Ancient Hellenes. The meaning of the word Hellenes

Hellenes("Έλληνες") - For the first time with the name of the Hellenes - a small tribe that lived in southern Thessaly in the valley of the Enipeus, Apidan and other tributaries of the Peneus - we meet in Homer (Il. II, 683, 684): E., together with the Achaeans and the Myrmidons, are mentioned here as subjects of Achilles, inhabiting the Hellas. In addition, we find the name of Hellas as a southern Thessalian region in several later parts of both Homeric poems (Il. IX, 395, 447, XVI, 595; Od. 1,340, IV, 726, XI, 496). This data from epic poetry about the geographical location of Egypt is used by Herodotus, Thucydides, Parian Marble, and Apollodorus; only Aristotle, based on Il. XVI, 234-235, where the “priests of Dodon Zeus” are mentioned Sellas, not washing their feet and sleeping on the bare ground", and identifying the names of the Sells (sub. Gellas) and the Hellenes, transfers ancient Hellas to Epirus. Based on the fact that Epirus Dodona was the center ancient cult the original Greek gods - Zeus and Dione, Ed. Meyer ("Geschichte des Altertums", II vol., Stuttgart) believes that in the prehistoric period the Greeks who occupied Epirus were driven out from there to Thessaly and carried with them to new lands the former tribal and regional names; it is clear that the Hellopia mentioned by Hesiod and the Homeric Sellas (Gellas) are repeated in the Thessalian Hellenes and Hellas. Later genealogical poetry (starting with Hesiod) created the eponym of the Hellenic tribe Hellene, making him the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who survived the great local flood and were considered the ancestors of the Greek people. The same genealogical poetry created in the person of Hellene's brother, Amphictyon, the eponym of Thermopylae-Delphic Amphictyony. From this we can conclude (Holm "History of Greece", I, p. 225 next; see also Beloch, "History of Greece", vol. I, pp. 236-217, M.,) that the Greeks recognized the close connection between the union of the Amphictyons and the name of E., especially since in the center of the peoples who were originally part of the union, the Phthiotian Achaeans, identical with the ancient Hellenes, were geographically located. Thus, the members of the Amphictyony, connecting themselves by origin with the Phthiotians, little by little got used to calling themselves Hellenes and spread this name throughout Northern and Central Greece, and the Dorians transferred it to the Peloponnese. In the 7th century BC, mainly in the east, the correlative concepts of barbarians and panhellenes arose: this latter name was supplanted by the name Hellenes, which had already come into use, which united all the tribes who spoke Greek. language, with the exception of the Macedonians, who lived an isolated life. As a national name, the name E., according to the information we have, is found for the first time in Archilochus and in the Hesiod Catalog; in addition, it is known that the organizers of the Olympic festival bore the name Hellanodics already before 580 BC. The need to create a national name is already noticed in epic poetry: for example, in Homer the Greeks bear the common tribal names of Danaans, Argives, Achaeans, in contrast to the Trojans . Aristotle and some representatives of Alexandrian literature mention another, in their opinion, the oldest common ethnic name of the people - Γραιχοί (= graeci = Greeks), under which in historical times the inhabitants of Egypt were known to the Romans and which then passed through the Romans to all European peoples. In general, the question of the origin of the ethnic names of the Greek people is one of the controversial and unresolved to this day.

Continuing the topic of ancient civilizations, I offer you a small compilation of data on the racial genetic and ethnic history of the Hellenic world - from the Minoan era to the Macedonian expansion. Obviously, this topic is more extensive than the previous ones. Here we will dwell on the materials of K. Kuhn, Angel, Poulianos, Sergi and Ripley, as well as some other authors...

To begin with, it is worth noting several points related to the pre-Indo-European population of the Aegean Sea basin.

Herodotus on the Pelasgians:

“The Athenians are of Pelasgian origin, and the Lacedomonians are of Hellenic origin.”

“When the Pelasgians occupied the land that is now called Greece, the Athenians were Pelasgians and were called Cranai; when the Cecrops ruled, they were called Cecropides; under Eret they turned into Athenians and, eventually, into Ionians, from Ionus, son of Xuthus"

“...The Pelasgians spoke a barbarian dialect. And if all the Pelasgians were such, then the Athenians, being Pelasgians, changed their language at the same time as all Greece.”

“The Greeks, already isolated from the Pelasgians, were few in number, and their number grew due to mixing with other barbarian tribes”

“...The Pelasgians, who had already become Hellenes, united with the Athenians when they also began to call themselves Hellenes”

In the “Pelasgians” of Herodotus, it is worth considering a conglomerate of various tribes that have both autochthonous Neolithic origin and Asia Minor and Northern Balkan origin, which went through a process of homogenization during the Bronze Age. Later, Indo-European tribes who came from the north of the Balkans, as well as Minoan colonists from Crete, were also involved in this process.

Middle Bronze Age Skulls:

207, 213, 208 – female skulls; 217 – male.

