About 10,000 years ago, when the last ice age ended, people from the north moved to explore the southern lands, now known as Latin America. They settled in the territory that later formed the Mayan region, with mountains and valleys, dense forests and waterless plains. The Maya region includes modern Guatemala, Belize, southern Mexico, Honduras, El Salvador. Over the next 6,000 years, the local population moved from a semi-nomadic existence of hunter-gatherers to a more sedentary agricultural lifestyle. They learned to grow corn and beans, grind grain with a variety of stone tools, and cook food. Gradually, settlements arose. Around 1500 B.C. e. the widespread construction of rural-type settlements began, which served as a signal for the beginning of the so-called "preclassic period", from which the countdown of the centuries of the glorious Mayan civilization begins. The entire history of the Mayan civilization is usually divided into four periods: "Preclassic", early "classic", late "classic" and "postclassic".
"PRE-CLASSICAL" PERIOD (1500 BC-250 AD) People acquired some agricultural skills, learned how to increase the yield of fields. Throughout the Mayan region, densely populated rural-type settlements arose. Around 1000 B.C. e. the villagers of Cuello (on the territory of Belize) made pottery and buried the dead. Observing the prescribed ceremonial: pieces of green stone and other valuable items were placed in the grave. The Mayan art of this period shows the influence of the Olmec civilization, which arose in Mexico on the Gulf coast and established trade relations with all of Mesoamerica. Some scholars believe that the ancient Maya owe the creation of a hierarchical society and royal power to the Olmec presence in the southern regions of the Maya region from 900 to 400 BC. e.
The power of the Olmecs was over. The growth and prosperity of the southern trading cities of the Maya begins. From 300 B.C. e. to 250 AD e. there are such large centers as Nakbe, El Mirador and Tikal. The Maya achieved significant advances in scientific knowledge. Ritual, solar and lunar calendars are used. They are a complex system of interconnected calendars. This system allowed the Mayans to fix the most important historical dates, make astronomical forecasts and boldly look into such distant times, which even modern specialists in the field of cosmology cannot judge. Their calculations and records were based on a flexible system of counting, which included a symbol for zero, unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and in the accuracy of astronomical calculations they surpassed other civilizations of their time. Of all the ancient cultures that flourished in the Americas, only the Maya had a developed writing system. And it was at this time that Mayan hieroglyphic writing began to develop. Mayan hieroglyphs are like miniature drawings crammed into tiny squares. In fact, these are units writing- one of the five original writing systems created independently of one another. Some hieroglyphs are syllabic, but most of them are ideograms denoting phrases, words, or parts of words. Hieroglyphs were carved on steles, on lintels, on the vertical planes of stone stairs, on the walls of tombs, and also written on the pages of codes, on pottery. About 800 hieroglyphs have already been read, and scientists are deciphering new ones with unflagging interest, as well as giving new interpretations to already known symbols.
In the same period, temples were erected, which were decorated with sculptural images of the gods, and then the Mayan rulers. Rich offerings are found in the tombs of the Maya rulers of this period.
EARLY "CLASSICAL" PERIOD (AD 250-600) By 250 AD Tikal and the neighboring city of Washaktun become the main cities in the central lowland zone of Maya territory. Tikal had everything: giant pyramid temples, a palace complex, ball courts, a market, and a steam bath.
Society was divided into the ruling elite and the working class of farmers, artisans, and merchants subordinate to it. Thanks to the excavations, we have learned that the social stratification in Tikal concerned, first of all, the dwelling. While ordinary community members lived in villages scattered here and there among the forests, the ruling elite received at their disposal a more or less clearly defined living space of the Central Acropolis, which by the end of the classical period turned into a real labyrinth of buildings built around six spacious courtyards. on an area of about 2.5 square kilometers. The buildings consisted of one or two rows of long rooms, divided by transverse walls into a number of rooms, each room had its own exit. "Palaces" served as a home for important people, in addition, the city administration was probably located here.
Since the 3rd century, rulers, endowed with supreme power, have been erecting pyramid temples and steles with images and inscriptions designed to perpetuate their reign; the rite of passage consists of a ritual of bloodletting and human sacrifice. The earliest known stele (dated 292) was found in Tikal, it was erected in honor of one of the heirs of the ruler Yash-Mok-Shok, who founded a dynasty at the beginning of the century, which was destined to rule the city for 600 years. In 378, under the ninth ruler of this dynasty, Paw the Great Jaguar, Tikal conquered Vashaktun. By that time, Tikal was under the influence of a tribe of warriors and merchants from the Mexican center of Teotihuacan, having adopted some methods of warfare from foreigners.
LATE "CLASSIC" PERIOD (AD 600-900) The classical Mayan culture, which is characterized by the rapid construction of palaces and temples, reached a new level of development in the 7th-8th centuries. Tikal takes back former glory, but there are other, no less influential centers. Palenque thrives in the west of the Maya region. Which is ruled by Pacal, who came to power in 615 and was buried with the highest honors in 683. The rulers of Palenque were distinguished by great construction zeal and created a large number of temples, palace complexes, the royal tomb and other buildings. But most importantly, the sculptural images and hieroglyphic inscriptions that abound in these structures give us an idea of what the rulers and the people obedient to them considered the main thing. After studying all the monuments, one gets the impression that during this period there were some changes in the role that was assigned to the ruler, and these changes indirectly indicate the cause of the collapse of such a seemingly prosperous civilization as the Maya civilization was in the "classic period".
In addition, at four different sites in Palenque, Pacal and his heir erected the so-called royal registers, steles with records of the members of the ruling dynasty, tracing its roots back to 431 CE. e. Apparently, these two were very concerned about proving their rightful right to rule, and the reason for this was two cases in the history of the city when the ruler received the right of succession to the throne through the maternal line. This is what happened to Pacal. Since the Mayan right to the throne was usually passed down through the paternal line, Pacal and his son were forced to make some adjustments to this rule.
