First stage of Spanish colonization

Note 1

Spain had colonies that were not only in America. But also in Asia and Oceania. On the American continent, the Spanish crown belonged to Central America, the region along the Pacific coast to the Andes mountains, and the West Indies. The conquest (conquest) began with the campaign of Columbus and lasted almost a hundred years. The Spanish monarchs carried out the conquest in an organized manner, becoming the owners of all the lands discovered on the continent.

The first stage of the conquest and the formation of the Spanish colonial empire began at the end of the 15th century and ended in the middle of the 16th century. In 1496, the number of conquistadors (conquerors) reached such a level that they founded the city of Santo Domingo. The population of the Caribbean islands was at the stage of primitive relations, so it was not difficult for Europeans to conquer them. About a million people were destroyed or died from introduced diseases.

On the mainland, the conquistadors encountered well-defended Indian states. Hernan Cortez became famous for his cruelty towards the conquered Aztecs. The first viceroyalty subordinate to the Spanish crown, New Spain, was founded on Mexican territory. Cortez skillfully exploited the contradictions between the leaders of the peoples subject to the Aztecs. Therefore, leading a small army (400 soldiers, 200 Indians, 16 horsemen and 13 cannons), Cortez was able to defeat the Aztecs.

His experience gave impetus to the next conquest. In 1531-1533, Francisco Pissaro led a campaign against the Inca country of Tawantinsuyu. The number of Pissaro's detachment was even smaller than that of Cortes: 130 infantry and 37 horsemen. The indigenous peoples of America had a centuries-old tradition of unquestioningly obeying the ruler of the empire. Cortes and Pissaro sought to subjugate, first of all, the Aztec monarch Montezuma II and the Inca monarch Atahualpa. Pissaro was able to quickly seize power and create the Viceroyalty of Peru.

The second stage of the formation of the Spanish colonial empire

In the 40s of the 16th century, the second stage of Spanish colonization began. Following New Spain and Peru, autonomous regions were formed: Santo Domingo and Guatemala. At the same time, the economic life of the colonies is being streamlined in order to receive maximum profit from the indigenous population of natural resources. The Spanish king encouraged land development and the formation of latifundia (large land holdings) based on the forced labor of black slaves from Africa.

The latifundists sought to preserve the traditions of the Indian community. Thus, the new authorities used the governance mechanism familiar to the local population. In addition, the traditions of the community contributed to the use of non-economic coercion. On the plantations, the latifundists produced products for export to Europe. In the conquered lands, a system of encomienda (trusteeship) developed. The Indians were considered the property of the Spanish crown, which transferred them to the best conquistadors for guardianship. Encomienda has become Latin America the basis for the formation of large land ownership. The Spanish king, transferring power over the Indian settlements to the conquistadors, solved several problems:

1. the conquistadors became legitimate lords;
2. the latifundists received free labor;
3. the royal treasury was replenished by collections from community members (a quarter of all collections);
4. The caciques (the top of the community) played the role of a buffer between the community members and the colonialists.

At the same time as economic exploitation, the Indians were introduced to Christian customs.

Spanish colonies in the 18th century

Note 2

In the 18th century, the formation of ethnic groups accelerated on the territory of the Spanish colonies. A free mixed-race peasantry appeared. The gauchos on La Plata, rancheros in Mexico and llaneros in Venezuela and Colombia were considered the most freedom-loving. By the beginning of the 19th century, it was in these territories that detachments of revolutionaries emerged and led the struggle for independence.

In Brazil the main labor force became blacks. They mixed with Indians and migrating Europeans to form mulatto ethnic groups.

Spain's colonies occupied a significant part of the land until the nineteenth century. The Spanish Empire was one of the most powerful feudal powers of the past. Active colonization and geographical discoveries significantly influenced the development of human history. The Conquest affected the cultural, linguistic and religious development of many peoples.

Prerequisites for colonization

Until the fourteenth century, Spain fought for its independence. Moors and Saracens constantly arrived from the south and east to their lands. Long centuries of struggle eventually ended in the final expulsion of the Arabs from the continent. But after the victory, many problems immediately opened up. Having fought wars for several centuries, Spain created several orders of knighthood, and there were many more soldiers than in any country in Europe. The rulers understood that sooner or later this would lead to social revolt. The greatest danger, in their opinion, was the landless younger sons of knights - hidalgos.

First to channel their thirst better life in the direction desired by the government, a crusade to the East begins. However, the Saracens put up fierce resistance, which forces the crusaders to retreat. Spain's colonies in Africa were small and brought virtually no profit. At this time, various goods from India were in great demand.

