric pedagogical systems: uniformity of content and methods of education; strict framework within which the activities of teachers and students are carried out; manipulation of the student’s behavior and consciousness, which leads to the leveling of the personality.

Research within the framework of the sociocentric model of pedagogical activity has brought a lot of new things into the understanding of the essence of education and the essence of man as a whole, the ways of his interaction with society and the state, and has enriched the arsenal of pedagogy with many unique instrumental methods of organized and controlled influence on the individual. However, the establishment of a unified sociocentric pedagogical system at the state level is fraught with many negative consequences. The application of the achievements of the sociocentric model in certain areas and time periods of the educational process not only does not cause harm, but also makes this process more effective. Such areas of application can be the army, correctional institutions, children's and youth public associations, sports, tutoring, training in vocational skills and many other areas of life. It is only necessary to take into account the limitations imposed by the sociocentric education system on the process of personal development.

3. Nature-centric pedagogical model(Plato, Democritus, Thomas Aquinas, A. Diesterweg, K. P. Yanovsky, A. P. Nechaev, G. I. Rossolimo, A. F. Lazursky, N. E. Rumyantsev, V. P. Kashchenko, P. P. Blonsky, A. Jensen, G. Eysenck, G. Gardner, representatives of various theories of differentiated learning) is based on the fundamental idea that children are born with a certain set of abilities and qualities that either allow them to accelerate or normally (in accordance with certain standards) to develop, or complicate or slow down the development process. Education is interpreted as following human nature. The need for a set of means of education and training in accordance with the individual and age characteristics of children is especially emphasized. The main goal of education is to develop natural abilities, compensate for natural deficiencies and thus provide everyone with an appropriate social status.

Supporters of nature-centric pedagogical systems are not searching for a universal educational model suitable for everyone, but for ways in which it is possible either to most effectively “bring” children with certain abilities to a certain standard, or to “bring” each child to the maximum level of his development. In order for the educational process to proceed most optimally and painlessly for all students, it is proposed to differentiate it taking into account the typological characteristics of students.

Representatives of the nature-centric model of education made a great contribution both to the general understanding of human nature and the patterns of development of his psyche, and to the development of fundamentally new ideas and methods of teaching and education. The rational grain of this model is that it, being based on the principle of natural conformity of education , is associated with close attention to the biological substructure of a person, its influence on the process of personal formation, learning ability, and cultural development. At the same time, from the moment of their inception, nature-centric ideas developed in two fundamentally different directions.

First direction was intended to justify the idea of ​​stratification of education and society, going in its extreme directions to justify segregation, racism and fascism.

Thus, the French sociologist C. Letourneau argued in his works that morality and moral relations between people have not a social, but a biological basis. The founder of the anthropological trend in criminology and criminal law, C. Lombroso (1835-1909), laid a biological basis for the deviant behavior of criminals. The author of the genetic theory of intelligence, F. Galton, published his book “Hereditary Genius” in 1896, where he attempted to explain why outstanding people are most often born into privileged families. Galton stood at the origins of the science of eugenics Eugenics (from the Greek - noble origin) - the doctrine of the laws of inheritance of human health and talent, designed to “prevent the reproduction of the unadapted” and “improve the race.”

The first eugenic law was passed in 1907 in Indiana, and by 1935 eugenic laws had been passed in Denmark, the USA, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Iceland. However, in the 1930s. Criticism of eugenic ideas began to intensify. The Nazis, who came to power in Germany, began to carry out their own eugenics program, which included the destruction and sterilization of people on an unprecedented scale. The barbarity of Nazi policies caused a powerful anti-eugenic reaction from the world community. In the post-war years, the term "eugenics" began to be viewed with obvious suspicion by scientists, educators and the general public. The new generation of human geneticists takes a more pluralistic view of traditional eugenics - they do not reject its general principles out of hand, but insist on the need to understand the polygenic mechanism of inheritance of most human traits, preventing their manipulation by traditional or modern methods.

Eugenic ideas gave rise to another area of ​​research - psychometry, testology. Tests as a means of selection began to be used since 1905 in education and other areas. Their application was based on the thesis that a person performing labor functions that correspond to his mental abilities works more efficiently and feels socially comfortable. The main question in psychometrics is what determines the level of intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual: heredity or education.

The dispute on this issue remains unresolved to this day. And the intensity of passions around it is largely explained by the political and social context of the discussion. The most acceptable judgment seems to be A. Anastasi: “The intelligence of an individual at any given time is the end product of a large and complex series of interactions of hereditary and environmental factors. At any stage of this causal chain there is the possibility of interaction with new factors, and since each interaction itself determines the direction of subsequent interactions, there is an ever-expanding network of possible outcomes. The connection between the genes under study and any of the behavioral characteristics of an individual is very indirect and extremely confusing.” Anastasi A. Psychological testing: In 2 vols. M., 1982. T. 1. P. 313..

Second direction The development of nature-centric ideas, which was practically hushed up in Soviet pedagogy, is associated with the development of educational concepts and technologies that allow not only to overcome socially determined differences in children, but also to help those who experience difficulties due to individual psychological differences to develop and learn most productively. A consequence of the fact that different people not only have different speeds of thought processes, but also different ways of perceiving, processing, storing and using information, leads to the conclusion that it is impossible to use a single educational strategy in relation to different students.

The fundamental idea of ​​education, according to representatives of the nature-centric model of pedagogical activity, is the idea of ​​differentiation, i.e. the identification of certain typological groups of students and the development in relation to these groups of specific methods, methods and techniques of education, the construction of a certain logic for studying educational material, the use of specific control methods and assessment. Using various systems of level, profile, external and internal differentiation, teachers ultimately come to the construction of an individual development trajectory of the emerging personality. However, this individual trajectory is set from the outside through external design of personality development based on compliance or non-compliance with certain norms and standards in various phases of development.

Thus, positive in nature-centric pedagogical systems is that the student’s individuality with its characteristics and differences comes to the fore. A good goal is clearly visible - to help everyone develop to the best of their abilities. Her flaws: firstly, any goal in its extreme manifestations can result in its opposite (the dangers of segregation, selection, racism were mentioned above); secondly, operating with categories such as “age norms and development standards”, which hide traditional ideas or misconceptions of adults about the capabilities of students, does not seem convincing enough from the standpoint of scientific validity. Differentiation and individualization of education is, on the one hand, a way of improvement, the search for new forms, means, methods, technologies of teaching and upbringing. However, on the other hand, it is obvious that by constantly deepening differentiation, one can arrive at cumbersome structures, the practical application of which will be so difficult that it can lead to the opposite effect - a decrease in the effectiveness of education.

4. Anthropocentric model of pedagogical activity

(Socrates, F. Rabelais, J. J. Rousseau, L. N. Tolstoy, V. P. Vakhterov, S. I. Gessen, A. Maslow, J. Allport, C. Rogers, E. Fromm, K. Horney , V. Frankl, L. S. Vygotsky, B. P. and L. A. Nikitin, I. P. Ivanov, V. A. Sukhomlinsky, Sh. A. Amonashvili, V. A. Petrovsky, representatives of cooperation pedagogy and concept of personality-oriented learning) is based on the thesis about the uniqueness and originality of each person, about his potential talent, which must be demonstrated and developed through education. The purpose of the entire educational process is to teach a person to create himself as an individual. It is the development of individuality as a process of self-creation, based on the internal activity of the individual, that is the main goal of all anthropocentric pedagogical systems. The task of adults is to provide students with the freedom to seek the truth in their own way in accordance with their preferences, to provide them with the maximum possible subject areas of activity for their development, to choose methods and technologies, the use of which will allow everyone to master the area of ​​interest most creatively.

The anthropological educational model is characterized by the following principles: individualization; free, natural development of every person potentially possessing any talent; development of everyone's creativity. These principles conflict with traditional educational program, and therefore they are very difficult to implement in the process of mass education. Basic anthropocentric ideas: development, selfhood, spontaneity, independence, freedom, security. The process of personality development is designated in terms of self-actualization, self-development, self-embodiment, self-expression, self-affirmation. The role of a teacher, an adult, differs sharply from that prescribed by the traditional educational paradigm. From a transmitter of knowledge who firmly knows how and in what direction it is best to develop a student, an adult turns into a partner who collaborates with the student on equal terms, together with him searching for the truth, obtaining knowledge, and getting to know himself.

The main methods of education in anthropocentric pedagogical systems are dialogue, play, free creative communication, carried out in a group of students together with the teacher. The problem of the content of education that arises in this regard is transformed into a more global problem, namely: can the educational process of individual development be designed in advance? If the answer to this question is positive, then we find ourselves within the framework of sociocentric or naturecentric educational models. The anthropocentric educational model is distinguished precisely by creative process, realization of creative qualities of both students and teachers. And then the question arises as to whether, in this case, the educational process is predictable and appropriate.