In the 7th century, the southeastern city of Copan also gained fame. Many inscriptions and steles of Copan show that the city for 4 centuries, from the 5th century AD. e., ruled by one dynasty. Thanks to this stability, the city gained weight and influence. The founder of the dynasty, the ruler Yash-Kuk-Mo (Blue-Ketual-Parrot), came to power in 426 AD. e. And it can be assumed that his authority was very great, and all subsequent rulers of Kopan considered it necessary to count their royal line from him. Of his 15 royal descendants, the energetic Smoke-Jaguar, who ascended the throne in 628 and ruled for 67 years, lived the longest. Known as the Great Instigator, Jaguar Smoke led Copan to unprecedented prosperity, greatly expanding its dominions, possibly through territorial wars. The noble people who served under him probably became the rulers of the conquered cities. During the reign of Jaguar Smoke, the urban population reached approximately 10,000 people.
At that time, wars between cities were common. Despite the fact that the rulers of the cities were related to each other due to inter-dynastic marriages, and in culture - art and religion - these cities had much in common.
Art continues to develop, artisans supply the nobility with various exquisite handicrafts. The construction of ceremonial buildings and numerous stelae extolling the personal merits of the rulers continues. However, starting from the 8th century, and especially in the 9th century, the cities of the central lowlands declined. In 822, a political crisis shook Copan; the last dated inscription in Tikal is from 869.
"POST-CLASSICAL" PERIOD (AD 900-1500) exhaustion natural resources, the decline of agriculture, overpopulation of cities, epidemics, invasions from outside, social upheavals and ongoing wars - all this, both together and separately, could cause the decline of the Mayan civilization in the southern plains. By 900 A.D. e. Construction on this territory stops, the once crowded cities, abandoned by the inhabitants, turn into ruins. But the Maya culture still lives in the northern Yucatan. Such beautiful cities as Uxmal, Kabakh, Sayil, Labna in the hilly region of Puuk exist until the year 1000.
Historical chronicles on the eve of the conquest and archeological data clearly indicate that in the 10th century AD. The Yucatan was invaded by warlike central Mexican tribes - the Toltecs. But, despite all this, in the central region of the peninsula, the population survived and quickly adapted to the new living conditions. And later a short time a kind of syncretic culture appeared, combining Mayan and Toltec features. In the history of Yucatan, a new period began, which received in scientific literature name "Mexican". Chronologically, its framework falls on the X - XIII centuries AD.
the center of this new culture becomes the city of Chichen Itza. It was at this time that the time of prosperity began for the city, lasting 200 years. Already by 1200, a huge building area (28 square kilometers), majestic architecture and magnificent sculpture suggests that this city was the main cultural center of the Maya of the last period. New sculptural motifs and architectural details reflect the increased influence of Mexican cultures, predominantly Toltec, which developed in Central Mexico before the Aztec. After the sudden and mysterious fall of Chichen Itza, Mayapan becomes the main city in the Yucatan. The Yucatán Maya seem to have waged more violent wars among themselves than those waged by their brethren to the south. Although detailed descriptions of specific battles are not available, it is known that warriors from Chichen Itza fought against warriors from Uxmal and Coba, and later Mayapan people attacked and sacked Chichen Itza.
According to scientists, the influence of other peoples who invaded the territory of the Maya affected the behavior of the northerners. It is possible that the invasion took place peacefully, although this is unlikely. For example, Bishop de Lande had information about some people who came from the west, whom the Maya called "Itza". These people, as the remaining descendants of the Maya told Bishop de Lande, attacked Chichen Itza and captured it. After the sudden and mysterious fall of Chichen Itza, Mayapan becomes the main city in the Yucatan.
If the development of Chichen Itza and Uxmal repeats other Mayan cities, then Mayapan in this case was quite different from the general scheme. Mayapan, walled, was a chaotic city. In addition, there were no huge temples here. The main Mayapan pyramid was not a very good copy of the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza. The population in the city reached 12 thousand people. Scientists suggest that Mayapan had enough high level economy, and that Mayan society was gradually moving towards business relationship, paying less and less attention to the ancient gods.
For 250 years, the Kokom dynasty ruled in Mayapan. They maintained their power by holding their potential enemies hostage behind the city's high walls. The Kocomas further strengthened their position when they took into their service an entire army of mercenaries from Ah Kanul (Mexican state of Tabasco), whose loyalty was bought by promises of spoils of war. The daily life of the dynasty was mostly occupied with amusements, dances, feasts and hunting.
Mayapan fell in 1441 as a result of a bloody uprising raised by the leaders of neighboring cities, the city was sacked and burned.
The fall of Mayapan sounded the death knell over the entire Maya civilization, which had risen from the jungles of Central America to an unprecedented height and sunk into the abyss of oblivion. Mayapan was the last city in the Yucatan that managed to subjugate other cities. After its fall, the confederation broke up into 16 competing mini-states, each of which fought for territorial advantages with the help of its own army. In the constantly flaring wars, the cities were raided: mostly young men were captured to replenish the army with them or to sacrifice them, the fields were set on fire to force the farmers to submit. In continuous wars, architecture and art were abandoned as unnecessary.
Shortly after the fall of Mayapan, just a few decades later, the Spaniards landed on the peninsula, and the fate of the Maya was sealed. Once upon a time, a prophet, whose words are quoted in the Books of Chilam-Balam, predicted the appearance of strangers and its consequences. This is how the prophecy sounded: "Receive your guests, bearded people coming from the east… This is the beginning of destruction.” But the same books also warn that not only external circumstances, but the Maya themselves, will be to blame for what happens. "And there were no more happy days," says the prophecy, "the sanity left us." One might think that long before this last conquest, the Maya knew that their glory would fade and the ancient wisdom would be forgotten. And yet, as if anticipating future attempts by scientists to call their world out of oblivion, they expressed the hope that someday voices from the past would be heard: “At the end of our blindness and our shame, everything will open again.”