In the minds of Europeans, this continent was located not only in the east, but also in the south. Therefore, to find shortest way before him, expeditions were regularly equipped.

Geographical discoveries

The first colonies of Spain appeared after the discovery of the New World - America by Christopher Columbus. At the end of the summer of 1492, three ships sailed under Spanish flags. They were equipped from the treasury of several European countries. In mid-autumn of the same year, Columbus landed in the Bahamas. Four months later it was discovered. In search of gold, the Spaniards sometimes went ashore and moved deeper into the jungle. On their way they encountered resistance from local tribes. However, their level of civilization lagged behind that of Europe by several centuries. Therefore, the conquistadors, dressed in steel armor, had no difficulty conquering the natives.

Eight years later, another expedition set sail, already consisting of a crew of one and a half thousand with provisions. They explored a significant part of the coast of South America. New islands were discovered. After this, a treaty was concluded between Portugal and Spain, according to which the new lands were equally divided between these two empires.

South America

Initially, the Spaniards began to explore the west coast of America. This is the territory of modern Brazil, Chile, Peru and other countries. Spanish orders were established in the new lands. Administrations settled in large settlements. Then armed detachments set off to conquer new lands.

Then settlers arrived from Europe. The local population, particularly in Bolivia, was taxed.

The Spaniards were most interested in goods for export. These are gold, silver and various spices. If it was not always possible to get to gold, the conquistadors found silver in abundance. Loaded ships arrived at the ports every month. The huge amount of imports ultimately led to the decline of the entire empire. Inflation began, which led to poverty. The latter gave rise to several uprisings.

North America

Spain's colonies had some sovereignty. They submitted to Valladolid on federal rights. Spanish culture and language developed on the occupied lands. In the colony of Rio de La Plata, local Indians caused problems. They hid in the jungle and occasionally launched raids.

Therefore, the viceroyal government had to hire soldiers from neighboring colonies to fight the partisans, who, in addition to this, also carried out robberies and pogroms.

Over four decades, Spanish colonists managed to open more than twenty colonies in the New World. Over time, they united into large viceroyalties. In the north was the largest colony - New Spain, which was discovered by Hernan Cortes, a legendary figure who is often associated with the mythical city of El Dorado.

Before the active intervention of Great Britain, the conquistadors created Spanish colonies along the entire coast of South and North America. List of modern countries that were former colonies of Spain:

• Mexico.
• Cuba.
• Honduras.
• Ecuador.
• Peru.
• Chile.
• Colombia.
• Bolivia.
• Guatemala.
• Nicaragua.
• Part of Brazil, Argentina and the USA.

Administrative structure

The former colonies of Spain in this territory are the United States ( southern states) and Mexico. Unlike the colonies on the southern mainland, here the conquistadors met a more advanced civilization. Once upon a time, the Aztecs and Mayans lived on these lands. They left behind a huge architectural heritage. Cortez's expeditionary forces encountered highly organized resistance to colonization. In response to this, the Spaniards acted extremely cruelly towards the indigenous population. As a result, its numbers quickly declined.

After the creation of New Spain, the conquistadors moved west and founded Louisiana, East and West Florida. Part of these lands was under the control of the metropolis until the nineteenth century. But as a result of the war, they lost everything. Mexico had won its freedom several years earlier.

Orders in occupied territories

Power in the colonies was concentrated in the hands of the viceroy. He, in turn, was personally subordinate to the Spanish monarch. The viceroyalty was divided into several regions (if it was large enough). Each region had its own administration and church diocese.

Therefore, many former colonies of Spain still practice Catholicism. Another branch of government was the military. Most often, the backbone of the garrison consisted of mercenary knights, who after some time returned to Europe.

Only people from the metropolis could occupy high positions in the viceroyalties. These were hereditary nobles and wealthy knights. Descendants of Spaniards born in America, according to the law, had the same rights as representatives of the mother country. However, in practice they were often oppressed, and they could not occupy any high position.

Relations with the local population

The local population consisted of representatives of various Indian tribes. Initially, they were often subjected to murders and robberies. However, later the colonial administrations decided to change their attitude towards the aborigines. Instead of robberies, it was decided to exploit the Indian population.

Formally, they were not slaves. However, they were subject to some oppression and were heavily taxed. And if they did not pay them, they became debtors to the Crown, which was not much different from slavery.

The colonies of Spain adopted the culture of the mother country. However, this did not cause an acute conflict. The local population very willingly adopted the traditions of the Europeans. In a fairly short period, the aborigines learned the language. Assimilation was also facilitated by the arrival of lone hidalgo knights. They settled in the viceroyalties and intermarried with What are the colonies of Spain is best illustrated by the example of Louisiana.