Since the main goal of education, according to anthropocentrism, is self-expression, self-disclosure of the unique self of each person, it is impossible to repeat or copy this educational process. And since the basis of anthropocentric pedagogical systems is creativity, which always comes into a certain conflict with tradition, we cannot plan and predict it in advance. This leads to the conclusion that it is also impossible to design an anthropocentric educational model. How then can we build the educational process without guidelines, plans, or curricula?

Representatives of anthropocentric educational systems They design not the logic of studying the content, not the sequence of stages of individual development, since they do not recognize any norms and average statistical standards, but the conditions for the student’s development and requirements for the teacher. This creates the most natural environment for personal development with a large arsenal of pedagogical tools used by the teacher to stimulate the development of the student’s creative qualities. This allows us to make the educational process as painless and effective as possible for the development of each growing person. As criteria for the success of the educational process, supporters of anthropocentric systems propose to “measure” the development of the emotional and motivational sphere of the individual and the characteristics of creative activity.

The closest to the anthropocentric educational model is concept of personality-oriented training and education, which has become widespread in Lately in our country. Its main goal is to promote the formation and development of the student’s personality. When communicating with students, the teacher adheres to the principle: “Not next to and not above, but together.” The main line of his professional behavior: not to pull the student up to some pre-known standards, but to coordinate his expectations and requirements with the task of maximizing the full development of the personal growth potential of students discovered during pedagogical communication. Ways of communication: understanding, recognition, acceptance of another. By building relationships of psychological equality with the student, the teacher promotes the development of valuable forms of activity, thereby implementing the principles of personality-oriented learning.

One of the most productive ideas in this concept is the idea of ​​changing the so-called pedagogical position. In the traditional education system, the position of any teacher is reduced to the implementation of the function prescribed to him by society to teach and educate. This concept proposes a different position: joint activity and communication, leading to developmental interactions in the “teacher-student” system. Not only the student, but also the teacher cannot be considered as an object of programming by society. Everyone retains the opportunity for self-determination, the right to their own actions, which do not always coincide with traditional ideas about the activities of the teacher and students. After all, creative thinking is actually, in the words of L. Briskman, “thinking about forbidden thoughts.”

In conclusion, we note that the answers of representatives of anthropocentrism to the fundamental pedagogical questions “who, why, what and how to teach?” different from traditional ones. Everyone needs to be taught and educated, but not equally (as in the sociocentric model) and not differentiated (as in the naturecentric model), but together and differently, since the main thesis of anthropocentrism is that all people are different, but all are potentially endowed with individual talent. To identify and develop the talent of every growing person is the goal of the anthropocentric educational model. However, the realization of this goal should not go along the path of individual education, but along the path joint activities teaching and learning, along the way of creating a wealth of relationships, sharing the experience that each person has. It is necessary to expand as much as possible the possibilities and boundaries of the student’s contacts with different people, cultures, object worlds, various manifestations of spirituality. The wider these boundaries are, the more likely the goal of education will be realized.

The answer to the fundamental pedagogical question of who teaches is also very important, since the value orientations and, in general, the worldview of an anthropocentric teacher differ sharply from the position of a traditionalist teacher. This is where the particular difficulty lies in implementing the anthropocentric educational model in broad pedagogical practice, since this model assumes that teachers should be the most creative, progressive and humane people in society. And this is hardly possible now. The limitations of this model are also associated with its unsuitability for teaching the basic skills of a literate person, with the unpredictability and unpredictability of the educational process.

The characteristic features of each of the models of pedagogical activity are summarized in Table. 2.

Historical and theoretical analysis of educational models not only allows us to track their replacement and predict strategic changes in the field of education for the near future, but also makes it possible to more productively use pedagogical technologies developed within the framework of various models, as well as contribute to the creation of new educational technologies. To replace the methodology of domination in certain historical periods A separate educational model (paradigm) comes with a polyparadigm methodology, reflecting the multiplicity of actually existing pedagogical systems and concepts. Awareness by participants of the educational process of a polyparadigmatic nature modern education with the inherent features, opportunities and limitations of individual educational models will make it possible to more effectively predict, design and implement innovations, combining them with traditions in educational practices from the standpoint of harmonization of goals, informed choice and integrative combination of various educational strategies at any level - from state-regional to individual-personality-

The onset of a new cultural era, called post-industrial or informational, strengthens the role of education as a controlled process of socialization of the individual. Pedagogical science is at the very forefront of the contradiction between the individual and society, which has become especially acute at the present time. In these conditions, it faces the urgent task of creating a new value-based education system, spiritually and culturally rich, combining modern socially significant values ​​with traditionally effective models of pedagogical activity.

Table 2 - Comparative characteristics models of pedagogical activity

ABSTRACT ON THE TOPIC:
Basic models of pedagogical activity (pedagogical systems).

Completed by 1st year student: Gilmanova A.F.

Area of ​​training: civil, family,

private international law

Checked: ________________

Introduction.
The essence and structure of pedagogical activity, as well as the productivity associated with them, is one of the most pressing issues pedagogical science and practice. Usually, scientific analysis of these important phenomena is replaced by general discussions about the art of teaching.
Of course, the scientific analysis of pedagogical activity pays tribute to the uniqueness of the creative method of each teacher, but it itself is built not on descriptions, but on the principles of comparative research and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Particularly promising is considered to be the direction associated with the application of the principles systematic approach to the analysis and construction of models of pedagogical activity.
As artificial, specially organized due to the objective laws of the development of society, pedagogical the system is under constant “control” of society, i.e. the social system of which it is a part. Changes in the pedagogical system, its restructuring and adaptation depend on which or which elements in this moment The impact of society is aimed at strengthening the material base, improving the content of education, caring for the financial situation of the teacher, etc. The reasons for many unsuccessful attempts to improve pedagogical systems lie in a non-systemic, local approach to transforming its elements. Society, forming a social order, builds an education system corresponding to it as the most general pedagogical system. It, in turn, has its subsystems all the social institutions that perform educational functions and are united into the education system. For the effective functioning of pedagogical systems aimed at educating the younger generation, society creates a system for training educators, secondary specialized and higher pedagogical educational establishments as pedagogical systems. By caring about the level of professional qualifications, society creates different levels

pedagogical systems of professional training and advanced training. Thus, we see an inextricable connection between the pedagogical systems of our time and society, which determines the relevance of the further development of models of pedagogical activity in modern system

education.
2. The concept of pedagogical activity. Pedagogical activity is an independent type human activity
, in which the transfer of social experience, material and spiritual culture is realized from generation to generation.
Let us now turn to the very interpretation of the concept of “pedagogical activity”. Analysis of the content of any type of activity indicates the presence of its psychological foundation, since the main characteristics of activity are considered to be objectivity - what it directly deals with (some material or ideal object), and subjectivity, since it is performed by a specific person. (A.N. Leontyev, S.L. Rubinstein, etc.)
The concept of activity is one of the key ones in modern psychology and pedagogy. Psychology studies the subjective aspect of activity.
It is obvious that teaching activity is one of the types of activity.
Pedagogical activities are divided into professional and non-professional (N.V. Kuzmina, E.M. Ivanova, etc.). An example of non-professional pedagogical activity can be the activity of raising children in a family or the activity carried out by enterprise managers. Non-professional teaching activity is considered to be teaching a craft. Thus, non-professional teaching activity is that which most people engage in in their Everyday life, not necessarily having special pedagogical education and teaching qualifications. Professional pedagogical activity is carried out in public or private teaching and educational institutions and requires the professional competence of the persons carrying it out and a certain level of their special education.
Let us consider several approaches to the interpretation of the concept of pedagogical activity.
A.I. Shcherbakov characterizes the work of a teacher as “an art that requires from him deep knowledge, high culture, pedagogical abilities and, above all, an understanding of the psychological structure and content of pedagogical activity, its main functions, the implementation of which ensures the effect of education and upbringing of students.” A.I. Shcherbakov identifies 8 functions of pedagogical activity, arranging them in order of importance as follows: information, mobilization, development, orientation, constructive, communicative, organizational, research. Moreover, the last four, according to the author, “are not specifically pedagogical, since they take place in all types of modern skilled labor.”
V.A. Slastenin believes that “the activity of a teacher-educator, by its very nature, is nothing more than the process of solving an innumerable set of typical and original pedagogical tasks of various classes and levels. However, with all the richness and diversity, pedagogical tasks are tasks of social management.” According to V.A. Slastenin, “readiness to solve pedagogical problems at a high level of skill is determined by a number of professional pedagogical skills.” He considers the system of relevant skills as the basis for the formation of professional skills of a teacher-educator.
Yu.N. Kulyutkin classifies the teaching profession as a group of professions of the “person-to-person” type, which are characterized by interpersonal interaction. An integral characteristic of the latter are reflexive processes. At the same time, “the teacher strives to form in the student those “internal foundations” (knowledge, beliefs, methods, actions) that would allow the student to independently manage his future activities in the future. Meanwhile, it is important to set... a larger goal - development of the student’s personality, taking into account the areas of his personality and different types effects of its promotion." Pedagogical activity appears in this theory as the teacher’s reflexive management of the student’s activities with the aim of developing the latter’s personality.
In the described characteristics, two approaches to defining the concept of pedagogical activity can be distinguished.
The first is characterized by the recognition of the leading role of the teacher, who is the implementer of a specific educational, general education program, who fulfills his functional responsibilities and must meet the requirements of the profession. With this approach, the student is an object of the teacher’s proactive influence and influence.
In the second approach, the teacher is an intermediary between students and the outside world; he is an equal partner in dialogue interaction with the student.
The basis of this classification is the type of communication - monologue or dialogue. It should be noted that in all characteristics of monologue-type pedagogical activity, the form of orientation towards the type of communication is hidden: in words, the student is declared an active subject of the activity, but the forms of interaction that are offered are in fact a one-sided influence of the teacher. This approach clearly places an “emphasis” on the teaching process. In the second type, the PD is filled with genuine human meaning, expressed in collaboration and co-creation.