Today, the Maya is a tribe of Indians living in South America. Today they live in countries such as Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala and Belize. And since 2000 BC, it was an ancient civilization in Central America. They obeyed all the ancient peoples and tribes that lived in this territory. Maya and civilization at that time were synonymous. The ancient Maya civilization dominated for 12 centuries. The peak of its heyday falls on the year 900 AD. After this, a long period of cultural decline begins, the reasons for which history does not reveal.
The Maya were called people who measure their lives with heaven. At the same time, the life of the tribe remained quite primitive. The main occupation was agriculture. The tools of labor were the simplest. Scientists say that the Maya did not even know the wheel. All the more striking is the fact that during its heyday, the Mayan tribe created unique works of art, temples, tombs, miracle cities and other architectural monuments. Even more striking is their knowledge of astronomy, the system they created for measuring time and writing.
At a time when the colonialists from the old world set foot on the east coast of South America, the Maya civilization came to an almost complete decline. During its heyday, it occupied all of Central America. The colonialists reacted barbarously to the works of art and architectural monuments they inherited from the Mayan civilization. They considered them "pagan idols", the heritage of pagan culture and ruthlessly destroyed them. But even what remains today of the culture and knowledge of the ancient Maya strikes the imagination of modern scientists.
By right, one of the main achievements of the Maya is their unique calendar, which is based on accurate astronomical calculations. Our scientists never cease to admire its amazing accuracy. The ancient Maya priests used their astronomical observations both to solve pressing issues (for example, in agriculture) and to explain more global problems. So the Mayan priests very accurately calculated the life cycles of our planet, which is confirmed by modern scientists. With the advent of 2012, everyone is especially worried about the Mayan prediction about the supposedly impending end of the world. Everyone decides whether to believe the ancient Mayan prophecies about the approaching apocalypse.
One thing is certain, the reasons why this ancient civilization disappeared remain mysterious and incomprehensible today. People simply left their cities en masse. There are several versions, but no one knows exactly what the real reason is. Who they are, where they came from - remains a mystery even today ...
Who wants to know more, we suggest watching the video film: “Mexico. Mayan. Unknown story." in 6 parts. The film was created on the basis of materials collected during an expedition to Mexico in March 2007 and is based on facts that have been hidden and hushed up for a long time. Enjoy watching.
Video film: “Mexico. Mayan. Unknown story"
Maya civilization- one of the most mysterious civilizations on our planet. It existed in Central America on the territory of the modern southern states of Mexico, as well as such states as Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador.
Mayan calendar
five eras
The first mention of this Indian people goes back to the 1st millennium BC. e. During this period, the Mayan tribes began to populate the Peten plateau, where a hot and humid climate prevailed. Then they began to spread westward along the Pasion and Usumacinta rivers. In the east came to the shores caribbean. In the north, they chose the Yucatec Plains, covered with tropical rainforests. In the absence of rivers, they settled along the shores of karst lakes.
The Maya quickly settled in new lands: they began to build stone cities, were engaged in agriculture. They grew maize, pumpkin, cotton, cocoa, fruits, and beans. Salt was mined in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula.
They had perfect writing in the form of hieroglyphs. Of particular note is the deep knowledge in astronomy. Based on them, they created calendars that still amaze with the accuracy of calculations.
The Mayan tribes never united into a single administrative entity. They lived in city-states. By 750 there were many such: Tikal, Copan, Palenque, Camakmul, Uxmal, Vamaktuna and many others. The population of each was more than 10,000 people, which at that time was quite a lot. All these, at first glance, scattered islands of life in the complex are designated as the Mayan civilization.
Culture, management system, customs were similar in these mini-states and practically did not differ from each other. At the head of each city was its own royal dynasty. On the next rung of the social ladder were the priesthood and the nobility. Next came the merchants and warriors. At the very bottom were peasants, artisans and other common people.
In the center of each city stood a pyramid with a height of 15 to 20 meters. It served as a tomb for noble people. All around stood houses that could not be called spacious: they had narrow corridors and cramped rooms. The main building material was limestone.
Religion played an important role in the life of this people. The worship of the gods was a cult, its basis was the sacrifice of both animals and people. The Maya considered the gods to be mortal; according to their concepts, human blood extended the life of the celestials. Filling the sacrificial altars with the scarlet and warm blood of the unfortunate, they believed that in this way they preserve youth and strength for those who give them rich harvests, victories over enemies and other benefits of this vain world.
In the period from 800 to 900 years, part of the Mayan cities was abandoned by the population. Until now, the true reason for the hasty departure of people from their homes is unclear. Various hypotheses are put forward trying to explain this behavior of the inhabitants, but whether they correspond to the truth is almost impossible to determine these days.
Many researchers see the main and main reason in slash-and-burn farming. The Maya burned out areas of forests and bushes and planted these lands with agricultural crops. After three or four years, when the soil was depleted, they again burned the forests, moving further and further away from the cities.
As a result of this mismanagement of cropland, the cost of producing basic foodstuffs has risen steadily. In the end, they became too expensive not only for ordinary citizens, but also for rich people. This forced the inhabitants to leave the city and go to new, fertile, lands not yet touched by fire.
There are other theories trying to explain the strange Maya migration. Among them are called: epidemics, conquests, climate change. All this sounds plausible, but there is no serious evidence for such claims.
There is also a version that the reason for everything was the greed and cruelty of the nobility and priests. Driven to despair, the common people raised an uprising, destroyed everything and everything, and defiled the temples in which representatives of the ruling class tried to escape retribution, abandoned their homes and utensils and left for new lands.
The Mayan civilization gradually shifted northward and eventually concentrated in the Yucatan. This is the period from 900 to the beginning of the 16th century. There are also many cities here. Among them, Chichen Itza stands out, claiming to be the cultural center of the entire peninsula. But in the middle of the XII century, the inhabitants leave it. Mayapan intercepts the palm. His fate is also unenviable. It was destroyed in 1441 as a result of an uprising.
In the spring of 1517, the Spanish conquistadors appeared in the Yucatan. They are led by Hernandez de Cordoba. At first they behave quite friendly, but already in 1528 the systematic conquest of the peninsula begins.
