General concept of will. Volitional development

Will is the subject’s conscious self-regulation of his activities and behavior, ensuring overcoming difficulties in achieving a goal. Will is a human activity carried out with a predetermined goal.

The research of B.G. is devoted to the problem of studying will. Ananyeva, L.I. Bozhovich, L.S. Slavina, Ya.L. Kolominsky, L.A. Venger, V.S. Mukhina and others.

Voluntary or volitional actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of involuntary movements are reflex ones: constriction and dilation of the pupil, blinking, swallowing, sneezing, etc. The same class of movements includes withdrawing a hand when touching a hot object, involuntarily turning the head towards a sound, etc.

Behavior, like actions, can be involuntary or voluntary. The involuntary type of behavior mainly includes impulsive actions and unconscious reactions that are not subordinated to a common goal, for example, to noise outside the window, to an object that can satisfy a need, etc. Involuntary behavior also includes human behavioral reactions observed in situations of affect, when a person is under the influence of an uncontrollable consciousness emotional state.

In contrast to involuntary actions, volitional actions are characterized by the following features:

aimed at achieving the set goal;

connection with overcoming obstacles, and regardless of what type of obstacles - internal (a person’s motivations aimed at not performing a given action or at performing actions opposite to it; fatigue, desire to have fun, inertia) or external (lack of the necessary tool for work or opposition from other people). The most important feature of volitional actions aimed at overcoming obstacles is the awareness of the significance of the goal that must be fought for, the awareness of the need to achieve it;

connection with mental activity and feelings.

Volitional action begins with awareness of the purpose of the action and the motive associated with it. With a clear awareness of the goal and the motive that causes it, the desire for the goal is usually called desire. Desires are not always immediately translated into reality. A person sometimes has several uncoordinated and even contradictory desires at once, and he finds himself in a very predicament without knowing which one to implement. A mental state that is characterized by a collision of several desires or several different motivations for activity is usually called struggle of motives. The struggle of motives includes a person’s assessment of those reasons that speak for and against the need to act in a certain direction, thinking about how exactly to act. The final moment of the struggle of motives is decision-making, consisting in choosing a goal and method of action. When making a decision, a person shows determination; at the same time, he, as a rule, feels responsible for the further course of events.

Main function will consists in the conscious regulation of activity in difficult living conditions. This regulation is based on the interaction of excitation and inhibition processes nervous system. In accordance with this, it is customary to single out as a specification of the above general function the other two are activating and inhibiting.

The study of the volitional component of personality goes in several directions: the study of voluntary movements, individual stages and elements of volitional actions, and some volitional qualities of the individual.

The preschool period is important stage in the development of the child’s personality, and in particular his will. The problem of will development in preschool children is quite relevant. This is due to the preparation of the child for the upcoming schooling, which involves the formation of not only cognitive activity, but also will.

If at an early age the basis of a child’s volitional action is the interconnection of ideas about what to achieve and how to achieve, then in preschool age the semantic aspect of the goal is added to the volitional action. The goal that guides the child’s action reflects the interconnection of ideas about what to achieve, how to achieve and why to achieve.

The development of a child’s will is closely related to the change in motives of behavior that occurs in preschool age and the formation of subordination of motives. It is the emergence of a certain direction, the highlighting of a group of motives that become the most important for the child, that leads to the fact that he consciously achieves his goal, without succumbing to the distracting influence of motives associated with other, less significant motives.

Older preschoolers, for the most part, correctly understand their strengths and weaknesses and take into account the attitude of others towards them. This is of great importance for further development personality, conscious adoption of norms of behavior, following positive models. At the same time, the child begins to deliberately take advantage of the attitude of others towards one or another of his qualities and actions. At this age, children, as a rule, are well aware that stubbornness is a violation of behavioral norms; nevertheless, they consciously show it, but only in relation to those adults who make concessions. A child can emphasize his childish traits, which evoke the love and tenderness of adults, and in this way achieve the satisfaction of all his desires.

In the process of upbringing and learning, under the influence of the demands of adults and peers, a child develops the ability to subordinate his actions to one or another task, to achieve a goal, overcoming the difficulties that arise. He masters the ability to control his posture, for example, to sit calmly during classes as the teacher requires, without spinning or jumping up. Controlling one's own body is not easy for a child . At first, this is a special task that requires external control over oneself - the child can remain relatively motionless only while he looks at the position of his arms, legs, and torso, making sure that they do not get out of control. Only gradually do children begin to control the position of their body based on muscle sensations.

Conscious control of behavior only begins to develop in preschool childhood. Volitional actions coexist with unintentional, impulsive actions.

Will is needed when choosing a goal, making a decision, taking action, and overcoming obstacles that can be both internal and external. Overcoming obstacles requires volitional effort - a special state of neuropsychic tension that mobilizes a person’s physical, intellectual and moral strength. Will manifests itself as a person’s confidence in his own abilities, as the determination to perform the act that the person himself considers appropriate and necessary in a particular situation.

Volitional action is related to needs, but does not flow directly from them. It is mediated by the awareness of the incentives for action as motives and its results as goals (S.L. Rubinstein).

Will arises when a person is capable of reflecting his own drives and can somehow relate to them. The will is inextricably linked with the available plan of action. Through volitional action, a person plans to implement the goal facing him, subordinating his impulses to conscious control and changing the surrounding reality in accordance with his plan.

In older preschool age, the child becomes capable of relatively long-term volitional efforts, although he is much inferior to children in this regard school age. A preschooler is characterized by the emergence and development of volitional actions , but their scope and place in behavior remain limited.

A significant role in the formation of will in preschool age, according to L.I. Bozovic belongs to the game. In the game, the child must obey certain rules, this makes it the most important means of training the will. It may seem that only some games have firm rules: board games, sports games, etc. However, so-called creative “role-playing” games (mother-daughter games, firefighters, hospital games, etc.), which, it would seem, free from strict rules, they still have these rules, albeit in a hidden form. In all such games, children take on certain roles: mother, child, doctor, patient, fireman, etc. Having chosen one or another role for himself, the child is obliged to obey and does obey the rules of this role; must behave in accordance with how the character whose role he has assumed behaves in life. For example, playing the role of a mother, a girl shows care, attention, kindness to her “child”, looks after him, prepares food for him, puts him to bed, that is, diligently carries out the behavior that corresponds to the rules of the game. The game helps the child to identify and understand certain social norms and requirements - thereby teaching him to obey these requirements and norms.

An important point for the development of will is that in the game the child obeys some rules not under the coercion of an adult, but through at will(in other words, the game, as it were, translates the demands of the adult into the needs of the child himself). By obeying certain rules in the game, children experience satisfaction and joy, and this, in turn, leaves a bright emotional imprint on these rules, requirements and norms themselves, which is necessary for the formation of not only moral knowledge, but also moral feelings.

The concept of will. Man, as an active being, not only perceives the world, not only somehow relates to it, but also reacts to its influences, itself influences the world around it, transforming it for its own purposes. In this case, a person pursues certain goals, which he is more or less clearly aware of.

Sometimes achieving a goal is not difficult and does not require effort (for example, the goal is to read a book when it is on the shelf and the person has free time, etc.). But more often than not, achieving a goal involves overcoming difficulties and obstacles. There are two types of difficulties and obstacles - external And internal.

Let us compare two examples from this point of view. In one case, for the student to complete homework he needed a book that he didn’t have. He went to the library, but the book was not there either. He went to one, another, third comrade, but they didn’t have this book either. Then the student went to the teacher and finally got the book. In another case, the student had the required book, but he really didn’t want to learn his lessons, but wanted to go play football, especially since the guys were calling and beckoning - they stood in front of the window, showed soccer ball, made inviting movements. However, the student forced himself to stay at home and sit down to prepare his lessons, overcoming opposing desires. It is clear that in both cases there were obstacles and difficulties, but they were of a completely different nature.