3. Basic models of pedagogical activity.
A system is a collection of many interconnected elements that form a certain integrity. It necessarily involves the interaction of elements.
However, from the point of view of P.K. Anokhin, interaction as such cannot form a system of many elements. Developing the theory of functional systems, P.K. Anokhin emphasizes that only such a complex of selective involvement of components can be called a system, where interaction and relationship acquire the character of interaction of components aimed at obtaining a focused useful result.
The central scientific task of pedagogy and educational psychology as a science is to describe exactly how the components of the system depend on each other.
There are numerous applications in pedagogy general theory systems for the analysis of pedagogical activity. Thus, N.V. Kuzmina, introducing the concept of a pedagogical system, highlights not only its structural components, but also the functional components of pedagogical activity. Within this model, there are five structural components:
1) subject of pedagogical influence;
2) object of pedagogical influence;
3) the subject of their joint activity;
4) learning objectives
5) means of pedagogical communication.
In fact, these components make up the system. If we try to remove one of them, the pedagogical system itself will immediately fall apart and be liquidated. On the other hand, not a single component can be replaced by another or by a combination of other components. Isolating a structural component does not mean completely describing the system. In order to define a system, it is necessary not only to identify its elements, but also to determine the set of connections between them. In this case, all structural components of the pedagogical system are in both direct and inverse relationship. The central scientific task of pedagogy and educational psychology as a science is to describe exactly how the components of the system depend on each other.
Developing the problem of pedagogical activity, N.V. Kuzmina determined the structure of the teacher’s activity. In this model, five functional components were identified:
1. The Gnostic component (from the Greek gnosis-cognition) refers to the sphere of knowledge of the teacher. We are talking not only about knowledge of one’s subject, but also about knowledge of methods of pedagogical communication, psychological characteristics of students, as well as self-knowledge (one’s own personality and activities).
2. The design component includes ideas about the long-term objectives of training and education, as well as strategies and methods for achieving them.
3. The constructive component is the features of the teacher’s design of his own activity and the activity of students, taking into account the immediate goals of teaching and education (lesson, lesson, cycle of classes).
4. The communicative component is the features of the teacher’s communicative activities, the specifics of his interaction with students. The emphasis is on the connection between communication and the effectiveness of teaching activities aimed at achieving didactic (educational and educational) goals.
5. The organizational component is a system of teacher skills to organize their own activities, as well as the activities of students.
It must be emphasized that all components of this model are often described through a system of corresponding teacher skills. The presented components are not only interconnected, but also overlap to a large extent. So, for example, when thinking about the structure and course of a lesson, the teacher must also keep in mind from which lesson his students will come to this lesson (for example, after physical education, it is usually difficult for schoolchildren to calm down and concentrate). It is necessary to take into account the character and personal problems of each of them (after all, you should not call a child upset at home troubles to the blackboard, and a fable read halfway with laughter by the funniest person in the class can disrupt the lesson). This is how the gnostic and organizational components are connected. According to V.I. Ginetsinsky, who also proposes a model of a systemic nature, four functions can be distinguished in pedagogical activity:
1. The presentation function consists of presenting the content of the material to the student. The identification of this function is based on abstraction from specific forms of learning. It is focused on the very fact of presenting educational material.
2. The incentive function is to arouse students’ interest in learning information. Its implementation is associated with asking questions and evaluating answers.
3. The corrective function is associated with the correction and comparison of the results of the students’ activities.
4. Diagnostic function provides feedback.
The predominance of one or another function in the teacher’s activity indicates that the activity of students has a certain type, since a certain teaching method is being implemented. For example, the leading position of the incentive function is usually accompanied by the use problematic method. The original concept of teacher activity was developed in the works of A.K. Markova. In the structure of a teacher’s work, she identifies the following components:
1) professional, psychological and pedagogical knowledge;
2) professional teaching skills;

3) professional psychological positions and attitudes of the teacher; 4) personal characteristics that ensure mastery of professional knowledge and skills.

Conclusion
Thus, we can conclude that the pedagogical system is This is the integral unity of all factors contributing to the achievement of the set goals of human development.
A feature of modern pedagogical science is a comprehensive consideration of pedagogical activity, taking into account a wide range of both internal relations and external associated systems.
In systemic consideration, an object (phenomenon, process, relationship) is perceived not as a sum of parts, but as a whole.
Pedagogical systems are viewed as dynamic systems, the relationships between their components are constantly changing.
The functioning of the pedagogical system involves the interaction of its elements based on the implementation of internal and external connections, which allows one to achieve certain results in pedagogical activities.
Pedagogical systems are relatively independent and holistic, directly generating the process of human development.
Pedagogical systems that involve direct contact with students are pedagogical systems in the family, at school, in external institutions at the place of residence, etc. The fundamental system is the pedagogical process.
An enduring general innovation related to the pedagogical system as a whole is the optimization of the teaching and educational process. The development of this idea was headed in the early 70s. Academician Yu.K. Babansky. Certain results were achieved that are still significant for today. national pedagogy and schools.
etc.................

5.3. Pedagogical activity in the educational space

A teacher is a subject of education and pedagogical activity. Process-activity matrix of educational space. Age-specific model educational activities. Educational program: concept, types, structure

Teacher – subject of education and pedagogical activity

The need to differentiate between categories "education"(educational processes) and " pedagogical activity"manifested in the theory and practice of developmental education. For a long time The content and targets of education and teaching activities completely coincided: the teacher directly taught what he knew, directly educated (in the image of himself and his society) and directly formed in accordance with the norms and values ​​of the existing culture. The teacher was a living and direct bearer of the content of education - in the form of knowledge about the world, norms and values ​​of society, means and methods of objective activity, which he transmitted to the younger generations.

However, already in the system of traditional pedagogical ideas about the content of education and the forms of its organization, there was hidden internal contradiction, which is becoming obvious today and which can become destructive if it is not made the subject of special analysis. The essence of this contradiction is the difference content education and content pedagogical activities; This is the same fundamental distinction as between the content of education and the content of development. Identifying and describing these differences is fundamental to the design of developmental education.

The content of traditional pedagogical activity has always been related to the tasks mass socialization age cohorts; the content of education initially gravitated towards the pole individualization of development an individual child. Trained and educated everyone, I always received education and accordingly developed along my own individual trajectory special person.

The content of education relies and outlines quite specific goals, values ​​and meanings development of a person, i.e. that complex of his abilities that allow him to be in human quality and which can develop precisely in these educational processes. The content of teaching activities must clearly indicate conditions ensuring the values ​​of human development and defined ways achieving these goals.

– educational and training programs;

– pedagogical and administrative programs;

– the child’s readiness for school and his readiness for learning;

– age norm of development and summary characteristics (statistical norm) of children’s development of this age and a number of others.

Without having knowledge of the entire set of educational processes (in traditional pedagogy, only the processes of teaching and upbringing are distinguished, without researching and practicing the processes of cultivation and formation), it is impossible to build a full-fledged, pedagogically competent educational program or develop a convincing project for the development of an educational institution as a whole. Without a clear idea of ​​the essence of a professional pedagogical position, it is impossible to determine who a child is in education - subject or object. For humanistic reasons, of course, everyone calls him a subject, but if you look at the realities of pedagogical activity, then he is an ordinary material from which a person still needs to be “made.”

Any pedagogical phenomenon, any educational event can be described both in the language of the educational process and in the language of pedagogical activity. The description of a pedagogical phenomenon (educational event) in the language of the educational process presupposes an indication of well-defined values ​​and meanings education and targets for those activities which realize the identified values ​​and meanings. In other words, the language of the educational process includes a conceptual series associated with the definition of the category “content of education”, which specifies a specific set of human abilities (which are precisely fixed in the basic meanings and values ​​of this type of education and which can be formed precisely in this, and only in this educational process).