The freedom-loving Indian people put up fierce resistance to the invaders. It took the Spaniards a long 170 years to completely subjugate these lands. It was not until 1697 that the last independent Mayan city of Taiyasal recognized the authority of the King of Spain.
The Maya were conquered but not assimilated. They retained their identity, culture and language. Currently, six million representatives of this people live on the lands of Central America. In Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Mexico, Belize, they are united in communities whose members strictly observe the traditions of their distant ancestors.
The conquistadors not only destroyed the Mayan civilization, but also caused irreparable harm to the entire unique historical heritage of this people. The Spanish monk Diego de Landa, either falling into ecstasy from religious fervor, or because of dense ignorance, organized an act of vandalism. On his initiative, ancient Maya books written in hieroglyphs were burned. Accidentally survived only three copies.
Later, with great difficulty, the Mayan priests restored part of the text. Already in the Latin alphabet, they rewrote such works as “Popolvukh” and “Books of Chilam-Balash”. Of course, these are far from complete copies of those priceless ancient sources that perished forever in the fire.
The basis of the foundations of the entire multifaceted heritage mysterious people are astronomical knowledge, which have come down to our days in the form Mayan calendars. These unique masterpieces of the past reflect both mythology and the most advanced scientific research. It was thanks to them that such a concept arose as maya predictions. Do they have a real basis? Undoubtedly. It is not difficult to verify this by reading the information that was owned by ancient people.
So mayan solar calendar had a year of 365.2421 days. This corresponds more closely to the revolution of the Earth around the Sun than according to Gregorian calendar, which is 365.2425 days long.
Observatory
caracol
Mayan celestial bodies were observed from stone observatories. They were tall round towers with square windows. A spiral staircase led to the upper platform, where ancient astronomers daily studied the picture of the starry sky and painstakingly recorded any changes in the expanses of the Universe. The largest observatory was called caracol and was located near the city of Chichen Itza.
Maya claimed - The cosmos exists within the great cycles. The first cycle (the first Sun) lasted 4008 years and was destroyed by an earthquake. The Second Sun lasted 4010 years and turned into dust from winds and cyclones. The period of existence of the third Sun was 4081 years, it burned out in fire from the craters of volcanoes. The fourth Sun gave life to everything on earth for 5026 years. Terrible floods flooded it.
Now there is a fifth sun(Sun movement). It lived for a very long time - 5126 years and will go out from the displacement of the soil on Earth. The end of the fifth cycle falls on December 23, 2012. On this day, Tonati Maya, the sun god of the present era, will die. Already on December 26, 2012, a new, sixth cycle will begin - the cycle of renewal and revival of all living things.
In total, the Mayan civilization had three solar calendars. Each of them performed its own, strictly defined functions.
Maya Solar Calendar Tzolkin(the year lasted 260 days) contained a purely ritual purpose. Mayan solar calendar tun reflected the chronology. Here the year lasted 360 days. Mayan solar calendar haab, the length of which was 365 days, was intended for the daily life of people.
The month of the Maya was called Vinal, its duration is 20 days. There were thirteen vinals in the tzolkin, respectively, in the tun and khaab, 18 vinals each.
The year of Haab really had the nineteenth month of Vayeb. It consisted of only five days and was a solid holiday of one of the gods - the patron of the next year.
The week was thirteen days long. Each day of the week had its own patron god - one of the 13 heavenly gods.
It was also a nine-day week. Here the countdown took place at night. The patrons were the nine gods of the underworld.
Day and night weeks reflected the model of the Universe. According to the Maya, it had a layered hierarchy of worlds. Thirteen heavens shone above the earth, nine floors of the underworld went down under the firmament of the earth.
On the basis of the Tzolkin year, the Maya civilization built the entire system of divination. Here the name of the day and the same day of the week were repeated at intervals of 260 days, that is, after thirteen twenty-day months.
The important stages were the four-year and fifty-two-year periods of time. The Maya claimed that the complete renewal of any material organism occurs exactly after 52 years, after thirteen four-year cycles.
Traditions say - Maya civilization owned the technique of predicting the future. The basis for this was astronomical knowledge. Only by glancing at the position of the heavenly bodies, the initiates told the person what his future life path would be, how the fate of an entire people would turn out, what awaited humanity in a few centuries. How did they do it?
Painstakingly observing the stars, recording all the events every day for thousands of years, the Mayan priests have accumulated a huge amount of priceless information. If they knew the theory of probability, they knew the basics of the mat. analysis and had computer equipment, then based on the collected data, they could easily calculate the algorithm for the cyclicity of any process occurring both on Earth and in Space.
But even without these modern achievements of science, the great ancient people, by their methods unknown to us, determined the sequence of seemingly chaotic natural and social phenomena, revealed patterns and saw the future.
As for ominous Mayan prediction about the end of the world in 2012, the discovery of 1960 laid the foundation for this. In the south of Mexico, a fragment of a Mayan stone calendar was found associated with Bolon Yokte Cu, the god of war and rebirth. The date 2012 engraved on it marks the beginning of a new cycle.
Such predictions cannot be taken literally. In this case, it refers to the transformations that will take place in the transcendental world, if you like, in another dimension. In that subtle and unknown matter that gradually controls our consciousness.
In physical reality, everything will remain the same. Only after hundreds of years will humanity notice what has changed - hopefully in a positive direction. After all, you always want to believe in the best.
The article was written by ridar-shakin
Mayan- the civilization of Central America, known for its writing, art, architecture, mathematical and astronomical systems. It began to form in the preclassical era (2000 BC - 250 AD), most of its cities reached their peak in the classical period (250-900 AD). The Maya built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited after. The calendar developed by the Maya was used by other peoples of Central America. The hieroglyphic writing system, partially deciphered, was used. Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved. Created effective system agriculture, had deep knowledge in the field of astronomy. The descendants of the ancient Maya are not only modern peoples Maya, who retained the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish-speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras. Some Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Joya de Seren in El Salvador - a small Mayan village that was buried under volcanic ash and now excavated.