External obstacles- these are objective obstacles beyond a person’s control, external interference, opposition from other people, natural obstacles. Internal obstacles depend on the person himself, this is the reluctance to do what is needed, the presence of contradictory impulses, the person’s passivity, bad mood, the habit of acting thoughtlessly, laziness, a feeling of fear, a sense of false pride, etc.

A person’s will is expressed in how much he is able to overcome obstacles and difficulties on the way to a goal, how much he can manage his behavior, and subordinate his activities to certain tasks. Will- mental activity of a person, which determines his purposeful actions and actions related to overcoming difficulties and obstacles.

Overcoming obstacles and difficulties requires the so-called willpower- a special state of neuropsychic tension, mobilizing the physical, intellectual and moral strength of a person.

Will manifests itself not only in the ability to achieve a goal, but also in the ability to abstain from something. “Great will,” wrote A. S. Makarenko,“This is not only the ability to desire and achieve something, but also the ability to force yourself to give up something when necessary.”

An objective indicator of a person’s will is the magnitude of the obstacles that he is able to overcome. Great is the will of the young builders of the Baikal-Amur Mainline or our heroic cosmonauts, who overcome considerable difficulties in preparing and conducting space flights.

Will can be felt not only in large but also in small matters. For small child manifestation of will in a small matter is a good school of strong-willed actions and actions. A first-grader who consciously resists the temptation to run to the TV to watch a children's cartoon, abandoning unfinished lessons, thereby exercises his will.

Will manifests itself in all types of human activity. Thus, work is unthinkable without volitional effort, without awareness of the goal, without the ability to overcome objective obstacles and fatigue. The will is constantly manifested in the educational activities of the student. At each lesson, when preparing homework, the student has to overcome a variety of obstacles and pull himself together. Teaching requires strong-willed concentration, persistent pursuit of a goal, and the ability to restrain oneself.

What does goal setting and the implementation of one or another volitional action depend on? It may seem that a person can do anything completely freely and arbitrarily, he can act this way and maybe that way; everything depends only on his desires - causeless, conditioned by nothing. Idealist psychologists talk about complete free will.

Scientific psychology does not recognize such free will. More I. M. Sechenov argued that the first cause of every human action lies outside of it, spoke of the complete dependence of volitional actions on the external and internal conditions of human life.

The goals of actions are determined by a person’s worldview, his life attitudes, interests, and personality characteristics. And you already know (from the contents of Chapters III and IV) that all this is the result external influences, living conditions and human activities. Thus, indirectly, volitional actions are always determined by external influences. But the complexity of a person’s mental life, the complexity of external influences, which can be distant and indirect, often do not allow us to establish the objective reasons for certain volitional actions of a person. This creates the illusion of “free will”, the independence of human actions from external influences.

Physiological basis volitional actions. A volitional action is a voluntary action. But also I. M. Sechenov pointed out the reflex nature of all voluntary human actions, which are a reflection of external influences. A correct understanding of the physiological mechanisms of volitional actions is given by the teaching I. P. Pavlova. First of all, you need to remember what was said about the structure and functions of the cerebral cortex in Chapter II. In the anterior part of the cortex is the motor area, which controls movements. In the posterior part of the cortex there are zones that directly communicate with outside world. These zones represent the cortical ends of the analyzers. Closer to the anterior part of the cerebral cortex there are zones where the complex process of organizing motor acts occurs (ensuring their accuracy, coordination, combining individual motor acts into a complex system of goal-directed behavior).

Voluntary movements occur on the basis of education complex systems nerve connections between the cells of these zones. And this means, in the end, that the motor areas of the cortex are brought into an active state by various external irritations and irritations coming from internal organs. As for complex movements, they are a set of complex combinations of such reflexes, therefore, they also have a conditioned reflex nature and are also caused by external influences.

The second signaling system, which performs a regulatory function, plays a decisive role in the organization of volitional actions. Volitional actions arise on the basis of speech signals, that is, they are determined either by verbal instructions coming from others, or by words spoken by the person himself in inner speech when he makes a decision himself. The word is not only a “trigger signal” for volitional action, it directs and regulates the course of the volitional act. Thinking and forming a goal and ways to implement it, evaluating results - everything happens in speech form.

As is known, volitional actions can also be expressed in the refusal of any action (when, for example, a person refrains from unwanted movements, habits, etc.). According to the teaching I. P. Pavlova unwanted movements are inhibited by impulses coming from the second signaling system.

Socio-historical conditioning of will. The ability to act volitionally begins to emerge with the transition of our ape-like ancestors to labor activity. Animals have no will. Will is specific human side psyche, since animals passively adapt to nature, and only humans are characterized by work - conscious activity aimed at subordinating and changing nature.

The will of people was formed and changed depending on socio-historical conditions, depending on the conditions of the material life of society. The nature of a person’s goals and motives is determined by the interests of which class he represents. Therefore, the volitional behavior of some people is aimed at socially significant goals and is determined by high moral principles, while the volitional behavior of other people is aimed at purely personal goals and is subject to selfish motives.

Of course, there are strong-willed people among representatives of capitalist society. They act decisively, show great persistence in pursuing goals, and overcome considerable obstacles. But what goals do they pursue, what motives drive them? They have selfish, selfish goals, they are driven by the thirst for profit, ambition, envy, etc.

In a socialist society, human relationships are built on the principles of mutual assistance and cooperation. Advanced soviet man, if required, subordinates the personal, individual to the public, collective, his personal interests to the interests of the people. It follows that in a society building communism, people develop not just a will, but morally educated communist-oriented will.

The will of a person who energetically overcomes obstacles in the name of selfish, socially harmful goals (and we still have such people), for example, the determination and perseverance of a plunderer public property or the determination of a bully, is not a morally educated will. Such will in our society receives a sharply negative assessment. A morally educated will, which is highly valued in a socialist society and is cultivated in younger generation, is a will aimed at achieving socially useful goals, coming from a sense of duty, a will in which a person knows how to harmoniously combine his personal, individual aspirations with the aspirations of the people.

A huge amount of work is going on in our country to build a communist society. In solving this problem we have to overcome great difficulties. But they are not scary for people with a morally educated will. Our youth, out of duty, go to work on Komsomol shock construction projects, build new cities, factories, mines, railways, power plants beyond the Arctic Circle, in deserts Central Asia, in the taiga, mountains. The morally educated will of these boys and girls deserves the highest praise.

Will- a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior (activity and communication), associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. This is a person’s ability, which manifests itself in self-determination and self-regulation of his behavior and mental phenomena.

The main features of a volitional act:

a) applying effort to perform an act of will;

b) the presence of a well-thought-out plan for implementing a behavioral act;

c) increased attention to such a behavioral act and the absence of direct pleasure received in the process and as a result of its execution;

d) often the efforts of the will are aimed not only at defeating circumstances, but at overcoming oneself.

Currently, there is no unified theory of will in psychological science, although many scientists are making attempts to develop a holistic doctrine of will with its terminological certainty and unambiguity. Apparently, this situation with the study of will is connected with the struggle between reactive and active concepts of human behavior that has been going on since the beginning of the 20th century. For the first concept, the concept of will is practically not needed, because its supporters represent all human behavior as human reactions to external and internal stimuli. Supporters of the active concept of human behavior, which has recently become leading, understand human behavior as initially active, and the person himself as endowed with the ability to consciously choose forms of behavior.