Description of a pedagogical phenomenon (educational event) in the language of pedagogical activity requires the identification of values ​​that are adequate to the value and target guidelines of the educational process. jointly related activities specific child-adult community, definitions of real conditions achieving the goals and values ​​of the educational process, recording real ways creation and implementation of identified conditions. The professional-activity approach to understanding the educational process is a task of completeness technologies pedagogical activity: its subject(conditions) and way(their creation and implementation), but also the activities of the educated themselves (pupils, pupils, students) with their subject and their ways of working.

Let us emphasize that the content of education, the content of pedagogical activity and the content of the activities of those being formed are different types of content; but it is they, in their totality, in their correlation, that determine the content of the educational program of any educational institution. The point of intersection of the educational process and pedagogical activity, the educational process and the activities of the students themselves is optimally designated as “ educational situation».

From a procedural point of view, education embraces processes growing up and growing, enculturation and formation, socialization and education, teaching and learning children, teenagers, young people. These are precisely the processes that turn out to be the universal form of formation and development of the essential forces and generic abilities of each person. Educational processes and educational processes are provided and implemented special forms of pedagogical activity. The transformation of the spontaneous process of education into a value- and meaning-defined educational process cannot happen on its own, in a spontaneous way. Such a transformation is possible only on the basis and with the help of the special, purposeful activity of the teacher; moreover, activity that is consistent with the adequate activity of the child (taught, educated, etc.). belongs to the teacher the main role in constructing an educational situation, and the ability to construct systems Such educational (developmental) situations within a certain age interval (educational level) is the general definition of pedagogical professionalism, the professional competence of a teacher.

In Fig. Figure 8 presents the general structure of the processes and activities of education participants.

Rice. 8. Educational processes and teaching activities

A professional teacher is simultaneously a subject of the educational process and a subject of pedagogical activity. As a subject of the educational process, a professional teacher acts as a designer, constructor, organizer and direct participant in the meeting of generations, the bearer of a certain personal, existential position, which presupposes free and conscious self-determination in pedagogical practice, taking responsibility for the results of the education of the younger generation. Subjectivity in pedagogical activity presupposes possession of appropriate norms, methods and means of its implementation. In this capacity, the teacher acts as a bearer of the activity (subject) position necessary to achieve the goals of education and personal development. The values ​​and meanings of education in the minds of the teacher must be updated and transformed into goals professional activity implemented by adequate means.

Let us emphasize once again that exactly in a co-existent child-adult educational community, which, in essence, is universal subject of education, individual subject positions of each participant in the educational process become and are formalized. Having distinguished between the content of the educational process and the content of pedagogical activity, we present the final procedural-activity matrix of educational space as the relationship between the form of the educational process, the type of educational process, the pedagogical position, the activities of adults, the activities of those formed in the joint activities of the child-adult community (see Table 5).

Table 5

Process-activity matrix of educational space

Nurturing viable person in progress growing up- the main purpose of the parent. Let us recall that Parent position refers to existential ones, aimed at identification with the child, at unity with him. The activity of adults, which is not very common in professional pedagogical language, is brought into line with nurturing as a type of educational process - "nurturing". S.I. Ozhegov in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” gives the following interpretations of this term: “Nurture. 1. Same as babysitting (obsolete). 2. Carefully, lovingly raise, educate (high).” It is no coincidence that the author marks the second meaning of the term “nurture” as “high, high style,” thereby emphasizing its important human, moral meaning. Indeed, raising a viable person, resistant to life’s collisions and trials, is possible only with care and love.

In the educational process of raising a child imitates an adult, becomes like him, adopts his forms of behavior. In early ontogenesis, this is the literal likening of a child to his own adult caring for him in the emotional, speech, and behavioral aspects of being together. At subsequent stages of development, this is likening to an adult in actions, thoughts, behavior, and attitude to life. It is well known that a child, a teenager, a young man reproduces in his behavior the manners and habits of behavior, intonation, and the attitude towards people of the adults he loves and respects.

Joint activity in the co-existence of an adult and a child in the process of growing up is designated as "mutual similarity". An adult becomes similar to the actions and behavior of a child to the extent that the child reproduces patterns of his behavior, repeating and emphasizing the corresponding form of behavior.

Formation special abilities in the process of mastering perfect forms of culture reveals pedagogical position of the Craftsman-Master. The Craftsman's position is a cultural position; it is also built on the unity of an adult and a child, on introducing him to cultural experience through personal demonstration of standards and forms of human activity (play, art, music, dance, etc.).

In the educational process of formation, an adult as a Master, fluent in a certain activity, demonstrates samples actions cultured person in the world of culture. He teaches the child to draw, sculpt, design, dance, perform physical exercise, play, etc. The name of the famous TV show “Do with us, do like us, do better than us” perfectly reflects the motivation of adults in the process of formation.

Child, teenager, young person in this educational process masters perfect forms of culture, training in their flawless and correct execution. All forms of human skill are mastered in the process of training and are supported by training. It is difficult to imagine an athlete or musician who once mastered a certain sport or game. musical instrument and not maintaining the achieved level of skill with regular, daily training and exercises. “Fit fabricando faber – The master is created by labor,” says the famous saying. Mastery lives only in the continuous process of reproduction.

Joint activity of adults and children in the formation of special abilities is training. In the workshop, in the studio, in the gym, at the stadium, etc., adult Masters pass on their skills in the process of systematic and long-term training and studies.

Education universal ways of acting and thinking - the main function Teachers. The cultural position of the Teacher is aimed at isolating the position of the student, at developing his individual abilities for ideal activity. Unlike the Craftsman, the Teacher does not set himself the task of obtaining only a specific result for the student - he teaches him to learn, designs a special quasi-research educational activity.

The educational process of learning, more than any other process, is studied and discussed. This is understandable - in the public imagination, the concepts of “school” and “schooling” are perceived almost as synonyms. At the same time, in a traditional school, learning can only be classified as learning in form, and in essence it is the formation, but not perfect forms of culture, but some educational skills. In fact, most of the time at school is spent mastering a specific set of scientific knowledge and developing the skills to use it in solving educational and cognitive problems.

In a genuine educational learning process, universal methods of activity and thinking are mastered - educational and cognitive activities, which have as their objectivity an ideal, symbolic reality. In teaching, not all cultural experience is transmitted, namely ideal means, methods preservation and development of cultural heritage. In other words, for a teacher the subject of his activity is translation of the means of ideal human activity - theories, concepts, schemes, models, various languages, etc., as well as the values ​​and goals behind them. The teacher does not convey knowledge and facts to others by themselves, does not inform about anything, but teaches ways of thinking, understanding, and mental activity. Specific subject-disciplinary knowledge and skills are the material on which universal methods of action in various areas of ideal reality are developed.

Educator-Teacher in the educational learning process teaches– teaches Not repeat a sample educational action, but teaches the educational activity itself, its meaning and necessity, general method implementation, conditions of use. The teacher’s task is to teach students to work with knowledge, with a special sign reality, with its laws and means. The teacher organizes a break in the immediate course of educational activity, poses a problem that once arose in the history of human knowledge, creates conditions for its resolution and fixation.

The student in accordance with the exact name of his position studies, teaches himself. The current school (at the very least) makes the child capable and skillful, but in such a way that he himself does not notice it. After all, this school is engaged in the development of children; students are not busy with their own development. A real school is one in which the child not only notices his own skill and ineptitude, i.e. reflects his actions, but he himself strives to become skillful, knowledgeable, capable - he wants to learn, he wants to change himself.

The joint activity of teacher and student in the learning process is educational activities. We are more accustomed to attributing educational activities to one subject – the student. But she only becomes so higher levels its development; long time in the learning process, the subject of educational activity is the educational co-existence community of the teacher and students.

It is possible to build educational activities only through the joint harmonized efforts of teacher and student, where the teacher learns to teach, and the student learns to learn (teach himself), learns to be subject of own educational activities. The concept of “subject of one’s own educational activity” is applicable only to to the student(to someone who knows how to learn) or to the student(to someone who knows how to teach himself). The outwardly visible criterion for distinguishing a student from a student as a possessor of knowledge and skills (an expert and a craftsman) is that the student answers well to any questions, and the student knows how to ask.

Upbringing universality in man is the goal and value of the Sage’s pedagogical position. The existential position of the Sage is aimed at isolating the child, teenager, young man, at emphasizing his self-worth and originality in his strictly human quality.

In the co-existential community of the Sage-mentor and the Novice-interlocutor, the end-to-end principle of eventfulness is embodied in a special way - “non-fusion-inseparability”, which overcomes the catastrophic nature of loneliness and alienation(the phenomenon of orphanhood). The deep meaning of education holds in its integrity two fundamental contents of education: re- filling the Other to the totality of his unique humanity and nutrition his soul with the gifts of “the actually human in man.”

In education, the formation of the most innermost things in a person occurs in the pupil - his worldview, ideals, beliefs, individual value system, meanings of being, relationships with others. With the concept of “upbringing” we habitually associate such integral realities of human psychology as “character”, “personality”, “individuality”.