Territory
The territory where the development of the Mayan civilization took place is part of the states: Mexico (the states of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part). About 1000 settlements of the Mayan culture were found, but not all of them have been excavated or explored by archaeologists, as well as 3000 settlements.
Story
In ancient times, the Maya represented various groups that had a common historical tradition. As a result of the research carried out in relation to the Maya language, it was concluded that approximately around 2500-2000. BC e., in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Huehuetenango (Guatemala), there was a Protomayan group whose members spoke the same language, also called Protomayan researchers. Over time, this language split into different Maya languages. Subsequently, the speakers of these languages emigrated and settled in different areas, where the Maya zone later formed and arose high culture. The migrations of the population led both to the alienation of various groups, and to their rapprochement with representatives of other cultures. The periodization of the Maya culture is similar to the chronology of the entire Mesoamerica, although it is more accurate due to the decoding of temporary hieroglyphs and their comparison with the modern calendar. The history and culture of the Mayan people are usually divided into three main periods, the boundaries between which are very mobile:
- the period of formation (1500 BC - 250 AD);
- ancient kingdom(250 - 900 AD);
- New Kingdom (900 AD - XVI century).
The Maya civilization developed on the Mexican Yucatan Peninsula and mountainous Guatemala. In the Maya region, there were three major language groups: Yucatec, Celtan and Quiche. At the beginning of the 1000s. The Quiche were the most powerful union of the Mayan tribes. The Mayan tribes began their development in culturally around the 2nd millennium BC During this period, two cultures replaced each other in the Yucatan and adjacent areas - "okos" and "kvadros", at that time excellent ceramic products appeared, the surface of clay vessels was covered with a stamped pattern of stripes, which was created using agave fibers. The history of the Maya begins from 500 BC. by 300 years 
AD Maya culture begins its formation. This is especially noticeable on humanoid figurines made of clay, where the physical characteristics of the population of that era are present. Ornaments decorating the first Maya buildings are also a model. It was then that large cult centers began to appear in the southern regions of Guatemala. Rapidly developing Izapa on the coast Pacific Ocean and the highlands of Guatemala. Late archaic period Kaminaljuyu appears - the oldest center of Mayan culture, not far from the current Ciudad de Guatemala. At this time, the "miraflores" culture was born in Guatemala, and, apparently, Kaminaljuyu became a military opponent of Izapa. To the north, at the same time, the Olmec and Mayan cultures come into contact. By the 1st century n. e. all traces of the Olmec culture, the decline of which began three centuries earlier, completely disappear. In the early Preclassic period, Maya society was made up of groups of families united by the same language, customs and territory. They united for soil cultivation and fishing, hunting and gathering in order to obtain food for survival. Later, with the development of agriculture, irrigation systems were built, and the range of cultivated crops expanded, some of which were already on sale. Population growth accelerated, the construction of cities and large ceremonial centers began, around which the people settled. As a result of the division of labor, classes appeared. From the Preclassic period, the Maya began to build separate structures, in which the influence of other cultures is guessed. Later Mayan architecture began to express mystical and religious ideas; therefore, temples and palaces, ball courts were erected in the central part of the cities, and residential buildings were located in the vicinity. 250 Beginning of the Early Classic period. This year Teotihuacan and Kaminalhuyu form a trade alliance with Tikal. In 400 years. AD Kaminalhuyu completely falls under the control of the Teotihuacan merchants of the post office - Teotihuacans come to the city and in its place build a miniature copy of their capital, which becomes the southeastern outpost of the empire. During the "Esperance" phase, the Mayan highlands were under the protectorate of the Teotihuacan dynasties and of course influenced by the Teotihuacan artistic styles. Then, to the north of Kaminalhuyu, the first cyclopean Mayan structures began to be erected, which at first served as the mausoleums of the Teotihuacan "governors" - the postman. hallmark this stage is a thin "orange" ceramic. It is covered with geometric patterns, clearly of Teotihuacan origin. Tripod vessels appear. Similar products were common in Central Mexico. Subsequently, when the hegemony of Teotihuacan in the Mayan lands ends, the stage of "esperance" passes into an equally noticeable stage in the history of the Maya - "tsakol". During the Tsakol phase, the influence of the Teotihuacan culture on the Petén and the Mayan highlands is still great. 
Classic period:
From 325 to 925 AD e. It is subdivided into the Early Classic (325-625 AD), when outside influence ceased and its own features appeared. The heyday (625-800 AD), when mathematics, astronomy, ceramics, sculpture and architecture reached their maximum brilliance, and the Period of Crisis (800-925 AD) - the time when culture came to decline and ceremonial centers were abandoned.
The classical era is the time of the true heyday of the Maya, both in the mountainous Guatemala, both in Peten and in the North of the Yucatan. The classical Maya culture arises, hieroglyphic writing develops, cyclopean limestone structures are erected. There is a flourishing of sciences - astronomy, mathematics, medicine. During the Classic period, the Maya developed their own elements in architecture, such as, for example, a false vault, built-on terraces, stucco decorations, ridges on ridge roofs, which, mixing, led to the emergence of what is called the Petén style in architecture. It is characterized by structures on the foundations of stepped terraces, thick walls, stairs outside the façade, high ridges over the back wall, and plaster decorations in the form of grotesque masks. In Guatemala, powerful dynasties of primordially Mayan rulers replace each other - at the beginning of the late period of the classical era, Tikal rises. Not far from Copan, in the east of Guatemala, is the "city" of Quirigua. He is no less remarkable than Copan and is quite similar to him in his architectural style. Quirigua's most majestic monument is undoubtedly the "E" stele, which reaches an impressive height and is covered with exquisite reliefs that have baroque redundancy. Apparently Quirigua was the main city of the region, and Copan was its protectorate. Copan is a unique city. But the true greatness of the "city" of the Maya was reached in the 8th-9th centuries. Tikal defeated Calakmul, and begins to rule over all Peten. At the same time, Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxchilan, Piedras Negros flourish in the Ousamancita river basin. In these places, Maya art reached its highest peak. In Bonampak, magnificent wall paintings are created that tell about the victory of the local ruler over the army of Yaxchilan. 