Volitional regulation of behavior. Volitional regulation of behavior is characterized by a state of optimal mobilization of the individual, the required mode of activity, and the concentration of this activity in the required direction.

The main psychological function of the will is to strengthen motivation and improve the regulation of actions on this basis. This is how volitional actions differ from impulsive actions, i.e. actions performed involuntarily and not sufficiently controlled by consciousness.

At the personal level, the manifestation of will finds its expression in such properties as strength of will(the degree of willpower required to achieve the goal), perseverance(a person’s ability to mobilize their capabilities to overcome difficulties for a long time), excerpt(the ability to inhibit actions, feelings, thoughts that interfere with the implementation of the decision made), energy etc. These are the primary (basic) volitional personal qualities that determine most behavioral acts.

There are also secondary volitional qualities that develop in ontogenesis later than the primary ones: determination(ability to make and implement quick, informed and firm decisions), courage(the ability to overcome fear and take justifiable risks to achieve a goal, despite the dangers to personal well-being), self-control(the ability to control the sensory side of your psyche and subordinate your behavior to solving consciously set tasks), self confidence. These qualities should be considered not only as volitional, but also as characterological.

Tertiary qualities include volitional qualities that are closely related to moral ones: responsibility(a quality that characterizes a person from the point of view of his fulfillment of moral requirements), discipline(conscious subordination of one’s behavior to generally accepted norms, established order), integrity(fidelity to a certain idea in beliefs and consistent implementation of this idea in behavior), obligation(the ability to voluntarily assume responsibilities and fulfill them). This group also includes qualities of will associated with a person’s attitude to work: efficiency, initiative(the ability to work creatively, taking actions on one’s own initiative), organization(reasonable planning and ordering of your work), diligence(diligence, completing assignments and duties on time), etc. Tertiary qualities of will are usually formed only by adolescence, i.e. the moment when there is already experience of volitional actions.

Volitional actions can be divided into simple and complex. In a simple act of will, the impulse to action (motive) turns into the action itself almost automatically. In a complex volitional act, an action is preceded by taking into account its consequences, awareness of motives, decision-making, the emergence of an intention to carry it out, drawing up a plan for its implementation, etc.

The development of will in a person is associated with:

a) with the transformation of involuntary mental processes into voluntary ones;

b) with a person acquiring control over his behavior;

c) with the development of volitional qualities of the individual;

d) with the fact that a person consciously sets himself more and more difficult tasks and pursues more and more distant goals that require significant volitional efforts over a long time.

The formation of volitional qualities of a person can be considered as a movement from primary to secondary and then to tertiary qualities.

Free will and personal responsibility. Consideration of the psychological interpretation of personality presupposes the interpretation of the phenomenon of its spiritual freedom. Personal freedom in psychological terms is, first of all, freedom of will. It is defined in relation to two quantities: vital drives and social conditions human life. Drives (biological impulses) are transformed in him under the influence of his self-awareness, the spiritual and moral coordinates of his personality. Moreover, man is the only living being who can say “no” to his instincts at any moment, and who does not have to always say “yes” to them (M. Scheler).

Man is not free from social conditions. But he is free to take a position in relation to them, since these conditions do not completely condition him. It depends on him - within the limits of his limitations - whether he will surrender, whether he will yield to the conditions (V. Frankl). In this regard, freedom is when a person himself must decide whether to choose good or give in to evil (F.M. Dostoevsky).

However, freedom is only one side of a holistic phenomenon, the positive aspect of which is being responsible. Personal freedom can turn into simple arbitrariness if it is not experienced from the point of view of responsibility (V. Frankl). A person is doomed to freedom and, at the same time, cannot escape responsibility. Another thing is that for many people, peace of mind turns out to be more valuable than a free choice between good and evil, and therefore they readily “attribute” their sins (ignoble deeds, meanness, betrayal) to “objective conditions” - the imperfection of society, bad educators, dysfunctional families, in which they grew up, etc. The Marxist thesis about the fundamental dependence of good and evil in man on external (social) conditions has always been a pretext for avoiding personal responsibility.

Control questions

1. What are the concepts and main signs of will?

2. Show the importance of will in organizing activities and communication.

3. What is the volitional regulation of behavior?

4. What are the primary, secondary and tertiary volitional qualities of a person?

5. Do you consider yourself a strong-willed person?

6. Using a questionnaire, try to determine your level of willpower development. When answering questions, mark in the table with a “+” sign the one of the three answers you have chosen: “yes”, “I don’t know (sometimes)”, “no”:

1. Are you able to complete the work you have started that is not interesting to you, regardless of the fact that time and circumstances allow you to break away and then return to it again?

2. Do you easily overcome internal resistance when you need to do something unpleasant to you (for example, go on duty on a day off)?

3. When you find yourself in a conflict situation - at work (study) or at home - are you able to pull yourself together enough to look at the situation soberly with maximum objectivity?

4. If you are prescribed a diet, can you overcome culinary temptations?

5. Will you find the strength to get up earlier than usual in the morning, as planned in the evening?

6. Will you remain at the scene to testify?

7. Do you respond quickly to emails?

8. If you are afraid of an upcoming flight on an airplane or a visit to the dentist’s office, will you be able to overcome this feeling without much difficulty and last moment not change your intention?

9. Will you take a very unpleasant medicine that the doctor persistently recommends to you?

10. Will you keep your word in the heat of the moment, even if fulfilling it will bring you a lot of trouble, in other words, are you a man of your word?

11. Do you hesitate to go on a business trip (business trip) to an unfamiliar city?

12. Do you strictly adhere to the daily routine: time to wake up, eat, study, clean and other things?

13. Do you disapprove of library debtors?

14. The most interesting TV show will not make you put off urgent work. Is it so?

15. Will you be able to interrupt a quarrel and remain silent, no matter how offensive the words of the “opposite side” may seem to you?

Answer options

Reply number

Total

I don't know, sometimes

Key to the questionnaire

Sum up the answers received using a point system: “yes” - 2 points; "no" - 0 points; “I don’t know” - 1 point.

0 - 12 points. Your willpower is not going well. You just do what is easier and more interesting, even if it may harm you in some way. You often take your responsibilities carelessly, which can cause various troubles for you. Your position is expressed by the well-known saying “what do I need more than anyone else?..” You perceive any request, any obligation almost as physical pain. The point here is not only weak will, but also selfishness. Try to look at yourself taking into account such an assessment, maybe it will help you change your attitude towards others and “remake” something in your character. If you succeed, you will only benefit from this.

13 - 21 points. Your willpower is average. If you encounter an obstacle, you take action to overcome it. But if you see a workaround, you will immediately use it. You won’t overdo it, but you’ll keep your word. You will try to do unpleasant work, although you will grumble. By goodwill You won’t take on extra responsibilities. This sometimes negatively affects the attitude of managers towards you and does not characterize you from the best side in the eyes of the people around you. If you want to achieve more in life, train your will.

22 - 30 points. Your willpower is fine. I can rely on you - you won't let me down. You are not afraid of new assignments, long trips, or those things that frighten others. But sometimes your firm and irreconcilable position on unprincipled issues annoys those around you. Willpower is very good, but you also need to have such qualities as flexibility, forbearance, and kindness.

LITERATURE

Vygotsky L.S. Collection op. In 6 vols. T. 3. - M., 1983. - P. 454 - 465.

Vysotsky A.I. Volitional activity of schoolchildren and methods of studying it. - Chelyabinsk, 1979. - P. 67.

Gomezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas on psychology. - P. 194, 204 - 213.

Kotyplo V.K. Development of volitional behavior in preschool children. - Kyiv, 1971. - P. 11 - 51.

Nemov R.S. Psychology. Book 1. - pp. 357 - 366.