Education, as well as development, cannot be forced - a person can strive for self-improvement, self-development only of his own free will. Therefore, an adult teacher can influence a student if he inspires trust and respect, has attractive personality traits for the student, and does not impose on him own views and habits, accepts him in his originality and individuality. Educator supports pupil in his endeavors, helps him to understand himself, advises in hard situations.

Pupil embraces values, enters into co-thinking with the teacher. Let us emphasize that he does this voluntarily, out of inner motivation. Another thing is that these values ​​should become genuine values ​​for the student; co-thinking is possible only with deep, not trivial thoughts. The specificity of the spiritual closeness of a child and an adult (as opposed to vital, emotional, social connectedness) consists in humanization (spiritualization) by the adult life world child. The maxim of such an attitude is the love of an adult for the human in a person, directly – here in this child, as his transcendence towards the emerging individual spirit in a continuous, intense search for a relationship commensurate with the child’s capabilities. This love is realized through co-existence in the spiritual practice of raising a child.

We designated the joint activities of the teacher and the student as "existential communication" emphasizing the focus of their communication on the objectivity of the ultimate foundations human existence. Understanding communication (communication) as one of the forms of human activity has a long tradition in Russian philosophy, psychology and pedagogy. At the same time, discussion of life-meaning issues can arise both in the space of joint educational activities, and during the development of perfect forms of culture, and in the processes of joint existence of parents and children.

Description of the age-oriented (age-appropriate) model of educational activities - how synthesis educational process and pedagogical activity is the specific appearance of the procedural and activity matrix of the educational space at a certain stage of education. This model should correlate value-goal ideas about the development of a child (adolescent, young man) at the educational level with professional and activity-based ideas about the forms and means of achieving development goals. In other words, in the model it is necessary to present in unity the age-normative model of development at the educational level and the activity conditions for its implementation: age-appropriate activity of adults, activity of students, joint activity of the child-adult community. The development of an age-oriented model of educational activities will provide an opportunity professional teacher see the main components of pedagogical activity in their integrity and interconnection.

The fundamental structure of the age-oriented model of educational activity can be presented as follows (Table 6):

Table 6

Age-oriented model of educational activities

In educational processes, developmental situations are transformed into educational situations. Let us recall that the decisive role in creating educational situations belongs to the teacher. Values ​​and development goals at the educational level are presented in the line “content of the basic educational process.” Let us explain this concept.

We indicated above that in the educational space the processes of education (nurturing, formation, education, training) are implemented in inextricable unity. For a certain level of education, this unity can be designated as the “basic educational process,” since a specific type of educational process at a certain level of education occupies a leading position, and other types of processes seem to serve it.

Yes, in fact general view leading educational processes associated with certain stages of development will be:

- in infancy– cultivation;

- in childhood– formation;

- in youth- education;

- in young age- upbringing;

- in maturity- self-existence.

It is clear that these levels are in no way strictly tied to the passport age, and receive their firm definition in accordance with the life-personal position of each participant in education.

A similar clarification must be made for pedagogical activity - a certain pedagogical position at the level of education will dominate, connecting (replenishing) other pedagogical positions and other forms of pedagogical activity to achieve completeness of education at this level.

Such a component of the content of pedagogical activity as pedagogical position, was described in detail by us above. Let us recall that through a description of the types of positions and the construction of relationships from these positions, the vector of development of the relationship between a child and an adult (student and teacher), as well as the basic nature of their interaction, can be presented. The teacher must be well aware of the developmental situations at a certain stage of education and, in accordance with their dynamics, be able to take the appropriate position. Depending on the goals and objectives of development and the current situation, he also takes positions corresponding to the given situation: Craftsman, Teacher, Parent, Sage. The teacher “throws” into the existing community expectations from a more developed level of togetherness, gradually shifting the effective basis of community to the child’s pole, orienting him towards mastering a new layer of independence - self-standing.

The content of pedagogical activity includes a description of the main actions of the teacher and their meaning in a specific educational situation.. The need to highlight these components of pedagogical activity is determined by the tasks of recording a coherent sequence of steps of teachers in constructing educational situations and actions in them, emphasizing the most typical, key ones for a given situation.

The meaning and content of typical teacher actions in educational situations comes down to the presentation of cultural norms various types activities, turning ideal ideas into real ones; organizing a developing and developing educational environment, carrying out joint searches and discovering new sources educational resources, assistance in understanding, revealing non-obvious resources of education; discovering the basis of self-affirmation, self-respect, self-acceptance. The task of the teacher is to teach children to experience their own questions and difficulties as a reason to turn to themselves and their capabilities, as potential points of growth for a new level of their own subjectivity, new - both for the child and for the teacher - gradually comprehending the need to generate, in collaboration with an adult, a new way actions. This is the path of becoming a subject and own life, and their own activities, which reveals the true meaning of developmental education.

Similar components are distinguished in content of the activities of emerging. The position of the student in a certain educational situation is correlated with the pedagogical position, and the dynamics of educational situations are built in the direction of increasing (development) of his subject position. For example, in teaching, the teacher must create conditions for the student’s transition from the position subject of action to position subject of activity and further - to the position subject own activities, in which the student himself organizes his own space of learning activities.

The actions of those being formed and the meanings of these actions are also correlated with similar components of pedagogical activity in educational situations. Each type of educational situation has its own programs of action for the child and adult, manifested in one position or another. It is important for a teacher to know from what position he should base his actions at a given stage of education and what actions he can and should expect from the student. An adult needs to determine his pedagogical position in relation to the child and thus transform the developmental situation into an educational situation.

Contents of joint educational activities forms the basis of a child-adult educational community, which has its own specifics in a certain educational situation. In joint activity there is a “meeting” between the activity of the student and the activity of the teacher. From this point of view, the activities of adults and children in the educational process cannot be imagined separately - they are interconnected and form a common, joint-related activities. Even educational activities, which are traditionally considered only the activities of schoolchildren, are, in essence, for a long time is jointly distributed, and its subject is “Teacher - student”.

Educational program: concept, types, structure

The conceptual distinction between the content of education and the content of pedagogical activity presupposes a primary distinction educational And educational programs. Until now, these programs are identified and very often the meaning of the educational program is replaced by the content of the curriculum (or their combination). We have already noted earlier that in the public (as well as in the pedagogical) consciousness the content of education is reduced to the content of the programs of academic disciplines. At the same time, the curriculum is one of the separate, private programs in the system of other programs (educational, additional education etc.), in total components of the educational program educational institution . It should be distinguished from such a large-scale program educational program for a separate level of education. It is this that we will subsequently compare with the curriculum.

In accordance with the accepted tradition, the curriculum reproduces a system of scientific knowledge (concepts) specially selected for educational purposes and assigned for assimilation. The main part of the curriculum is the presentation of the content of the educational material to be mastered, reproducing the logic of the object (subject) of study. In addition to the educational content, the program also includes a description of the forms, methods, and means of its development. The main addressee of the curriculum (in full accordance with its name) is the student (pupil, student, listener, graduate student, etc.) - it determines the goals, educational material, forms, types, means of educational activities for mastering a specific academic subject. Due to the fact that educational activity is a joint activity of students and teachers, the curriculum “programs” the activities of teachers (in to a greater extent namely pedagogical activity).

Unlike educational The educational program projects the holistic practice of developmental education as a structural definition of educational processes within a specific educational level. The integrity of the structural certainty of the type of education and the pedagogical activity adequate to it is embodied in the educational program.

A program is always a program of activities; in education, this is a program of cumulative, or jointly associated, educational activities. Each educational program is a system of actions of the teacher and the educational meanings of his actions, conjugate with the student’s actions and with his individual meanings. These two series of actions are non-orthogonal and non-parallel - they complimentary (mutually complementary). The teacher is always nearby and a little ahead; its task is to set tasks for students to “grow.”

The educational program determines the development goals of the subjects of education, outlines the abilities and qualities of the individual that appear as a result of its development. In addition, the educational program includes an idea of ​​the content, types, forms, means, structure of the interrelated activities of the student and pedagogical activities.

Educational and training programs are related as a whole and a part or as a goal and a means: the acquisition of knowledge from a learning goal turns into a technological means of child development, young man taking into account his life values, goals and individual capabilities. The educational program also determines the activities of the teacher (teacher); it represents the unity of purpose, content and technology of education, answers the questions: why, what and how subjects of educational activities must do. An educational program is a kind of obligation of an educational institute to children, their parents, and society as a whole to provide the required type, level and quality of education, for which the teaching staff bears legal and professional responsibility. Let us present the most significant differences between the two types of programs (Table 7).

Table 7

Differences in curriculum and educational programs at the educational level

In modern education, there is a complex of multi-scale educational programs:

– training and educational programs;

– management programs;

– additional education programs;

– professional self-education programs;

– programs of scientific and service support of the educational process, etc.