Postclassic period:
In the postclassic period, the high Mayan culture was preserved only in the north of the Yucatan, but in synthesis with a completely different civilization - the Toltec. The cities of Peten and mountainous Guatemala fell into disrepair, many were abandoned by the inhabitants, others turned into tiny villages. The north of Yucatan also flourished in the classical era - several large regions developed there: Chenes, Rio Bec, Puuc. The center of the first was the "city" of Chikanna, the second - Calakmul, El Mirador, Seros, in the third Uxmal, Koba, Sayil, the "necropolis" of the island of Haina flourished. In the classical era, these were the richest cities of the Yucatan, as they had the opportunity to trade with the Toltecs. But towards the end of the classical era, these cities were destroyed by the invasion of the Chontal Maya people, who were at a lower stage of development than the Yucatecs and Quiche. They were influenced by the Toltec culture more than the Mayan culture. Soon after the chontal invasion, a cult center was established Chichen Itza. The city was founded, it is believed, in the 5th-6th centuries and was one of the largest Mayan cities. By the end of the 10th century, however, for unknown reasons, life here practically ceased. Buildings belonging to this period are located mainly in the southern part of modern Chichen Itza. Then the city was occupied by the Toltecs, who came to the Yucatan from central Mexico. The arrival of the leader of the Toltecs, obviously, was not a peaceful event: in the inscriptions from Chichen, we are talking about the invasion of the invaders who overthrew the Mayan dynasty. The most famous religious buildings of Chichen are a huge ball court, the Well of Sacrifices - a karst breach and, of course, the famous El Castillo, the temple of Kukulkan. Period from 1200 to 1540 AD e. The era of conflicts, when intertribal alliances are broken and a series of armed clashes take place, which divided the people and further impoverished culture. The Yucatan enters a period of fragmentation and decline. On its territory, the states of Waimil, Campeche, Champutun, Chikinchel, Ekab, Mani-Tutuk-Shiu, Chetumal, etc. are formed. These states are constantly fighting among themselves, and when the Spaniards arrived in the Maya zone, large ceremonial centers had already been abandoned, and culture was in complete decline.
Art
The art of the ancient Maya reached its peak during the classical period (about 250 - 900 AD). Wall frescoes in Palenque, Copan and Bonampak are considered among the most beautiful. The beauty of the depiction of people on the frescoes makes it possible to compare these cultural monuments with the cultural monuments of the ancient world. Therefore, this period of development of the Mayan civilization is considered to be classical. Unfortunately, many of the cultural monuments have not survived to this day, as they were destroyed either by the Inquisition or by time.
Cloth
The main attire of men was a loincloth, it was a palm-wide strip of fabric, which was wrapped several times around the waist, then passed between the legs so that the ends hung down in front and behind. The loincloths of eminent persons "with great care and beauty" were decorated with feathers or embroidery. Pati was thrown over the shoulders - a cape made of a rectangular piece of fabric, also decorated according to social standing its owner. Noble people added to this outfit a long shirt and a second loincloth, similar to a full skirt. Their clothes were richly decorated and probably very colorful, as far as the surviving images can tell. Rulers and military leaders sometimes wore a jaguar skin instead of a cape or fastened it on a belt. Women's clothing consisted of two main items: a long dress, which either began above the chest, leaving the shoulders open, or was a rectangular piece of cloth with slits for the arms and head, and an underskirt. Outerwear, like for men, was a cape, but longer. All garments were decorated with multicolor patterns.
Architecture
Mayan art, which found expression in stone sculpture and bas-reliefs, works of small plastic arts, wall paintings and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes, embodied in stylized grotesque images. The main motifs of Maya art are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and masks; it is characterized by stylistic elegance and sophistication of lines. The main building material for the Maya was stone, primarily limestone. Mayan architecture was characterized by false vaults, rising facades and ridged roofs. These massive facades and roofs that crowned palaces and temples created an impression of height and majesty.
Mayan writing and timekeeping
The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre-Columbian New World were the systems of writing and time calculation created by the Mayan people. Maya hieroglyphs served both for ideographic and phonetic writing. They were carved on stone, painted on ceramics, they wrote folding books on local paper, called codes. These codices are the most important source for the study of Mayan writing. The Maya used "Tzolkin" or "Tonalamatl", counting systems based on the numbers 20 and 13. The Tzolkin system used in Central America is very ancient and was not necessarily invented by the Maya people. Among the Olmecs and in the culture of the Zapotecs of the formative era, similar and sufficiently developed time systems developed even earlier than the Maya. However, the Maya were much more advanced in the improvement of the numerical system and astronomical observations than any other indigenous people of Central America. The Maya had a complex and fairly accurate calendar system for their time.
Writing
The first Maya monument with hieroglyphs carved on it, discovered by archaeologists in the territory of the modern Mexican state of Oaxaca, dates back to about 700 AD. e. Immediately after the Spanish conquest, Mayan writing was tried to be deciphered. The first explorers of Mayan writing were Spanish monks who tried to convert the Maya to the Christian faith. The most famous of these was Diego de Landa, the third Bishop of the Yucatan, who in 1566 wrote a work entitled Reports on Affairs in the Yucatan. According to de Landa, the Maya hieroglyphs were akin to the Indo-European alphabets. He believed that each hieroglyph represents a certain letter. Greatest Success in deciphering Maya texts, the Soviet scientist Yuri Knorozov from the Leningrad Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, who made his discoveries in the 1950s, achieved. Knorozov became convinced that de Landa's list was not an alphabet, but he did not reject it. 
entirely for this reason. The scientist suggested that de Landa's "alphabet" was in fact a list of syllables. Each sign in it corresponded to a certain combination of one consonant with one vowel. The signs joined together were the phonetic notation of words.
As a result of the discoveries of the 20th century, it became possible to systematize knowledge about the Maya writing system. The main elements of the writing system were signs, of which about 800 are known. Usually signs look like a square or an oblong oval; one or more characters can be placed together, forming the so-called hieroglyphic block. Many of these blocks are arranged in a certain order in a rectilinear grid, which defined the spatial framework for most of the known inscriptions.