General psychology. - M., 1986. - P. 385 - 400.

Psychological Dictionary. - P. 53, 54.

Psychology. Dictionary. - P. 62, 63.

Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. T. 2. - P. 182 - 211.

Collection of tests for selecting candidates for employment (US Methodology). - P. 20 - 22.

Experimental studies of volitional activity. - Ryazan, 1986. - P. 3 - 23.

Essay
In the discipline "Psychology"
On the topic of:
General concept of will. Theories of will.

Content:

General concept of will.
Will is present in many acts of human behavior, helping to overcome resistance, as well as other desires and needs on the way to the intended goal. If, for example, a person does not want to drink bitter medicine, but he knows that it is extremely necessary for his health, then, suppressing his reluctance by willpower, he forces himself to systematically carry out the prescribed treatment. Another example: a student wants to go to a disco, but his homework test is not ready for tomorrow. Overcoming a momentary desire with an effort of will, the student forces himself to work, setting the goal of tomorrow's success. We also observe the manifestation of will in various communication situations. For example, a person is unpleasant to us, but our further advancement objectively depends on him, therefore, through an effort of will, we restrain our hostility and put on a psychological mask suitable for the given situation; and as a result we achieve our goal.
Most often, a person shows his will in the following typical situations:
it is necessary to make a choice between two or more thoughts, goals, and feelings that are equally attractive, but require opposite actions, and are incompatible with each other;
no matter what, it is necessary to purposefully move towards the intended goal;
on a way practical activities person, internal (fear, uncertainty, doubts) or external (objective circumstances) obstacles arise that must be overcome.
In other words, will (its presence or absence) manifests itself in all situations related to choice and decision-making. Will is
a person’s conscious overcoming of difficulties on the path to action.
The main functions of the will are:
choice of motives and goals;
regulation of the impulse to act when there is insufficient or excessive motivation;
organization of mental processes into a system that is adequate to the activity performed by a person;
mobilization of physical and mental capabilities in achieving set goals in a situation of overcoming obstacles.
Will as a phenomenon of the human psyche attracted the attention of thinkers back in antiquity. Aristotle introduced the concept of will into the system of categories of the science of the soul in order to explain how human behavior is realized in accordance with knowledge, which in itself is devoid of motivating power. Aristotle's will acted as a factor, along with desire, capable of changing the course of behavior: initiating it, stopping it, changing direction and pace. However, thinkers of antiquity, and later the Middle Ages, did not interpret will in its modern personal understanding. Thus, in antiquity the concept of will was absorbed by the concept of logic; According to Aristotle, for example, any action follows primarily from a logical conclusion.
During the Middle Ages, there was a ritual of exoris - exorcism of the devil. Man in those days was perceived only as a passive principle, in which the will manifested itself in the form of good and evil spirits (sometimes even personified). This understanding of will was due to the fact that traditional society actually denied self-start in behavior. S.I. Rogov* notes that the personality appears in it only as a genus, as a program according to which the ancestors lived. The right to deviate was recognized only for certain members of society, for example, a shaman - a person who communicates with the spirits of ancestors; a blacksmith - a person who has the power of fire and metal; robber - a criminal man who opposed himself to a given society.
The concept of will seems to be revived in modern times along with the emergence of the concept of personality, one of the main values of which is free will. A new worldview is emerging - existentialism, a philosophy of existence, according to which freedom is absolute, free will. M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers, J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus believed that any person is essentially self-willed and irresponsible, and any social norms are a suppression of human essence.
In Russia, an interesting interpretation of will was presented by I.P. Pavlov, considering will as an instinct (reflex) of freedom. As an instinct of freedom, will is no less a stimulus for behavior than the instincts of hunger or danger.
Much controversy has arisen and is arising on the issue of the conscious or unconscious origin of the concept of will.
Supporters of idealistic views interpreted as a phenomenon of will the inherent human ability to independently choose a goal and ways to achieve it. They interpreted the ability to make decisions expressing personal attitudes and beliefs as the result of the actions of an irrational force behind these acts.
At one time, the German philosophers A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann absolutized will, declaring it a cosmic force, a blind unconscious principle, the derivative of which are all mental manifestations of man.
Psychoanalytic psychology represented the human will as a kind of energy of human actions. Proponents of psychoanalysis believed that human actions are controlled by a certain biological energy of a person, converted into mental energy. Freud identified this energy with the psychosexual energy of sexual desire - the unconscious libido, thereby explaining human behavior first by the cultivated manifestations of this life-affirming force (Eros), and then by its struggle with the equally subconscious human desire for death (Thantos).
Proponents of the theory of will as a special supernatural force underlying the psyche and existence in general were such famous psychologists as W. Wundt and W. James.
The theological interpretation of will is that will is identified with the divine principle in the world: God is the exclusive owner of free will, endowing it with people at his own discretion.
Materialists interpret will as a side of the psyche that has a material basis in the form of nervous brain processes. Volitional or voluntary actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of involuntary actions are reflex ones. This type also includes impulsive actions, unconscious, not subordinate to the general goal of the reaction. In contrast to involuntary actions, a person’s conscious actions are aimed at achieving his goal, which is characteristic of volitional behavior.
The material basis of voluntary movements is the activity of giant pyramidal cells located in one of the layers of the cerebral cortex in the region of the anterior central gyrus. Impulses for movement are generated in these cells. Scientists came to this conclusion by studying the causes of abulia (painful lack of will), which develops on the basis of brain pathology and appraxia (impaired voluntary regulation of movements and actions that make it impossible to carry out a volitional act), resulting from damage to the frontal lobes of the brain.
The doctrine of the second signal system I.P. Pavlova significantly supplemented the materialistic concept, proving the conditioned reflex essence of will.
Modern research on will in psychology is carried out in different scientific directions: in behaviorist-oriented science, certain forms of behavior are studied; in the psychology of motivation, the focus is on intrapersonal conflicts and ways to overcome them; in personality psychology, the main attention is focused on the identification and study of the corresponding volitional characteristics of the individual. At the same time modern psychology strives to give the science of the will an integrative character.

Theories of Will
1. Heteronomous theories reduce volitional actions to complex mental processes of a non-volitional nature - associative and intellectual processes. Ebbinghaus: will is an instinct that arises on the basis of the reversibility of associations or on the basis of the so-called “sighted instinct”, conscious of its goal. I. Herbart: volitional action is associated with a complex combination of intellectual mental processes ® first impulsive behavior arises, then on its basis the action developed on the basis of habit is actualized, and after that - action controlled by the mind, i.e. volitional action. According to this point of view, every act is volitional, because every action is reasonable. Positive: inclusion of the factor of determinism in the explanation of will (moving away from spiritualism). Disadvantages: the will is not substantial, does not have its own content and is actualized only when necessary; do not explain the phenomena of arbitrariness of actions, the phenomenon inner freedom, mechanisms of formation of volitional action from non-volitional.

2. Affective theory of will by W. Wundt. Wundt sharply objected to attempts to derive the impulse for volitional action from intellectual processes. He explains the will with the help of the concept of affect. The most essential thing for the emergence of a volitional process is the activity of external action, which is directly related to internal experiences. In the simplest act of will, Wundt distinguishes two moments: affect and the action associated with it. External actions are aimed at achieving the final result, and internal actions are aimed at changing other mental processes, including emotional ones. Volitional process is an affect (complex feeling), an emotional process associated with an action that can stop this process. Volitional processes are ordinary mental processes when they are controlled and represented in consciousness. Two aspects of the volitional process: objective (related to the subject) and subjective (related to the attitude towards the content). The objective content of the volitional process is its motive. The subjective aspect is the driving force of the motive. Processes that have only one motive - impulsive, are carried out without delay. If there are more motives, then this action is arbitrary. Will is the problem of arbitrariness of action, the problem of the struggle of motives.