207, 217 – Atlantic-Mediterranean type (“basic white”); 213 – European alpine type; 208 – East Alpine type.

It is also necessary to touch upon Mycenae and Tiryns, the civilizational centers of the Middle Bronze Age.

Reconstruction of the appearance of the ancient Mycenaeans:

Paul Faure, "Daily life in Greece during the Trojan War"

“Everything that can be extracted from the study of skeletons of the early Hellenic type (XVI-XIII centuries BC) with the modern level of anthropological information only confirms and slightly complements the data of Mycenaean iconography. The men buried in Circle B of the royal tombs at Mycenae averaged 1,675 meters in height, with seven exceeding 1.7 metres. Women are mostly 4-8 centimeters lower. In circle A, two skeletons are more or less well preserved: the first reaches 1.664 meters, the second (the bearer of the so-called mask of Agamemnon) - 1.825 meters. Lawrence Angil, who studied them, noticed that both had extremely dense bones, massive bodies and heads. These people clearly belonged to a different ethnic type from their subjects and were on average 5 centimeters taller than them.”

If we talk about the “god-born” sailors who came from overseas and usurped power in the old Mycenaean policies, then here, most likely, we are dealing with the ancient Eastern Mediterranean tribes of seafarers. The “God-born” were reflected in myths and legends; the dynasties of Hellenic kings who lived already in the Classical era began with their names.

Paul Faure about the type depicted on the death masks of kings from the “God-born” dynasties:

“Some deviations from the common type on gold masks from burial grounds make it possible to see other faces; one is especially interesting - almost round, with a fleshier nose and eyebrows fused at the bridge of the nose. Such persons are often found in Anatolia, and even more often in Armenia, as if deliberately wanting to give substantiation to the legends according to which many kings, queens, concubines, craftsmen, slaves and soldiers moved from Asia Minor to Greece.”

Traces of their presence can be found among the populations of the Cyclades, Lesbos and Rhodes.

A. Poulianos about the Aegean anthropological complex:

“He stands out for his dark pigmentation, wavy (or straight) hair, medium-sized chest hair, and above-average beard growth. The influence of Western Asian elements is undoubtedly evident here. By the color and shape of the hair, by the growth of the beard and chest hair in relation to the anthropological types of Greece and Western Asia, Aegean type occupies an intermediate position"

Also, confirmation of the expansion of seafarers “from across the sea” can be found in the data dermatology:

“There are eight types of prints, which can easily be reduced to three main ones: arcuate, looped, whorled, that is, those whose lines diverge in concentric circles. First try comparative analysis, made in 1971 by professors Rohl Astrom and Sven Erikeson on the material of two hundred specimens from the Mycenaean era, turned out to be discouraging. She showed that for Cyprus and Crete the percentage of arc prints (5 and 4%, respectively) is the same as for the peoples of Western Europe, for example Italy and Sweden; the percentage of looped (51%) and whorled (44.5%) is very close to what we see among the peoples of modern Anatolia and Lebanon (55% and 44%). True, the question remains open about what percentage of the artisans in Greece were Asian emigrants. And yet the fact remains: the study of fingerprints revealed two ethnic components of the Greek people - European and Middle Eastern."

Approaching more detailed description population of Ancient Hellas - K. Kuhn about the ancient Hellenes(from the work "Races of Europe")

“...In 2000 B.C. there were present here, from a cultural point of view, three main elements of the Greek population: local Neolithic Mediterraneans; newcomers from the north, from the Danube; Cycladic tribes from Asia Minor.

Between 2000 BC and the Age of Homer, Greece experienced three invasions: (a) the Corded Ware tribes who came from the north later than 1900 BC, and who, according to Myres, brought the Indo-European basis Greek language; (b) the Minoans from Crete, who gave the “ancient pedigree” to the dynasties of rulers of Thebes, Athens, Mycenae. Most of them invaded Greece later than 1400 BC. © “God-born” conquerors such as Atreus, Pelops, etc., who came from across the Aegean Sea on ships, adopted the Greek language and usurped the throne by marrying the daughters of the Minoan kings ... "

“The Greeks of the great period of Athenian civilization were the result of a mixture of various ethnic elements, and the search for the origins of the Greek language continues...”

“The skeletal remains should be useful in the process of reconstructing history. The six skulls from Ayas Kosmas, near Athens, represent the entire period of mixing of Neolithic, "Danubian" and "Cycladic" elements, between 2500 and 2000. BC. Three skulls are dolichocephalic, one is mesocephalic, and two are brachycephalic. All faces are narrow, noses are leptorrhine, high orbits..."

“The Middle Helladic period is represented by 25 skulls, which represent the era of the invasion of the newcomers of the Corded Ware culture from the North, and the process of increasing the power of the Minoan conquerors from Crete. 23 skulls are from Asin, and 2 are from Mycenae. It should be noted that the populations of this period are very mixed. Only two skulls are brachycephalic, they are both male and both are associated with short stature. One skull is of medium size, with a high skull, a narrow nose and a narrow face; others are extremely broad-faced and hamerrin. They are two different broad-headed types, both of which can be found in modern Greece.