After all, in this viceroyalty over several decades, feudal relations have developed between the local population and the administration.

Loss of Colonies

The crisis in Europe reached its peak by the eighteenth century. Spain started a war with France. Inflation and civil strife led to the decline of the empire. The colonies took advantage of this and began to wage liberation wars. Moreover, in a number of cases, the driving force was not the local population, but the descendants of former colonists, many of whom assimilated. Many historians have questioned whether Spain was a colony of its viceroyalties. That is, a hostage to profits from distant lands. More likely. And soon she tried to maintain influence in American lands at any cost. After all, after their rejection, Spain itself almost collapsed.

New story countries of Europe and America XVI-XIX centuries. Part 3: textbook for universities Team of authors

Spanish colonial empire

Spain's colonies were superior in size and were located in addition to America, also in Asia and Oceania. None of the great empires of the past could compare with Spain. In the New World, Spanish possessions covered all of Central America, the West Indies, and significant territories along the Andes mountain system. The very process of conquering such vast lands in America is usually called the Spanish word “conquista”. It began with Columbus's expedition and lasted for almost a century. The Spanish conquest was organized. The supreme owner of all open lands was the monarch of the metropolis, i.e. the Spanish king.

The initial stage of economic development of new territories was accompanied by a particularly ruthless robbery and subjugation of the indigenous people of America. The conquerors were primarily interested in the gold of the Incas and Aztecs. After Columbus's first expedition, so many conquistadors wanted to go in search of overseas treasures that in 1496 it became possible to lay a foundation on Hispaniola the whole city– Santo Domingo, where the first military expeditions were equipped. When conquering the Caribbean islands, the conquerors encountered Indian tribes who were at primitive stages of development. Historians believe that in the first decade of the Spanish invasion, almost a million indigenous people of the Caribbean islands were senselessly exterminated, killed by introduced diseases and brutal forced labor.

The conquest of the American mainland was much more difficult. The conquistadors had to face large Indian states that had a clear social organization, a large army and a developed economy. The first conqueror to conquer the Aztec Indian states on the territory of modern Mexico and capture the Aztec ruler Montezuma II was Hernan Cortes. This impoverished hidalgo received the Spanish detachment at his disposal thanks to his special enterprise, efficiency and audacity. His successes revealed in him the qualities of a fearless military leader, a skillful ruler of the conquered lands, where the first Spanish viceroyalty, New Spain, was created. The troops under the command of Cortes were replenished with all kinds of adventurers. For example, the detachment that set off to conquer Mexico in 1519 consisted of only 400 soldiers, 16 horsemen, 200 Indians and had only 13 cannons. But Cortez managed to take advantage of the struggle for power in the Aztec state, to incite hostility between the influential leaders of the tribes subject to the Aztecs.

The Spanish conquistadors were a special historical type, the appearance of which was determined by the Reconquista - the process of reconquest by the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th–15th centuries. territories captured and held for eight centuries by the Arabs. The Spaniards spent the entire fifteenth century at war with the Moors. In Castile, Leon and other regions of Spain during the Reconquista period, the life of several generations in an environment of constant danger forced them to show initiative and foresight, to make independent decisions in the interests of self-preservation. As a result, a large layer of people arose in Spain who turned the ability to fight into a profession. These were small hidalgo knights (or fidalgus in Portugal, which also survived the Reconquista), whose ranks were replenished by both peasants and ordinary townspeople who were able to purchase military equipment. After the Reconquista, they were left out of work and were able to apply their skills in the New World, making up the bulk of the conquistadors. In their country, they fought in defense of the faith, which gave their lives religious spirituality. The lofty goals of serving the Christianization of pagans were combined among the small landed nobles with the mercantile goals of gaining wealth for themselves. The conquistadors were instrumental in the process of primitive accumulation, but their method of enrichment was not related to productive labor, but rather corresponded to reactionary feudal structures.

Cortez's experience helped to carry out the next colonial project. In 1531–1533 Peru was finally conquered. This most important act of the conquest marked the victory over the most powerful Indian state - the Inca country of Tawantinsuyu. The military expedition was led by Francisco Pissaro. In the past, an illiterate shepherd, by the time of his historical campaign, had earned the reputation of an experienced and resourceful commander of the conquistadors. The composition of his troops was as varied as that of Cortez, but much smaller in number (a detachment with only 130 soldiers and 37 cavalrymen went to conquer the Inca state and capture its capital).