3. Theories of autonomous will explain this mental phenomenon based on the laws inherent in the volitional action itself. All theories of autonomous will can be divided into three groups:

1) motivational approach: will, one way or another, is explained using the categories of the psychology of motivation. In turn, it is divided into:

O theories that understand will as a superhuman, world force (E. Hartmann and A. Schopenhauer) Will is a completely irrational, blind, unconscious, aimless and, moreover, never-ending or weakening impulse. It is universal and is the basis for everything that exists: it gives birth to everything (through the process of objectification) and governs everything. Only by creating the world and looking into it as in a mirror, does she gain the opportunity to realize herself, first of all, that she is the will to live. The will that exists in every person is simply an objectification of the world's will. G.I. Chelpanov believed that the soul has its own power to make choices and motivate action. In the act of will, he distinguished aspiration, desire and effort; later he began to connect the will with the struggle of motives.

O theories that consider the will as starting moment motivation of action T. Hobbes, T. Ribot, it can not only encourage action, but also inhibit some undesirable actions. K. Levin This is internal tension caused by some unfinished action. The implementation of volitional behavior consists in relieving tension through certain actions - movements in the psychological environment (locomotion and communications); the will has the ability to induce actions.

O theories that understand will as the ability to overcome obstacles. Yu. Kul connects volitional regulation with the presence of difficulties in implementing intentions. He distinguishes between intention and desire (motivation). Active intentional regulation is activated at the moment an obstacle or competing tendencies arise in the path of desire. H. Heckhausen identifies four stages of motivation for action, which involve different mechanisms - motivational and volitional. The first stage corresponds to motivation before making a decision, the second - volitional effort, the third - the implementation of actions, and the fourth - evaluation of the results of behavior. Motivation determines the choice of action, and will determines its strengthening and initiation. D.N. Uznadze correlates the formation of will with activities that are aimed at creating values independent of actual human needs. Volitional behavior differs from impulsive behavior in that it has a period preceding the act of decision-making. Behavior becomes volitional only thanks to a motive that modifies behavior in such a way that the latter becomes acceptable to the subject. There are two sides to a volitional act: phenomenological and dynamic. Phenomenological includes such moments as 1) a feeling of tension (figurative moment), 2) determining the goal of the action and its relationship with the means (objective), 3) committing internal action(current), 4) experiencing difficulty, making an effort (moment of state). The dynamic side of a volitional act lies in the implementation, embodiment of a motivated (volitional) action. L.S. Vygotsky overcoming obstacles as one of the signs of will. As a mechanism for strengthening the impulse to action, he defines the operation of introducing an auxiliary motive (means). Such an additional motive can be drawing lots, counting by one, two, three, etc.

2) approach of free choice: the relationship of volitional processes with the problem of making a choice (I. Kant, W. James) the main function of the will is to make a decision about action in the presence of two or more ideas. In such a situation the most important feat will consists in directing consciousness towards an attractive object, S.L. Rubinstein Choice as one of the functions of the will;

3) regulatory approach: the relationship of will with the function of exercising control, management and self-regulation. M.Ya. Basov understood will as a mental mechanism through which a person regulates his mental functions. Volitional effort is defined as the subjective expression of the regulatory volitional function. The will is deprived of the ability to generate mental or other actions, but it regulates them, revealing itself in attention.

Volitional regulation of human behavior
Will and its strength are manifested in volitional actions (human actions). Volitional actions, like all mental activity, according to I.P. Pavlov, are associated with the functioning of the brain. An important role in the implementation of volitional actions is played by the frontal lobes of the brain, in which, as research shows, the result achieved each time is compared with a previously drawn up goal program.
The will provides two interrelated functions - incentive and inhibitory, manifesting itself in them in the form of volitional action. In this regard, the will is divided into activating (motivating, stimulating) and inhibitory. The incentive function promotes human activity not in fact (as a reactive function), but on the basis of the specifics of internal states that are revealed at the moment of the action itself. The inhibitory function of the will manifests itself in restraining unwanted manifestations of activity. The incentive and inhibitory functions form the content basis of the process of volitional regulation.
Volitional regulation of human behavior in its most developed form is the conscious control of one’s own thoughts, feelings, desires and behavior.
Among the levels of mental regulation the following are distinguished:
involuntary regulation (pre-psychic involuntary reactions; figurative (sensory) and perceptual regulation);
voluntary regulation (speech-mental level of regulation);
volitional regulation (the highest level of voluntary regulation of activity, ensuring overcoming difficulties in achieving the goal).
As a result of volitional regulation, a volitional act occurs. An elementary act of will occurs only when another thought does not appear in a person’s head simultaneously with the thought of performing an action, interfering with its implementation. Such an act can, for example, be considered an ideomotor act: the ability of one thought about movement to cause the movement itself. A more complex act of will is associated with overcoming the so-called competing idea, in the presence of which a person has a specific feeling of the effort being made, which is associated with the manifestation of willpower.
The most complex act of will is one in which, by overcoming internal and external resistance, the decision is consciously accepted and then implemented. Complex acts of will include, for example, giving up bad habits (smoking, alcoholism) and bad company. A complex volitional act is not carried out instantly in real time; sometimes it requires the application of maximum willpower to carry it out. Complex acts of will- the highest indicator of a strong-willed person. Another difference between a strong-willed person and a person of habit is the presence of developed strong-willed qualities in the former.
Volitional qualities are divided into three categories: primary volitional qualities (willpower, perseverance, endurance); secondary, or derivative, volitional qualities (decisiveness, courage, self-control, confidence); tertiary volitional qualities (responsibility, discipline, commitment, integrity, efficiency, initiative).
Volitional qualities are a dynamic category, i.e. capable of change and development throughout life. Volitional qualities are often aimed not so much at mastering circumstances and overcoming them, but at overcoming oneself. This especially applies to people of the impulsive type, unbalanced and emotionally excitable, when they have to act contrary to their natural or characterological data.
All achievements of man and humanity as a whole cannot be achieved without the participation of will, volitional regulation of behavior. All volitional processes that make up the regulation mechanism have several essential phases:
1) the emergence of motivation and goal setting;
2) stage of discussion and struggle of motives;
3) decision making;
4) execution.
The key concepts of phases 1-3 are attraction and desire. Attraction is an unconscious need, and desire is a conscious need, ready to turn first into a motive and then into a goal of behavior. However, not every desire can be immediately realized, since a person may have several uncoordinated desires at the same time, thereby giving rise to a struggle of motives. The struggle of motives is often accompanied by strong internal tension, especially if the desires are polar. In traditional psychology, the struggle of motives is considered as the core of a volitional act. Overcoming internal conflict occurs only through awareness of the real significance and correlation of motives, their importance for a person and the consequences resulting from volitional action.
Decision-making is the final moment of the struggle of motives, giving rise to a sense of responsibility for action specific to an act of will. The decision-making process is quite complex, and its speed largely depends on such a category as a person’s determination, the degree of which depends on the following factors:
the presence of reasonable grounds for carrying out an act of will;
the dynamics and strength of external circumstances that determine the scale of motives;
temperament and characterological characteristics of the person making the decision.
The final phase of the volitional process is execution. The execution stage has a complex internal structure: making a decision does not mean immediately executing it.
Execution of a decision is very closely related to such a category as time. If execution is delayed for a significant period, then we are talking about intention, which, in turn, must be carefully planned, which will determine the success and speed of execution. For final decision making and execution, volitional effort is required.
Volitional effort is a form of emotional stress that mobilizes a person’s internal resources and creates additional motives for action to achieve a goal. Willpower depends on the following factors:
worldview of the individual;
moral stability;
the presence of social significance of the goals;
attitudes towards action;
level of personality self-organization.
In other words, the will is a unique reflection of the structure of the personality and its internal characteristics. The volitional action of each person is unique.
Knowledge of the mechanisms of volitional regulation and methods of developing will is necessary for every person striving for systematic and successful self-development and achieving life goals.