The ancient Mayan counting system
The Mayan counting system was based not on the usual decimal system, but on the twenty-decimal system common in Mesoamerican cultures. The origins lie in the method of counting, in which not only ten fingers were used, but also ten toes. At the same time, there was a structure in the form of four blocks of five numbers each, which corresponded to five fingers and toes. Also interesting is the fact that the Maya had a designation for zero, which was schematically represented as an empty shell from an oyster or snail. The notation zero was also used to denote infinity.
Mayan religion
Among the ruins of Mayan cities, buildings of a religious nature dominate. It is assumed that religion, along with the servants of the temples, played a key role in the life of the Maya. Between 250 and 900 A.D. e. at the head of the city-states of the region were rulers who, if not the highest, then at least a very important religious function. Archaeological excavations suggest that representatives of the upper strata of society also took part in religious rituals. Like other peoples who inhabited Central America at that time, the Maya believed in the cyclical nature of time and astrology. For example, their calculations of the motion of Venus differed from modern astronomical data by only a few seconds per year. They imagined the universe divided into three levels - the underworld, earth and sky. Religious rituals and ceremonies were closely linked to natural and astronomical cycles.
According to astrology and the Mayan calendar, the "time of the fifth Sun" will end on December 21-25, 2012 ( winter solstice). The "Fifth Sun" is known as the "Sun of Movement" because, according to the Indians, in this era there will be a movement of the Earth, from which many will die. 
Gods and sacrifices
Like other peoples of Central America, the Maya played human blood special role. According to those that have come down to our days various subjects everyday life - vessels, small plastic and ritual tools - we can talk about a specific ritual of bloodletting. The main type of ritual bloodletting in the classical period was a ritual in which the tongue was pierced, and this was done by both men and women. After piercing the organs (tongue, lips, palms), a cord or rope was threaded through the holes made. According to the Maya, the soul and vital energy were in the blood. The Mayan religion was polytheistic. At the same time, the gods were mortal beings similar to people. In this regard, human sacrifice was considered by the ancient Maya as an act that contributes to a certain extent to prolong the life of the gods. Human sacrifice was common among the Maya. A person was sacrificed by hanging, drowning, poisoning, beating, and also by burying alive. The most cruel type of sacrifice was, like the Aztecs, ripping open the stomach and tearing out the still beating heart from the chest. Both captives from other tribes captured during the wars and representatives of own people, including members of the upper strata of society. It is well established that representatives of other tribes captured during the wars, including members of the upper strata of the enemy, were sacrificed on a huge scale. However, it is still unclear whether the Maya waged bloody wars to obtain more prisoners of war with the aim of sacrificing them in the future, as the Aztecs did.
Political and social structure of society
The Maya were primarily strongly oriented towards foreign policy. This was due to the fact that individual city-states competed with each other, but at the same time had to control trade routes in order to obtain the necessary goods. Political structures differed depending on the region, time and people living in cities. Along with hereditary kings under the leadership of "ayawa" (ruler), there were also oligarchic and aristocratic forms of government. The Quiche also had noble families who performed various tasks in the state. Also, democratic institutions took place at least in the lower stratum of society: the procedure for electing a burgomaster every three years, the “Maya burgomaster”, that still exists to this day, has existed, presumably, for quite a long time. In the social structure of society, any member of Maya society who reached the age of 25 could challenge the leader of the tribe. In case of victory, the tribe had a new leader. This usually happened in small towns.
When the Spanish conquistadors led by Hernandez de Cordoba arrived on the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America at the beginning of the 16th century, they met here with the legendary Maya Indians. At that time, their civilization was already in serious decline and crisis. But it was not always so...
Preclassic and Classic period
It is believed that the history of the Maya civilization began in the third millennium BC. e. Traditionally, scientists distinguish preclassical, classical and postclassical periods of its development.
In the preclassic period (that is, until about 250 AD), the first city-states arise in the Yucatan, the development of slash-and-burn farming technologies, technologies for creating fabrics, tools, implements, etc. takes place. As examples major cities Preclassic period should be called Nakbe and El Mirador. It was in El Mirador that the largest Mayan pyramid was discovered. Its height was 72 meters.
As for writing, it appeared among the Maya around 700 BC. e. In general, this people had one of the most advanced writing systems. The Maya left inscriptions everywhere, including on the walls of their buildings. These inscriptions later helped shed light on many aspects of their lives.
In the classical period, the Maya civilization was a set of large and busy cities, and each of them had its own ruler. Maya culture at this time spread to the entire Yucatan Peninsula. Also at this time, new magnificent cities arose - Coba, Chichen Itza, Uxmal, etc.
In the heyday of the Mayan cities, acropolises were erected - ceremonial complexes tens of meters high, including pyramids, palaces and other objects. And at the very top of the acropolises, small square temples without windows were necessarily built. In some cities, there were also observatories - turrets with places to observe other planets and stars.
Cities, temples and large crop fields were interconnected by roads, the so-called sakbe. Sakbe was made from crushed stone, pebbles and limestone - that is, they were not just country roads, but something much more advanced and perfect.
Areas in which the Maya achieved significant success
The Maya Indians managed to create a truly unique civilization. They did not know the wheel and did not know how to process iron. In the production of weapons, these Indians also did not succeed. Over the centuries, their weapons have not changed much (and this is probably one of the reasons why the Europeans turned out to be stronger in the end). But this did not prevent the Mayans from understanding mathematics, geometry and astronomy well, from building high pyramids and temples. A significant element of all buildings was the "Mayan vault" - the original arched narrowing of the roof, which is not found almost anywhere else.
The ancient Maya also knew how to make complex hydraulic irrigation systems. Thanks to this, they grew useful agricultural crops on rather difficult soils from the point of view of agriculture.
Medicine among the ancient Maya was also excellently developed. They were treated by people who had undergone certain training. Local healers accurately identified many ailments (including asthma, tuberculosis, ulcers, etc.) and fought them through inhalations, potions prepared from natural ingredients of medicines.