European colonialists took advantage of the tradition of unquestioning submission to despotic power. Both Cortez and Pissaro sought to capture and force into their service the supreme rulers of the Aztec and Inca empires - Montezuma II and Atahualpa, who alone made political decisions. Thus, the possibilities of resistance by the ruling elite were significantly limited. The Spaniards also took into account the discontent of the tribes conquered by the Incas and Aztecs shortly before the European conquest. Skillfully escalating internecine conflicts, Pissaro incredibly quickly and with minimal losses completed the task of seizing power and creating a new colonial province - the Viceroyalty of Peru. From its territory along the Pacific coast in 1535–1540. The expeditions of Diego de Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia set off for further conquests. In 1536–1538 In search of the legendary gold treasures, the expedition of Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada established power over the highly developed tribes of the Chibcha-Muisca Indians. The advance of the Spaniards was delayed for a long time only by the resistance of the Araucan Indians in the south of modern Chile.

The creation of viceroyalties on Aztec lands meant the establishment of a regime of merciless colonial exploitation and was accompanied by a catastrophic decrease in the Indian population. If in 1519 there were about 25 million Indians in Mexico alone, then by the beginning of the 17th century. their number decreased to just over one million people. The extermination of a significant part of the autochthonous population resulted in the importation of blacks from Africa and their use as slaves in the economic life of the colonies. One of the few who raised their voice in defense of the Indian population of Latin America was the outstanding Spanish humanist writer who described the history of the discovery and conquest of America, priest Bartolomé de Las Casas. However, Las Casas' attempts to protect the Indians were unsuccessful.

The Spanish monarchs considered the most important result of such a quickly and successfully carried out conquest to be the acquisition of rich sources of precious metals, most of which ended up in the metropolis. In order to increase the flow of jewelry from America, the Spanish royal couple Ferdinand and Isabella allowed them to move to New World to all Spanish subjects who accepted the obligation to contribute two-thirds of all the gold they mined to the Spanish treasury. Under similar conditions, the kings allowed new expeditions to be organized and helped equip them.

In a military situation, the foundations of the colonial system were formed, which was entirely aimed at meeting the needs of the metropolis without taking into account the tasks of the internal development of the conquered territories. The system took the form of primitive robbery of conquered countries and peoples. There was actual enslavement of the local population and the division of colonial lands, along with the Indians living on them, between large owners. This system was called repartimiento (Spanish repartimiento - “distribution”).

The next stage of economic development of American territories began in the 40s of the 16th century. It was characterized, on the one hand, by the formation of the colonial administration apparatus. Already in the first half of the 16th century. The Spanish crown created two viceroyalties: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, the Caribbean) and Peru (the rest of conquered South America). A number of regions within them had actual autonomy and were governed by captains general (Santo Domingo, Guatemala, etc.). The heads of all administrative units represented the Spanish king and were appointed exclusively from the Spanish nobility. On the other hand, economic life was streamlined in order to extract maximum profit from the exploitation of the local population and natural resources.

Agricultural development of land was encouraged. The land and mineral resources remained the property of the monarchs of the metropolis, who recognized as inalienable only the primordiates, the lands of community members, churches and monasteries. Large land owners - latifundists - enjoyed great influence in colonial society. Everywhere, on land suitable for cultivation, a plantation economy was created, based on the forced labor of slaves imported from Africa, convicts from Europe, and communal Indians.

The hierarchical system created in the Spanish colonies was based on the policy of conservation of the Indian community. It was possible to organize in the shortest possible time a more or less effective apparatus of colonial administration in areas where early class societies already existed by adapting to one’s needs the mechanism of exercising the domination of the ruling elite that had been established over the centuries and was familiar to the population. Spanish monarchy and Catholic Church took advantage of the traditions of despotic power of the Inca and Mesoamerican civilizations, declaring that the supreme power over the subjects of the Indian empires was passing from the previous rulers to the Spanish king, who headed the power pyramid in society. The symbiosis of Spanish feudalism with the communal system of the Indians led to the creation of an economic system prone to stagnation. The communal organization of labor facilitated the non-economic coercion of the Indians.