Development of the human will
Will is one of the human qualities that is potentially inherent before birth and which, at the same time, can be developed throughout life. The range of a strong will is as great as the range of a weak will. The desire to strengthen one’s will and expand the range of application of volitional action most often arises in people with internal localization of control. Localization of control is a person's tendency to attribute responsibility for the results of an action to external or internal forces. Internals most often feel personal responsibility for their actions, explaining them by their personal characteristics, so they strive to work on themselves, improve themselves, including developing their will. Externals try to explain everything by external circumstances, absolving themselves of all responsibility and thereby reducing the relevance of volitional activity and volitional training.
A person who wants to control himself and his circumstances, who wants to overcome destructive emotions and qualities (for example, fear and laziness), can, through training, strengthen his will and increase the range of his capabilities.
When working on developing your will, you can rely on the recommendations given by L.I. Ruvinsky and S.I. Khokhlov*. Let's take a look at these recommendations.
It is better not to make decisions than to make and not implement them. Decision must be done.
The goal must be useful, socially significant, and attractive.
The goal you set must be carefully considered. You cannot set goals and make decisions when you are in a state of strong emotional arousal, anger, or when the most significant circumstances related to the implementation of your decision cannot be taken into account.
The goal you set must match your capabilities. It will be achieved if:
the willpower required to carry out the decision;
specific knowledge and skills necessary to implement the decision;
developed one or another strong-willed quality (endurance, perseverance, diligence, courage, determination);
time and funds required to implement the decision.
The goal must be absolutely specific:
the exact date for the start of implementation of the decision is indicated;
the minimum amount of daily planned work is clearly defined;
the total duration of work on something is indicated;
the expected result is clearly indicated;
the means of implementing the decision are indicated.
The main goal should be divided into a number of intermediate ones. A necessary condition for the effectiveness of goal setting is the ability to make it achievable, attractive and include it as an integral part of motives that are meaningful to us and actually work.
Thus, its motivating power depends on the awareness of the significance of the goal, its correct choice, and the combination of short, medium and long-term prospects.
To successfully implement our plans, internal activity is necessary. It must be purposeful and carried out competently, with an understanding of the essence of the mental processes occurring in us. Learning to manage your feelings and mental conditions, we receive a double benefit: we develop and strengthen the necessary character traits (self-control, endurance), and also induce the necessary mental states that help us achieve our goals.
A sufficient level of will development is a necessary basis and condition for the implementation of a self-education program. That is why self-education of the will is not only the goal of developing one of the personality qualities, but is also necessary for its formation as a whole.

Conclusion:
Will is freedom of choice. The outlined approaches to understanding the essence of will reflect its various aspects and indicate various functions. Will is a psychological mechanism that allows a person to consciously control his behavior, expressed in the ability to see and overcome internal and external obstacles to purposeful actions and actions. Motives for volitional actions develop and arise as a result active interaction person with the outside world, and first of all with society. Free will does not mean the denial of the universal laws of nature and society, but presupposes knowledge of them and the choice of adequate behavior. The function of volitional regulation is to increase the efficiency of the corresponding activity, and volitional action appears as a conscious, purposeful action of a person to overcome external and internal obstacles with the help of volitional efforts. At the personal level, will manifests itself in such properties as willpower, energy, perseverance, endurance, etc. They can be considered as primary, or basic, volitional qualities of a person. A strong-willed person is distinguished by determination, courage, self-control, and self-confidence. There are also qualities associated with moral and value orientations: responsibility, discipline, integrity, commitment; This also includes those qualities in which the will of a person and his attitude to work simultaneously appear: efficiency, initiative. Volitional regulation is necessary in order to keep in the field of consciousness for a long time the object that a person is thinking about and to maintain attention concentrated on it. The will is involved in the regulation of mental functions: sensations, perception, imagination, memory, thinking and speech. The development of these cognitive processes from lower to higher means that a person acquires volitional control over them.
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in the academic discipline "General Experimental Psychology"

Psychological theories of will

Introduction

1. General concept of will

3. Basic theories of will

Conclusion

Bibliography

Application

Introduction

Will is the ability of an individual to consciously and purposefully regulate and control his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to mobilize mental and physical capabilities to overcome difficulties and obstacles that stand in the way of the goal.

Carrying out an act of will, a person acts arbitrarily and without submitting to the actions of external causes.

The will combines three main properties of consciousness: cognition, attitude and experience, being the motivating and administrative forms of their regulation, performing activating or inhibitory functions. Volitional states are manifested in activity - passivity, restraint - lack of restraint, confidence - uncertainty, determination - indecisiveness.

Will is an element of personal consciousness. Therefore, it is not an innate quality, but is formed and developed in the process of personality formation. The development of will in a person is associated with the transformation of involuntary mental processes into voluntary ones, with the acquisition by a person of control over his behavior, with the development of volitional qualities of the individual into a complex form of activity.

The problem of will, voluntary and volitional regulation of human behavior and activity has long occupied the minds of scientists, causing heated debates and discussions. To date, several scientific directions have emerged that interpret the concept of “will” in different ways. this work is devoted to a review of these theories of will.

Purpose of the work: To characterize psychological theories of will

1. Consider the general concept of will

2. Identify the relationship between the components of will in theories of will

1. General concept of will

Will is present in many acts of human behavior, helping to overcome resistance, as well as other desires and needs on the way to the intended goal. If, for example, a person does not want to drink bitter medicine, but he knows that it is extremely necessary for his health, then, suppressing his reluctance by willpower, he forces himself to systematically carry out the prescribed treatment. Another example: a student wants to go to a disco, but his homework test is not ready for tomorrow. Overcoming a momentary desire with an effort of will, the student forces himself to work, setting the goal of tomorrow's success. We also observe the manifestation of will in various communication situations. For example, a person is unpleasant to us, but our further advancement objectively depends on him, therefore, through an effort of will, we restrain our hostility, put on a psychological “mask” suitable for the given situation, and as a result we achieve our goal.

Most often, a person shows his will in the following typical situations:

it is necessary to make a choice between two or more thoughts, goals, and feelings that are equally attractive, but require opposite actions, and are incompatible with each other;

no matter what, it is necessary to purposefully move towards the intended goal;

On the path of a person’s practical activity, internal (fear, uncertainty, doubts) or external (objective circumstances) obstacles arise that must be overcome.

In other words, will (its presence or absence) manifests itself in all situations related to choice and decision-making.

The main functions of the will are:

choice of motives and goals;

regulation of the impulse to act when there is insufficient or excessive motivation;

organization of mental processes into a system that is adequate to the activity performed by a person;

mobilization of physical and mental capabilities in achieving set goals in a situation of overcoming obstacles.

Will as a phenomenon human psyche even in antiquity attracted the attention of thinkers. Aristotle introduced the concept of will into the system of categories of the science of the soul in order to explain how human behavior is realized in accordance with knowledge, which in itself is devoid of motivating power. Aristotle's will acted as a factor, along with desire, capable of changing the course of behavior: initiating it, stopping it, changing direction and pace. However, thinkers of antiquity, and later the Middle Ages, did not interpret will in its modern personal understanding. Thus, in antiquity the concept of “will” was absorbed by the concept of “logic”. According to Aristotle, for example, any action follows primarily from a logical conclusion.