Taken together, all these programs are precisely subprograms of a comprehensive education programs at a specific educational institute. Disclosure of the content and description of the structure of such complex programs is a special task, since their development, and most importantly, their implementation are the subject of professional activity not of an individual teacher, but of the entire teaching staff of a given institute.

The basis of the educational program in accordance with the above idea of ​​the educational process and pedagogical activity are two components - psychological And pedagogical. The psychological component describes age-normative model of development children at a certain level of education. The pedagogical component is system of age-appropriate pedagogical activities.

Chapter 4 revealed the content of the age-normative model of development at the stage of education as the integrity of the main lines of development, developmental situations and new age formations. Knowledge of the lines of development and psychological new formations acts as a target for the teacher’s actions. Knowledge of the totality (system) of developmental situations performs the function of means of action in his pedagogical activity. It is the developmental situations that ensure the emergence of new formations, determine the conditions and technologies for the implementation of the age-normative model of development, and act as the basis for the development of a system of pedagogical activity, which includes two types of funds. The first of these are means of understanding: the teacher is aware of what developmental situation he is modeling. Second type - means of implementation: the teacher is focused on building and organizing an appropriate educational situation.

The teacher is simultaneously an organizer and participant in the educational process. Working with a developmental situation is possible if he has ideas about the process of normal development of students in the conditions of modern education. The teacher builds a program of his activities, a program of actions for students, thereby creating the conditions necessary for the development of age-appropriate abilities of students. An age-appropriate system of pedagogical activity acts as a toolkit for the implementation of a pre-developed age-normative model of development for a specific composition of students. Thus, the age-normative model of development and the age-appropriate system of pedagogical activity determine the completeness of the content and anthropological meaning of the developmental educational program.

Since education is intended to act as an additional lever that strengthens the movement of society along the path of productive development, there is a need to give current educational structures greater flexibility and responsiveness to the pedagogical knowledge accumulated in the world. The thesis about the universal value of a single paradigm is being replaced by the thesis about the multiplicity of educational paradigms, which are not equivalent or equivalent to each other, but have the right to exist in the common educational space.

Any pedagogical system as a model of pedagogical activity tries to answer four cornerstone questions: for what purpose, what, how and whom to teach? Pedagogical system is a set of interrelated means, methods and processes necessary to create organized and targeted pedagogical assistance in the formation and development of the student’s personality. The pedagogical system consists of the following elements: goals(general and private); content of training and education; didactic processes(actually education and training); students; teachers and (or) technical teaching aids (TSO); organizational forms.

The goals, objectives, content and methods of education always depend on ideas about the ideal personality or the normative canon of an adult. It is the normative canon of an adult that directly determines what people (society) achieve from the younger generation and how they do it. The image of a child and the type of attitude towards him are different in different societies. This depends both on the level of socio-economic development and on the cultural characteristics of the people. Like the normative canon of an adult, the image of a child always has at least two dimensions: what he is by nature and what he should become as a result of education.

In European culture there are four images of a child 14 .

1. ^ Traditional Christian view claims that the child bears the mark of original sin and can only be saved by merciless suppression of the will, submission to his parents and spiritual mentors.

2. According to positions of socio-pedagogical determinism a child by nature is not inclined towards good or evil, but is a blank slate on which society or teachers can write whatever they want.

1. 
   According to the point of view natural determinism The character and capabilities of a child are predetermined before birth.
2. 
   ^ Utopian-humanistic view suggests that a child is born good and kind and deteriorates only under the influence of society. Some Renaissance humanists interpreted the old Christian dogma of childhood innocence in this spirit.

The American scientist L. Demoz subdivides the whole history of childhood for six periods, each of which corresponds to a specific parenting style and form of relationship between parents and children.

^ 1. Infatidal style (from antiquity to the 4th century AD). Characterized by mass infanticide. Those children who survived often became victims of violence. The symbol of this style is the image of Medea (according to ancient Greek mythology, Medea, the daughter of the king of Colchis, helped the Argonaut Jason take possession of the Golden Fleece. Medea took revenge on Jason for treason by killing the children he had with him).

Researchers associate the prevalence of infanticide in primitive society primarily with a low level of material production. Peoples at the lowest level

historical development, living by gathering, physically cannot feed large offspring. The killing of newborn babies was as natural a norm here as the killing of old people. The transition to a producing economy changes things significantly. Infanticide ceases to be a cruel economic necessity and is practiced mainly on qualitative rather than quantitative grounds. They killed mainly children who were considered physically inferior, or for ritual reasons. Infanticide of girls was especially common.

1. 
   ^ Throwing style (IV-XIII centuries). As soon as the culture recognizes that a child has a soul, infanticide decreases, but the child remains an object of projections and reactive formations for the parents. The main means of getting rid of them is abandoning the child, trying to get rid of him. The baby is sold to a nurse, or sent to a monastery or to be raised by someone else's family, or kept abandoned in his own home.
2. 
   ^ Ambivalent (dual) style (XIV-XVII centuries). It is characterized by the fact that the child is already allowed to enter the emotional life of his parents and begins to be surrounded by attention, but he is still denied an independent spiritual existence. The main means of pedagogical influence of this era was the “modeling” of character, as if the child were made of soft clay. If he resisted, they beat him mercilessly, “knocking out” his self-will as an evil principle.
3. 
   ^ Intrusive style (XVIII century). The child is no longer considered a dangerous creature or simply an object of physical care; the parents become much closer to him. However, this is accompanied by an obsessive desire to completely control not only behavior, but also the inner world, thoughts and will of the child, which increases conflicts between fathers and children.
4. 
   ^ Socializing style (XIX - mid-XX century). The goal of education is not so much the conquest and subjugation of the child, but rather the training of his will, preparation for a future independent life. The child acts as an object rather than a subject of socialization.
5. 
   ^ Helping style (from the middle of the 20th century). Assumes that the child knows better than the parents what he needs at each stage of life. Therefore, parents and educators strive not so much to discipline or shape his personality,

how much to help individual development. Hence the desire for emotional closeness with children, empathy, and understanding.

A philosophical and methodological approach to the systematization of pedagogical knowledge, highlighting various worldviews depending on which phenomenon is given unconditional priority - God, society, nature, man - allows us to identify and describe four main models of pedagogical activity (theocentric, sociocentric, naturecentric and anthropocentric ), which cover numerous pedagogical systems 15. Each of the models of pedagogical activity has both advantages and disadvantages in relation to others. Debates about which one is better are futile. Each pedagogical system contains hidden, unused reserves. Therefore, it is more productive for pedagogical practice to develop individual educational technologies based on the advantages of one or another model, and to find ways to combine and interact with them.

1. ^ Theocentric model of pedagogical activity based on the understanding of man as a product of divine creation, an other being of the absolute spirit. The most prominent representatives of this educational model: Aurelius Augustine, Boethius, Flavius ​​Caosiodorus, W. James, S. N. Bulgakov, S. L. Frank, P. P. Florensky, V. V. Zenkovsky. This model treats education as preparation for the afterlife; its goal is to help in serving God, the formation of godly personality traits. It is characterized by: the primacy of the spiritual over the physical, the commandments of humility, patience, obedience, submission to the will of God. The purpose of earthly life and the purpose of education is the salvation of the soul and the attainment of eternal bliss in paradise. The center of this pedagogical system is God as an absolute spiritual essence, the bearer of all perfections and at the same time as a concrete sensory embodiment of the pedagogical ideal.

The foundations of theocentric pedagogical systems are traditionalism and authoritarianism. The following are recognized as effective means of education: confession, repentance, prayer, fasting, etc. The dominance of elders and the unquestioning obedience of younger ones is revered. The most important authority and comprehensive environment

education - the Bible. Those brought up are instilled with contempt for all worldly relations. The personality is decisively destroyed through obedience and renunciation of one's own will. The meaning of education is seen to be to understand the path of salvation and to connect the child’s soul with the church.

Today there is a surge of interest in religion, although the emphasis in the purposes of education, its forms and means is changing. The modern religious worldview absorbs a wide range of philosophical, artistic, and ethical ideas, acting as a complement to what is collectively defined as lack of spirituality. Faith in God removes the feeling of alienation, social homelessness, and outlines the space for finding one’s own Self.

^ Advantages of theocentric education: spiritual, moral education of the individual, the presence of externally specified norms of moral regulation. These norms are understandable, tested over the centuries, accessible to everyone at any age and culture, and are included in all major moral and religious systems of the world. Spiritual quests and spiritual improvement also flow from the transcendental mystical nature of these norms.

^ The weakness of theocentric pedagogical systems lies in the insoluble contradiction between freedom and submission, in the suppression of individuality. In this regard, it is appropriate to quote the judgment of the Christian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev: “The truth imposed on me, in the name of which they demand that I renounce freedom, is not the truth at all... I declare a rebellion against all orthodoxy, no matter Marxist or Orthodox, when she had the audacity to limit or destroy my freedom" 16.