The Maya Indians knew the human anatomy in detail, and therefore local doctors were able to perform the most complex operations. Affected areas of the body or areas where a tumor developed were removed with knives, wounds were sewn up with a needle and hair, and substances with a narcotic effect were used for anesthesia.
The Mayan physicians had instruments made of volcanic glass and stones at their disposal. By the way, not only medical, but also many other tools and devices, the Maya created precisely from these materials. And some of them, according to modern scientists, were even more perfect than European metal counterparts.
Mayan art in the classical period was also striking in its complexity, sophistication and grace. It found its expression in bas-reliefs, wall paintings, ceramics, and sculptures. The works of art left by the Maya are distinguished by their attraction to mythological themes, complex grotesque images. Key motifs are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and expressive masks.
Calendar and Mayan counting system
The calendar created by the Maya is worthy of a separate discussion - it was really very intricate and long. The year, according to this calendar, was divided into eighteen months of twenty days. However, the Maya did not have such concepts as “beginning of the year” or “end of the year” - the Indians simply calculated the cycles and rhythms of the planets. Time for the Maya moved in a circle, everything repeated again and again. This surprisingly accurate calendar also contained detailed information about the movements of celestial bodies.
And one more fun fact associated with the Mayan calendar. Once, scientists in the southeast of Mexico found a stele left over from the ancient Indians. According to the inscriptions on this stele, the Mayan calendar ended on December 21, 2012. For some reason, many began to consider this date the date of the end of the world. As a result, everything turned into a farce - nothing special happened either on December 21 or 22, 2012.
The fact that the Mayan year was divided into months of 20 days is not accidental. The local counting system was precisely twenty. When counting, the Indians of Central America (Mesoamerica) from ancient times used their fingers and hands and feet at the same time. Each twenty was additionally divided into fives, which corresponds to the number of fingers.
For the convenience of calculations, the Mayans even introduced the designation zero. It was represented as a hollow shell from a snail (infinity was also expressed by the same symbol). Zero is really needed in many mathematical calculations, however, for example, in ancient Greece this figure was not used - they simply did not think of it.
Sacrifices and other cruel practices of the Maya
The ancient Maya really practiced human sacrifice very actively - this is one of the most famous facts about this Indian civilization. People were sacrificed in truly barbaric ways, including by tearing the heart out of the chest and by burying it alive.
It was believed that the person who was chosen as a victim was given the highest honor - he received the status of a messenger to the deities. Mathematicians and astronomers made special calculations to find out when the best time would come for a sacrifice and who the best way suitable for this role. In this regard, the victims were often their own tribesmen, and not the Aztecs and not the Olmecs.
In the polytheistic religion of the Maya, the gods were considered mortal entities. And this is proved by the images of gods-children and gods-old men left by the Indians. And we can conclude that the sacrifices were designed to further extend the life of a particular god.
The Maya also believed that a person must go through thirteen rounds of trials before entering heaven. This path was considered very difficult, it was believed that not all souls were able to go through it to the end. However, women who died during childbirth, warriors who died in battle, and ritual sacrifices fell, according to the beliefs of the ancient Maya, to the gods at once, bypassing all circles.
It was also believed that those who lost in a kind of ball game turned out to be in a better world without unnecessary trials. This sport game was a mixture of rugby, football and basketball. It was played by men in helmets and in protection on the elbows and knees. The goal of the game was extremely simple - it was necessary to throw a rubber ball into a hoop located at a height of six meters. The ball could only be touched by the shoulders, hips and feet. The entire team of losers or several of its members were killed at the end of the game.
Postclassic period
Approximately 850 AD. e. The Maya began to leave their majestic cities, one by one, and the reasons for this phenomenon are still not clear. Complex buildings and water supply systems began to fall into disrepair. After some time, the Maya, in principle, stopped building new tall buildings, holding solemn ceremonies and doing astronomy.
In less than two centuries, the greatness of civilization has largely vanished. Remained separate prosperous settlements, but the Mayans were never destined to regain their former greatness. So civilization entered its postclassical period (987 - the end of the 16th century). This time was marked by the adoption of new harsh laws, new styles in art, the mixing of cultures, internecine wars and, finally, the arrival of the conquistadors.
Reasons for the decline of civilization
Researchers are still arguing about the reasons why the Mayan civilization degraded so quickly. All hypotheses about the actual disappearance of the Mayan civilization are divided into two groups - ecological and non-ecological.
Ecological hypotheses are based on the following message: the Maya were out of balance with the natural environment in which they lived. That is, the rapidly growing population is faced with a lack of quality soil suitable for agriculture, as well as drought and a shortage of drinking water.
There are scientists who very actively defend the version of a terrible drought that forced the Mayans to leave the cities (in particular, the geologist Gerald Haug). And in early 2012, scientists from the University of Southampton published the results of their rigorous research, which also confirm this version. According to these studies, the shortage of fresh water in the Yucatan could become noticeable with a drop in precipitation of 40 percent (and such a drop probably took place between 810 and 950 AD). This anomaly led to the fact that there was not enough drinking water, the habitual way of life of the Maya began to collapse, and they left their cities en masse.
Non-environmental hypotheses are hypotheses about internecine wars, conquests by other Indian tribes, epidemics, and some social catastrophes. And, for example, the version of the Mayan conquest is confirmed by some archaeological finds in the Yucatan. More specifically, artifacts belonging to the Toltecs, another people of Mesoamerica, were found in Mayan settlements. Be that as it may, when the Spaniards arrived in the Yucatan in 1517, the Maya already lived predominantly in agricultural communities.
The conquistadors sailed with bad intentions, and in addition to everything, they brought diseases from the Old World to America that the Maya had not known before (for example, smallpox and measles). And in the end, by the end of the 17th century, the Mayans suffered a complete defeat - the last free Mayan city of Tayasal fell in 1697.
Documentary from the History Channel "Mysteries of the Maya. Secrets of antiquity.