The extensive plantations produced mainly products for export trade. The repartimiento system did not meet the new tasks and was gradually supplanted by the encomienda system (Spanish: encomienda - “guardianship”, “protection”, “patronage”). The Indians, nominally considered free, were declared the property of the Spanish king, who transferred them to the care (encomienda) of distinguished conquistadors - encomenderos. The enslavement of the Indians was carried out using methods that were successfully used in Spain itself during the Reconquista period (IX–XIV centuries). Encomienda then provided for the transfer of settlements “under the protection” of military-religious orders or persons in authority, who, after accepting obligations, became “encomenderos” "

The outdated feudal institution of the encomienda was quite appropriate in Spanish America. In fact, enslaved Indians had to pay a tax in favor of their encomendero, provide him with “personal services” as household servants, and perform labor duties on his lands, mines, and factories. The formation of the encomienda became the starting point for the formation of large land ownership in Latin America. The royal power, transferring control over Indian settlements to private individuals, solved several problems at once. The main thing was that the conquistadors turned into legitimate feudal lords who received working hands at their disposal. The growth of their social status made it possible to streamline relations with the royal authorities, and regularly send a quarter of the taxes from Indian communities to the treasury. The community elite - the caciques - served as a convenient buffer between ordinary community members and the colonialists.

The merciless exploitation of the Indians was accompanied by their introduction to Christian customs, which was also entrusted to the encomenderos. According to a number of researchers, the encomienda was both a form of socio-economic exploitation and a means of transforming the local population into humble Christians who meekly accepted their new position. The military significance of the encomienda should not be underestimated. At a time when sending professional army units to the American colonies was a costly and difficult operation, military detachments organized from Indians, trained and equipped by individual encomenderos, who stood at the head and were responsible for the morale of their soldiers, were an important element in maintaining order. The detachments were used to conduct punitive expeditions, including suppressing Indian uprisings in neighboring areas. Of such kind military service was a mandatory duty for Indian men. After completing the task, the militia returned to peaceful work.

With the advent of new owners who did not have an encomienda and were forced to rent community members to work when expanding acreage, building new mines and enterprises, the adoption of “New Laws” was required. The number of encomiendas and the powers of their owners were reduced through the return of many community members under the patronage of royal power. The colonial administration itself began to attract community Indians to forced public works, carried out according to the type of labor service (mita) that existed among the Incas since pre-Columbian times. Mexican tradition(cuatequil), but with payment of Indian labor through community cash registers. Based on the Inca custom of Mitmak, the colonial authorities also practiced the forcible relocation of community members to other areas in accordance with the needs of the state. The mining sites were often located in remote mines.

The task of exporting precious metals from the American colonies did not lose importance over the following centuries. Some of Mexico's famous silver mines remain unexploited to this day. In Peru, on the territory of modern Bolivia, the silver mountain Sierra Rico de Potosi was explored, where end of the XVI V. more silver was mined than in all of Western Europe (in the 16th–17th centuries, this area was considered the richest silver deposit in the world).

From the moment the amalgamation of silver with mercury was invented, working in silver mines for Indians became tantamount to a death sentence - usually no one could withstand more than six months. Indian labor was cheap and easily replenished thanks to a system of forced labor. The Indians lived in conditions of extreme poverty. They often ate the leaves of the evergreen coca bush, which reduced fatigue, dulled the feeling of hunger and caused a surge of vigor.

In addition to communal Indians and black slaves, the bulk of the inhabitants of the colonies were personally free rural residents. Poor people from the metropolis, hoping to get a piece of land, their descendants, called Creoles, like all whites born in America, various groups The mestizo and indigenous population received parcels of property or settled empty lands of the crown, organizing a primitive subsistence economy. Development of urban life in Latin America for a long time was weak: urban population region was less than 10%. Small towns grew in areas of mining, in areas of new agricultural colonization, and port cities became large.

Free market work force before late XVIII V. remained extremely narrow. Historians note that hired workers (peons) in the mines received a significant share of the silver and gold mined, and shepherds (llaneros) could demand payment in advance. The mobility and enterprise of hired day laborers, confidence in the constant demand for their labor, further contributed to their active participation in the armed liberation struggle against the colonialists.

In the 18th century The process of ethnic development accelerated. Groups of free mixed-race peasantry arose, which formed new folk traditions. The gauchos on La Plata, the llaneros in the territory of modern Venezuela and Colombia, and the rancheros in Mexico were distinguished by their increased love of freedom and ardent morals. It is no coincidence, as historians believe, that the areas of the most intense mestizoization, where the free population turned into hired workers (Venezuela, New Granada, La Plata, Mexico), became centers of revolutionary activity during the War of Independence of 1810–1826. In Brazil, blacks became the main labor force, displacing the Indians. Mixing with Indians and descendants of Europeans into mulatto ethnic types, they influenced the features of the emerging Brazilian way of life, art and folk art. They also showed disobedience, often running away from plantation owners, putting up desperate resistance to the authorities.