2. ^ Sociocentric pedagogical systems characterized by the presence of a clearly defined and measurable educational goal, expressed in the form of a single universal model of personality; detailed diagnostics with predetermined criteria for the pedagogical process; a fairly strict logic for constructing the stages and content of education and personal development. These include the educational systems of Aristotle, T. More, T. Campanella, J. A. Comenius, J. Locke, K. D. Ushinsky, G. Noll, G. Depp-Forwald,

B. F. Skinner, A. S. Makarenko, N. E. Shchurkova, the system of developmental education by V. V. Davydov and L. V. Zankov, the concept of the gradual formation of mental actions by L. Ya. Galperin and N. F. Talyzina, the system of advanced training by S. N. Lysenkova, the system of large-block training using supports by V. F. Shatalov, the concept of the formation of moral consciousness of the individual by L. Kohlberg.

In sociocentric pedagogical systems, a person is considered as a product of the social environment, whose mission is to serve society. The main function of education is to prepare a person for life in society and to fulfill certain social roles. Educational goals are determined by the needs of society, and a person serves as a means of satisfying them. The pedagogical ideal here is a law-abiding citizen who puts the interests of the state above all else. The main feature is a clearly expressed social order for education.

This model of pedagogical activity is characterized by authoritarianism, leveling and passivity of the student’s personality, which is considered as an average object of pedagogical influence. State forms of education predominate, the purpose of which, under totalitarian regimes, is to prepare a “cog man” for the state machine. Developed and applied pedagogical technologies and means of manipulating personal behavior include methods of stimulation, control, reinforcement, correction, suppression and punishment.

The more totalitarian a state is, the closer its educational systems are to a sociocentric model. Examples include the education systems of Ancient Sparta, the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, North Korea and other militarized states.

The methodological basis of Depp-Forwald’s study “The Science of Education and Philosophy of Education”, published in 1941 in Germany, was the external, formal structure of the educational process itself, determined by the purposeful actions of the subject of education to form the object of education. The meaning of education, according to the author’s position, comes down to an analysis of the possibilities and boundaries of conscious control of human attitudes and behavior for the purpose of political planning and timely adoption of decisions.

sheny. Depp-Forwald undertook a special analysis of political education as a special type of social education, substantiating the doctrine of “political domestication” of youth in the right political direction, which was extremely important for the then Hitler regime.

Makarenko’s pedagogical system quite clearly characterizes the sociocentric model of education. Guided by the general principles of building the Soviet socialist state, Makarenko proceeded from the fact that the new goals of education, which were discussed in detail above, were of decisive importance. In the educational goal, he included all possible characteristics of the individual, ensuring that the qualities inherent in a Soviet citizen living in a socialist society, subject to its laws and concerned with the improvement of this society came to the fore. Makarenko tried to technologize the entire education system, seeing great similarities between the processes of education and material production. Therefore, he considered it necessary to introduce a technical control department, “which could say to various pedagogical defects: You, my dears, are ninety percent defective. What you have turned out to be is not a communist personality, but a downright rubbish, a drunkard, a couch potato and a selfish person. Pay, please, from your salary” 17.

^ Advantages of the sociocentric model of pedagogical activity consist, firstly, in predicting the results of activities both in time and in content; secondly, in the technological nature of this model, which allows you to copy and repeat this system with obtaining the same results; thirdly, in the verifiability and controllability of the activities of all subjects of the educational process, in the possibility of correcting these activities.

^ Limitations and disadvantages of sociocentric pedagogical systems: uniformity of content and methods of education; strict framework within which the activities of teachers and students are carried out; manipulation of the student’s behavior and consciousness, which leads to the leveling of the personality.

Research within the framework of the sociocentric model of pedagogical activity has brought a lot of new insight into

the essence of education and the essence of man as a whole, the ways of his interaction with society and the state, have enriched the arsenal of pedagogy with many unique instrumental methods of organized and controlled influence on the individual. However, the establishment of a unified sociocentric pedagogical system at the state level is fraught with many negative consequences. The application of the achievements of the sociocentric model in certain areas and time periods of the educational process not only does not cause harm, but also makes this process more effective. Such areas of application can be the army, correctional institutions, children's and youth public associations, sports, tutoring, training in vocational skills and many other areas of life. It is only necessary to take into account the limitations imposed by the sociocentric education system on the process of personal development.

^ 3. Nature-centric pedagogical model (Plato, Democritus, Thomas Aquinas, A. Diesterweg, K. P. Yanovsky, A. P. Nechaev, G. I. Rossolimo, A. F. Lazursky, N. E. Rumyantsev, V. P. Kashchenko, P. P. Blonsky, A. Jensen, G. Eysenck, G. Gardner, representatives of various theories of differentiated learning) is based on the fundamental idea that children are born with a certain set of abilities and qualities that either allow them to accelerate or normally (in accordance with certain standards) to develop, or complicate or slow down the development process. Education is interpreted as following human nature. The need for a set of means of education and training in accordance with the individual and age characteristics of children is especially emphasized. The main goal of education is to develop natural inclinations, compensate for natural deficiencies and thus provide everyone with an appropriate social status.

Supporters of nature-centric pedagogical systems are not searching for a universal educational model suitable for everyone, but for ways in which it is possible either to most effectively “bring” children with certain abilities to a certain standard, or to “bring” each child to the maximum level of his development. In order for the educational process to proceed most optimally and

painless for all students, it is proposed to differentiate it taking into account the typological characteristics of students.

Representatives of the nature-centric model of education made a great contribution both to the general understanding of human nature and the patterns of development of his psyche, and to the development of fundamentally new ideas and methods of teaching and education. The rational grain of this model is that it, being based on the principle of natural conformity of education , is associated with close attention to the biological substructure of a person, its influence on the process of personal formation, learning ability, and cultural development. At the same time, from the moment of their inception, nature-centric ideas developed in two fundamentally different directions.

^ First direction was intended to justify the idea of ​​stratification of education and society, going in its extreme directions to justify segregation, racism and fascism.

Thus, the French sociologist C. Letourneau argued in his works that morality and moral relations between people have not a social, but a biological basis. The founder of the anthropological trend in criminology and criminal law, C. Lombroso (1835-1909), laid a biological basis for the deviant behavior of criminals. The author of the genetic theory of intelligence, F. Galton, published his book “Hereditary Genius” in 1896, where he attempted to explain why outstanding people are most often born into privileged families. Galton stood at the origins of the science of eugenics 18, designed to “prevent the reproduction of the unfit” and “improve the race.”

The first eugenic law was passed in 1907 in Indiana, and by 1935 eugenic laws had been passed in Denmark, the USA, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Iceland. However, in the 1930s. Criticism of eugenic ideas began to intensify. The Nazis, who came to power in Germany, began to carry out their own eugenics program, which included the destruction and sterilization of people on an unprecedented scale. The barbarity of Nazi policy was caused by

There was a powerful anti-eugenic reaction from the world community. In the post-war years, the term "eugenics" began to be viewed with obvious suspicion by scientists, educators and the general public. The new generation of human geneticists takes a more pluralistic view of traditional eugenics - they do not reject its general principles out of hand, but insist on the need to understand the polygenic mechanism of inheritance of most human traits, which prevents their manipulation by traditional or modern methods.

Eugenic ideas gave rise to another area of ​​research - psychometry, testology. Tests as a means of selection began to be used since 1905 in education and other areas. Their application was based on the thesis that a person performing labor functions that correspond to his mental abilities works more efficiently and feels socially comfortable. The main question in psychometrics is what determines the level of intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual: heredity or education.

The dispute on this issue remains unresolved to this day. And the intensity of passions around it is largely explained by the political and social context of the discussion. The most acceptable judgment seems to be A. Anastasi: “The intelligence of an individual at any given time is the end product of a large and complex series of interactions of hereditary and environmental factors. At any stage of this causal chain there is the possibility of interaction with new factors, and since each interaction itself determines the direction of subsequent interactions, there is an ever-expanding network of possible outcomes. The connection between the genes under study and any of the behavioral characteristics of an individual is very indirect and extremely confusing” 19.

^ Second direction the development of nature-centric ideas, which was practically hushed up in Soviet pedagogy, is associated with the development of educational concepts and technologies that allow not only to overcome socially determined differences in children, but also to help those who experience difficulties for reasons to develop and learn most productively

individual psychological differences. A consequence of the fact that different people not only have different speeds of thought processes, but also different ways of perceiving, processing, storing and using information, leads to the conclusion that it is impossible to use a single educational strategy in relation to different students.

The fundamental idea of ​​education, according to representatives of the nature-centric model of pedagogical activity, is the idea of ​​differentiation, i.e. the identification of certain typological groups of students and the development in relation to these groups of specific methods, methods and techniques of education, the construction of a certain logic for studying educational material, the use of specific control methods and assessment. Using various systems of level, profile, external and internal differentiation, teachers ultimately come to the construction of an individual development trajectory of the emerging personality. However, this individual trajectory is set from the outside through external design of personality development based on compliance or non-compliance with certain norms and standards in various phases of development.