During the Middle Ages, there was a ritual of exoris - exorcism of the devil. Man in those days was perceived only as a passive principle, in which the will manifested itself in the form of good and evil spirits. This understanding of will was due to the fact that traditional society actually denied independent behavior. S.I. Rogov notes that the personality appears in him only as a genus, as a program according to which the ancestors lived. The right to deviate was recognized only for certain members of society, for example, a shaman - a person who communicates with the spirits of ancestors; a blacksmith - a person who has the power of fire and metal; robber - a criminal man who opposed himself to a given society.

The concept of will seems to be revived in modern times along with the emergence of the concept of personality, one of the main values of which is free will. A new worldview is emerging - existentialism, the “philosophy of existence”, according to which freedom is absolute, free will. M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers, J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus believed that any person is essentially self-willed and irresponsible, and any social norms are a suppression of human essence.

In Russia, an interesting interpretation of will was presented by I.P. Pavlov, considering will as an “instinct” (reflex) of freedom. As an instinct of freedom, will is no less a stimulus for behavior than the instincts of hunger or danger.

Much controversy has arisen and is arising on the issue of the conscious or unconscious origin of the concept of “will”.

Psychoanalytic psychology represented the human will as a kind of energy of human actions. Proponents of psychoanalysis believed that human actions are controlled by a certain biological energy of a person, converted into mental energy. Freud identified this energy with the psychosexual energy of sexual desire - the unconscious libido, thereby explaining human behavior first by the “cultivated” manifestations of this life-affirming force (Eros), and then by its struggle with a person’s equally subconscious craving for death (Thantos).

The theological interpretation of will is that will is identified with the divine principle in the world: God is the exclusive owner of free will, endowing it with people at his own discretion.

Materialists interpret will as a side of the psyche that has a material basis in the form of nervous brain processes. Volitional or voluntary actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of involuntary actions are reflex ones. This type also includes impulsive actions, unconscious, not subordinate to the general goal of the reaction. In contrast to involuntary actions, a person’s conscious actions are aimed at achieving his goal, which is characteristic of volitional behavior.

The material basis of voluntary movements is the activity of giant pyramidal cells located in one of the layers of the cerebral cortex in the region of the anterior central gyrus. Impulses for movement are generated in these cells. Scientists came to this conclusion by studying the causes of abulia (painful lack of will), which develops on the basis of brain pathology and appraxia (impaired voluntary regulation of movements and actions that make it impossible to carry out a volitional act), resulting from damage to the frontal lobes of the brain.

The doctrine of the second signaling system I.P. Pavlova significantly supplemented the materialistic concept, proving the conditioned reflex essence of will.

Modern research on will in psychology is carried out in different scientific directions: in behaviorist-oriented science, certain forms of behavior are studied; in the psychology of motivation, the focus is on intrapersonal conflicts and ways to overcome them; in personality psychology, the main attention is focused on the identification and study of the corresponding volitional characteristics of the individual. At the same time, modern psychology strives to give the science of will an integrative character.

2. General characteristics of volitional actions

Any human activity is always accompanied by specific actions, which can be divided into two large groups: voluntary and involuntary. The main difference between voluntary actions is that they are carried out under the control of consciousness and require certain efforts on the part of the person aimed at achieving a consciously set song. For example, let’s imagine a sick person who with difficulty takes a glass of water in his hand, brings it to his mouth, tilts it, makes movements with his mouth, that is, performs a whole series of actions united by one goal - to quench his thirst. All individual actions, thanks to the efforts of consciousness aimed at regulating behavior, merge into one whole, and the person drinks water. These efforts are often called volitional regulation, or will.

Voluntary or volitional actions develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions. The simplest of involuntary movements are reflex ones: constriction and dilation of the pupil, blinking, swallowing, sneezing, etc. Our expressive movements are usually involuntary in nature.

Behavior, like actions, can be involuntary or voluntary. The involuntary type of behavior mainly includes impulsive actions and unconscious, not subordinated to a common goal, reactions, for example, to noise outside the window, to an object that can satisfy a need. Involuntary behavior also includes human behavioral reactions observed in situations of affect, when a person is under the influence of an emotional state uncontrolled by consciousness.

In contrast to involuntary actions, conscious actions, which are more characteristic of human behavior, are aimed at achieving a set goal. It is the consciousness of actions that characterizes volitional behavior. Volitional actions differ from each other primarily in the level of their complexity.

Another important sign of volitional behavior is its connection with overcoming obstacles, regardless of what type these obstacles are - internal or external. Internal, or subjective, obstacles are a person’s motivations aimed at not performing a given action or at performing actions that are opposite to it.

It should be noted that not every action aimed at overcoming an obstacle is volitional. For example, a person running away from a dog can overcome very difficult obstacles and even climb a tall tree, but these actions are not volitional, since they are caused primarily by external reasons, and not by the person’s internal attitudes. Thus, the most important feature of volitional actions aimed at overcoming obstacles is the awareness of the significance of the goal that must be fought for, the awareness of the need to achieve it. The more significant a goal is for a person, the more obstacles he overcomes. Therefore, volitional actions can differ not only in the degree of their complexity, but also in the degree of awareness.

Usually we are more or less clearly aware of why we perform certain actions, we know the goal we are striving to achieve. There are times when a person is aware of what he is doing, but cannot explain why he is doing it. Most often this happens when a person is overwhelmed by some strong feelings and experiences emotional arousal. Such actions are usually called impulsive. The degree of awareness of such actions is greatly reduced. Having committed rash actions, a person often regrets what he did. But the will lies precisely in the fact that a person is able to restrain himself from committing rash acts during affective outbursts. Consequently, the will is associated with mental activity and feelings.

Will implies the presence of a person’s sense of purpose, which requires certain thought processes. The manifestation of thinking is expressed in the conscious choice of a goal and the selection of means to achieve it. Thinking is also necessary during the execution of a planned action. Carrying out our intended action, we encounter many difficulties. Without the participation of thinking, volitional actions would be devoid of consciousness, that is, they would cease to be volitional actions.

The connection between will and feelings is expressed in the fact that, as a rule, we pay attention to objects and phenomena that evoke certain feelings in us. The desire to achieve or achieve something, just like to avoid something unpleasant, is associated with our feelings. What is indifferent to us and does not evoke any emotions, as a rule, does not act as a goal of action. However, it is a mistake to believe that only feelings are sources of volitional actions. Often we are faced with a situation where feelings, on the contrary, act as an obstacle to achieving our goal. Therefore, we have to make volitional efforts to resist the negative effects of emotions. Convincing confirmation that feelings are not the only source of our actions are pathological cases of loss of the ability to experience feelings while maintaining the ability to act consciously. Thus, the sources of volitional actions are very diverse. Before we begin to consider them, we need to get acquainted with the main and most famous theories of the will and how they reveal the reasons for the emergence of volitional actions in humans.

3. Basic theories of will

Understanding will as a real factor of behavior has its own history. At the same time, in views on the nature of this mental phenomenon Two aspects can be distinguished: philosophical and ethical and natural science. They are closely intertwined and can only be considered in interaction with each other.

During antiquity and the Middle Ages, the problem of will was not considered from the positions characteristic of its modern understanding. Ancient philosophers considered purposeful or conscious human behavior only from the perspective of its compliance with generally accepted norms. IN ancient world First of all, the ideal of the sage was recognized, therefore ancient philosophers believed that the rules of human behavior must correspond to the rational principles of nature and life, the rules of logic. Thus, according to Aristotle, the nature of the will is expressed in the formation of a logical conclusion. For example, in his “Nicomachean Ethics” the premise “all sweet things must be eaten” and the condition “these apples are sweet” do not entail the injunction “this apple must be eaten,” but a conclusion about the necessity of a specific action - eating an apple. Therefore, the source of our conscious actions lies in the human mind.