Thus, positive in nature-centric pedagogical systems is that the student’s individuality with its characteristics and differences comes to the fore. A good goal is clearly visible - to help everyone develop to the best of their abilities. Her flaws: firstly, any goal in its extreme manifestations can result in its opposite (the dangers of segregation, selection, racism were mentioned above); secondly, operating with categories such as “age norms and development standards”, which hide traditional ideas or misconceptions of adults about the capabilities of students, does not seem convincing enough from the standpoint of scientific validity. Differentiation and individualization of education is, on the one hand, the path of improvement, the search for new forms, means of methods, technologies of teaching and upbringing. However, on the other hand, it is obvious that by constantly deepening differentiation, one can reach cumbersome structures, the practical application of which will be so difficult that it can lead to the opposite effect - a decrease in the effectiveness of education.

^ 4. Anthropocentric model of pedagogical activity

(Socrates, F. Rabelais, J. J. Rousseau, L. N. Tolstoy, V. P. Vakhterov, S. I. Gessen, A. Maslow, J. Allport, C. Rogers, E. Fromm, K. Horney , V. Frankl, L. S. Vygotsky, B. P. and L. A. Nikitin, I. P. Ivanov, V. A. Sukhomlinsky, Sh. A. Amonashvili, V. A. Petrovsky, representatives of cooperation pedagogy and concept of personality-oriented learning) is based on the thesis about the uniqueness and originality of each person, about his potential talent, which must be demonstrated and developed through education. The purpose of the entire educational process is to teach a person to create himself as an individual. It is the development of individuality as a process of self-creation, based on the internal activity of the individual, that is the main goal of all anthropocentric pedagogical systems. The task of adults is to provide students with the freedom to seek the truth in their own way in accordance with their preferences, to provide them with the maximum possible subject areas of activity for their development, to choose methods and technologies, the use of which will allow everyone to master the area of ​​interest most creatively.

The anthropological educational model is characterized by the following principles: individualization; free, natural development of every person potentially possessing any talent; development of everyone's creativity. These principles are in conflict with the traditional educational program, and therefore they are very difficult to implement in the process of mass education. Basic anthropocentric ideas: development, selfhood, spontaneity, independence, freedom, security. The process of personality development is designated in terms of self-actualization, self-development, self-embodiment, self-expression, self-affirmation. The role of a teacher, an adult, differs sharply from that prescribed by the traditional educational paradigm. From a transmitter of knowledge who firmly knows how and in what direction it is best to develop a student, an adult turns into a partner who collaborates with the student on equal terms, together with him searching for the truth, obtaining knowledge, and getting to know himself.

The main methods of education in anthropocentric pedagogical systems are dialogue, play, free

creative communication carried out in a group of students together with the teacher. The problem of the content of education that arises in this regard is transformed into a more global problem, namely: can the educational process of individual development be designed in advance? If the answer to this question is positive, then we find ourselves within the framework of sociocentric or naturecentric educational models. The anthropocentric educational model is distinguished by the creative process, the realization of the creative qualities of both students and teachers. And then the question arises as to whether, in this case, the educational process is predictable and appropriate.

Since the main goal of education, according to anthropocentrism, is self-expression, self-disclosure of the unique self of each person, it is impossible to repeat or copy this educational process. And since the basis of anthropocentric pedagogical systems is creativity, which always comes into a certain conflict with tradition, we cannot plan and predict it in advance. This leads to the conclusion that it is also impossible to design an anthropocentric educational model. How then can we build the educational process without guidelines, plans, or curricula?

Representatives of anthropocentric educational systems do not design the logic of studying content, not the sequence of stages of individual development, since they do not recognize any norms and average standards, but the conditions for the development of the student and the requirements for the teacher. This creates the most natural environment for personal development with a large arsenal of pedagogical tools used by the teacher to stimulate the development of the student’s creative qualities. This allows us to make the educational process as painless and effective as possible for the development of each growing person. As criteria for the success of the educational process, supporters of anthropocentric systems propose to “measure” the development of the emotional and motivational sphere of the individual and the characteristics of creative activity.

The closest to the anthropocentric educational model is concept of student-centered learning

education and education, which has become widespread recently in our country. Its main goal is to promote the formation and development of the student’s personality. When communicating with students, the teacher adheres to the principle: “Not next to and not above, but together.” The main line of his professional behavior: not to pull the student up to some pre-known standards, but to coordinate his expectations and requirements with the task of maximizing the full development of the personal growth potential of students discovered during pedagogical communication. Ways of communication: understanding, recognition, acceptance of another. By building relationships of psychological equality with the student, the teacher promotes the development of valuable forms of activity, thereby implementing the principles of personality-oriented learning.

One of the most productive ideas in this concept is the idea of ​​changing the so-called pedagogical position. In the traditional education system, the position of any teacher is reduced to the implementation of the function prescribed to him by society to teach and educate. This concept proposes a different position: joint activity and communication, leading to developmental interactions in the “teacher-student” system. Not only the student, but also the teacher cannot be considered as an object of programming by society. Everyone retains the opportunity for self-determination, the right to their own actions, which do not always coincide with traditional ideas about the activities of the teacher and students. After all, creative thinking is actually, in the words of L. Briskman, “thinking about forbidden thoughts.”

In conclusion, we note that the answers of representatives of anthropocentrism to the fundamental pedagogical questions “who, why, what and how to teach?” different from traditional ones. Everyone needs to be taught and educated, but not equally (as in the sociocentric model) and not differentiated (as in the naturecentric model), but together and differently, since the main thesis of anthropocentrism is that all people are different, but all are potentially endowed with individual talent. To identify and develop the talent of every growing person is the goal of the anthropocentric educational model. However, the implementation of this goal should not go along the path of individual education, but along the path of joint activities of teachers and students, along the path

creating a wealth of relationships, sharing experiences that each person has. It is necessary to expand as much as possible the possibilities and boundaries of the student’s contacts with different people, cultures, objective worlds, and various manifestations of spirituality. The wider these boundaries are, the more likely the goal of education will be realized.

The answer to the fundamental pedagogical question of who teaches is also very important, since the value orientations and, in general, the worldview of an anthropocentric teacher differ sharply from the position of a traditionalist teacher. This is where the particular difficulty lies in implementing the anthropocentric educational model in broad pedagogical practice, since this model assumes that teachers should be the most creative, progressive and humane people in society. And this is hardly possible now. The limitations of this model are also associated with its unsuitability for teaching the basic skills of a literate person, with the unpredictability and unpredictability of the educational process.

The characteristic features of each of the models of pedagogical activity are summarized in Table. 2.

Historical and theoretical analysis of educational models not only allows us to track their replacement and predict strategic changes in the field of education for the near future, but also makes it possible to more productively use pedagogical technologies developed within the framework of various models, as well as contribute to the creation of new educational technologies. The methodology of dominance in certain historical periods of a separate educational model (paradigm) is being replaced by a methodology of polyparadigmality, reflecting the multiplicity of actually existing pedagogical systems and concepts. Awareness by participants in the educational process of the multi-paradigmatic nature of modern education with the inherent features, opportunities and limitations of individual educational models will make it possible to more effectively predict, design and implement innovations, combining them with traditions in educational practices from the standpoint of harmonization of goals, informed choice and integrative combination of various educational strategies of any level - from state-regional to individual-personal

^ Table 2

Comparative characteristics of models of pedagogical activity

The advent of a new cultural era, called post-industrial or informational, strengthens the role of education as a controlled process of socialization of the individual. Pedagogical science is at the very forefront of the contradiction between the individual and society, which has become especially acute at the present time. In these conditions, it faces the urgent task of creating a new value-based education system, spiritually and culturally rich, combining modern socially significant values ​​with traditionally effective models of pedagogical activity.
Questions for self-control

1. 
   What is the pedagogical ideal?
2. 
   What factors determine the content of educational goals?
3. 
   How are educational goals formulated in the Law of the Russian Federation “On Education”?
4. 
   Tell us about the technology for setting and achieving educational goals.
5. 
   State the purpose of any training course, separate lecture, seminar.
6. 
   What factors determine education and personal development?
7. 
   Describe the main periods of a person’s childhood and youth.
8. 
   Expand the relationship between development, education and personal autonomy.
9. 
   What is the implementation of the principle of private autonomy in education?
10. 
    What is the pedagogical system?
11. 
    Describe the main models of pedagogical activity.

Literature

Andreev A. A. Pedagogy of higher education. M., 2000. Mordovskaya N.V., Rean A.A. Pedagogy: Textbook for universities. St. Petersburg, 2001.

Gershunsky B.S. Philosophy of education for the 21st century. M 1998.

Zeer E.F. Personal development professional education. Ekaterinburg, 2006.

Novikov A. M. Methodology of education. M., 2002.

Pedagogy vocational education/ Ed. V. A. Slastenina. M., 2004.

Smirnov I. P. Theory of vocational education. M. 2006.