It should be noted that such views on the nature of the will are completely justified and therefore continue to exist today. For example, Sh.N. Chkhartishvili opposes the special nature of will, believing that the concepts of goal and awareness are categories of intellectual behavior, and, in his opinion, there is no need to introduce new terms. This point of view is justified by the fact that thought processes are an integral component of volitional actions.

In fact, the problem of will did not exist as an independent problem during the Middle Ages. Man was considered by medieval philosophers as an exclusively passive principle, as a “field” on which external forces meet. Moreover, very often in the Middle Ages the will was endowed with independent existence and even personified in specific forces, turning into good or evil beings. However, in this interpretation, the will acted as a manifestation of a certain mind that set itself certain goals. Knowledge of these forces - good or evil, according to medieval philosophers, opens the way to knowledge of the “true” reasons for the actions of a particular person.

Consequently, the concept of will during the Middle Ages in to a greater extent connected with some higher powers. This understanding of will in the Middle Ages was due to the fact that society denied the possibility of independent, that is, independent of traditions and the established order, behavior of a particular member of society. A person was considered as the simplest element of society, and the set of characteristics that modern scientists put into the concept of “personality” acted as a program by which ancestors lived and by which a person should live. The right to deviate from these norms was recognized only for some members of the community, for example, for a blacksmith - a person who is subject to the power of fire and metal, or for a robber - a criminal who opposed himself to a given society, etc.

It is likely that the independent problem of will arose simultaneously with the formulation of the problem of personality. This happened during the Renaissance, when people began to recognize the right to creativity and even to make mistakes. The opinion began to prevail that only by deviating from the norm, standing out from the general mass of people, could a person become an individual. Wherein main value The individual was considered to have free will.

Using historical facts, we must note that the emergence of the problem of free will was not accidental. The first Christians proceeded from the fact that a person has free will, that is, he can act in accordance with his conscience, he can make a choice about how to live, act and what standards to follow. During the Renaissance, free will generally began to be elevated to the rank of absolute.

Subsequently, the absolutization of free will led to the emergence of the worldview of existentialism - the “philosophy of existence.” Existentialism (M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers, J.P. Sartre, A. Camus, etc.) considers freedom as absolutely free will not conditioned by any external social circumstances. The starting point of this concept is an abstract person, taken outside of social connections and relationships, outside the socio-cultural environment. A person, according to representatives of this movement, cannot be connected with society in any way, and even more so he cannot be bound by any moral obligations or responsibility. A person is free and cannot be responsible for anything. For him, any norm acts as a suppression of his free will. According to J.P. Sartre, only a spontaneous unmotivated protest against any “sociality” can be truly human, and not in any way ordered, not bound by any framework of organizations, programs, parties, etc.

This interpretation of will contradicts modern ideas about a human. As we noted in the first chapters, the main difference between man as a representative of the species Homo sapiens and the animal world lies in his social nature. A human being, developing outside of human society, has only an external resemblance to a person, and in its mental essence has nothing in common with people.

The absolutization of free will led representatives of existentialism to an erroneous interpretation of human nature. Their mistake lay in not understanding that a person who commits a certain act aimed at rejecting any existing social norms and values, certainly affirms other norms and values. After all, in order to reject something, it is necessary to have a certain alternative, otherwise such denial turns into nonsense at best, and into madness at worst.

One of the first natural scientific interpretations of will belongs to I.P. Pavlov, who viewed it as an “instinct of freedom,” as a manifestation of the activity of a living organism when it encounters obstacles that limit this activity. According to I.P. Pavlov, will as an “instinct of freedom” is no less a stimulus for behavior than the instincts of hunger and danger. “If it weren’t for him,” he wrote, “every slightest obstacle that an animal would encounter on its way would completely interrupt the course of its life.” For a human action, such an obstacle can be not only an external obstacle that limits motor activity, but also the content of his own consciousness, his interests, etc. Thus, the will in the interpretation of I.P. Pavlova is reflexive in nature, i.e. it manifests itself in the form of a response to an influencing stimulus. Therefore, it is no coincidence that this interpretation has found the widest distribution among representatives of behaviorism and received support in reactology (K.N. Kornilov) and reflexology (V.M. Bekhterev). Meanwhile, if we accept this interpretation of the will as true, then we must conclude that the will of a person depends on external conditions, and therefore, the act of will does not fully depend on the person.

IN last decades Another concept is gaining strength and is finding an increasing number of supporters, according to which human behavior is understood as initially active, and the person himself is considered as endowed with the ability to consciously choose a form of behavior. This point of view is successfully supported by research in the field of physiology conducted by N.A. Bernstein and P.K. Anokhin. According to the concept formed on the basis of these studies, will is understood as a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior. This regulation is expressed in the ability to see and overcome internal and external obstacles.

In addition to these points of view, there are other concepts of will. Thus, within the framework of the psychoanalytic concept, at all stages of its evolution from S. Freud to E. Fromm, attempts were repeatedly made to concretize the idea of will as a unique energy of human actions. For representatives of this direction, the source of people’s actions is a certain biological energy of a living organism transformed into a mental form. Freud himself believed that this is the psychosexual energy of sexual desire.

The evolution of these ideas in the concepts of Freud's students and followers is very interesting. For example, K. Lorenz sees the energy of will in the initial aggressiveness of a person. If this aggressiveness is not realized in forms of activity permitted and sanctioned by society, it becomes socially dangerous, since it can result in unmotivated criminal actions. A. Adler, K.G. Jung, K. Horney, E. Fromm associate the manifestation of will with social factors. For Jung, these are universal archetypes of behavior and thinking inherent in every culture; for Adler, these are the desire for power and social dominance, and for Horney and Fromm, the individual’s desire for self-realization in culture.

In fact, various concepts of psychoanalysis represent an absolutization of individual, albeit essential, needs as sources of human actions. Objections are raised not so much by the exaggerations themselves as by the general interpretation of the driving forces aimed, according to adherents of psychoanalysis, at self-preservation and maintaining the integrity of the human individual. In practice, very often the manifestation of will is associated with the ability to resist the need for self-preservation and maintaining integrity human body. This confirms the heroic behavior of people in extreme conditions with a real threat to life.

In reality, the motives of volitional actions develop and arise as a result of a person’s active interaction with the outside world, and primarily with society. Free will does not mean the denial of the universal laws of nature and society, but presupposes knowledge of them and the choice of adequate behavior.

Conclusion

In this work, I examined the main psychological theories of will, and also identified the relationship between the components of will in theories of will.

Will plays a decisive role in a person’s life; thanks to it, desires come true. It's not so often that dreams Everyday life are fulfilled by themselves, much more often you need to make an effort, even doing something that you don’t want to do at all. People with a weak will are called weak-willed. One way or another, in everyday life you have to face difficulties and obstacles. They need to be overcome. This requires willful effort.

It is possible to understand what will is only if we can bring together extreme points view, each of which absolutizes one of the mentioned sides of the will: obligation, taken for will, in one case, or freedom of choice, to which the will is reduced, in another case. The above approaches to understanding the essence of will reflect its various aspects, indicate its various functions and do not contradict each other at all. Moreover, understanding the phenomenon of will is possible only on the basis of a synthesis of various theories, based on taking into account the multifunctionality of will as a psychological mechanism that allows a person to consciously control his behavior.

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Annex 1

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General concept of will. Volitional development

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