Long skulls do not represent a homogeneous type; some have large skulls and massive brows, with deep nasal cavities, reminding me of one of the variants of the Neolithic dolichocephals from Long Barrow and the Corded Ware culture ... "

“The rest of the dolichocephalic skulls represent the Middle Helladic population, which had smoothed eyebrows and long noses similar to the inhabitants of Crete and Asia Minor in the same era...”

“...41 skulls from the Late Helladic period, dated between 1500 and 1200 BC. BC, and having their origin, for example, from Argolid, must include a certain element of “God-born” conquerors. Among these skulls, 1/5 are brachycephalic, mainly of the Cypriot Dinaric type. Among the dolichocephalic ones, a significant part are difficult-to-classify variants, and a smaller number are low-growing Mediterranean variants. The similarity with the northern types, with the Corded Ware culture type in particular, seems more noticeable in this era than before. This change of non-Minoan origin must be associated with the heroes of Homer"

“...The racial history of Greece in the classical period is not described in such detail as in those periods that have been studied previously. There may have been slight population changes here until the beginning of the slave era. In Argolid the Mediterranean element is represented in its pure form in only one of the six skulls. According to Kumaris, mesocephaly dominated Greece throughout the Classical period, both in the Hellenistic and Roman eras. The average cephalic index in Athens, represented by 30 skulls, during this period is 75.6. Mesocephaly reflects a mixture of various elements, the Mediterranean being dominant among them. Greek colonies in Asia Minor display the same combination of types as in Greece. The mixture with the Asia Minors must have been masked by the noticeable similarity between the populations of both shores of the Aegean Sea."

“The Minoan nose with a high bridge and a flexible body came to classical Greece as an artistic ideal, but portraiture of people shows that this could not be an ordinary phenomenon in life. Villains, funny characters, satyrs, centaurs, giants and all undesirable people are shown both in sculpture and in vase paintings as broad-faced, snub-nosed and bearded. Socrates belonged to this type, similar to the satyr. This alpine type can also be found in modern Greece. And in early skeletal materials it is represented by some brachycephalic series.

Overall, it is amazing to contemplate the portraits of the Athenians and death masks Spartans, so similar to modern inhabitants of Western Europe. This similarity is less noticeable in Byzantine art, where one often finds images similar to those of contemporary Middle Easterners; but the Byzantines mainly lived outside of Greece.
As will be shown below(Chapter XI) , modern inhabitants of Greece, oddly enough, are practically no different from their classical ancestors»

Greek skull from Megara:

The following data is given Lauren Angel:

“All the evidence and assumptions contradict Nilsson's hypothesis that the Greco-Roman decline is associated with an increase in the reproduction of passive individuals, the bastardization of the originally racially pure nobility, and the low level of their birth rate. Since it was this mixed group that appeared during the Geometric period that gave rise to the Classical Greek civilization."

Analysis of the remains of representatives of different periods of Greek history, reproduced by Angel:

Based on the above data, the dominant elements in the Classical era are: Mediterranean and Iranian-Nordic.

Greeks of the Iranian-Nordic type(from the works of L. Angel)

“Representatives of the Iranian-Nordic type have long, high skulls with strongly protruding occiputs that smooth out the contour of the ovoid ellipsoid, developed eyebrows, and sloping and wide foreheads. Significant facial height and narrow cheekbones, combined with a wide jaw and forehead, create the impression of a rectangular “horse” face. Large but compressed cheekbones are combined with high orbits, an aquiline protruding nose, a long concave palate, massive wide jaws, chins with a depression, although not protruding forward. Initially, representatives of this type were both blue-eyed and green-eyed blonds and brown-haired people, as well as burning brunettes.”

Greeks of the Mediterranean type(from the works of L. Angel)

“Classical Mediterraneans have a fine-boned physique and are graceful. They have small dolichocephalic heads, pentagonal in vertical and occipital projection; compressed neck muscles, low rounded foreheads. They have fine, beautiful facial features; square orbits, thin noses with a low bridge; triangular lower jaws with a slight protruding chin, subtle prognathism and malocclusion, which is associated with the degree of wear of the teeth. Initially, they were only below average height, with a thin neck, brunettes with black or dark hair."

Having studied the comparative data of ancient and modern Greeks, Angel draws conclusions:

"The racial continuity in Greece is astonishing"

“Poulianos is correct in his judgment that there is a genetic continuity of the Greeks from antiquity to modern times”

For a long time, the question of the influence of northern Indo-European elements on the genesis of Greek civilization remained controversial, so it is worth dwelling on several points concerning this particular topic:

The following writes Paul Faure:

“Classical poets, from Homer to Euripides, persistently portray heroes as tall and fair-haired. Every sculpture from the Minoan era to the Hellenistic era endows goddesses and gods (except perhaps Zeus) with golden locks and superhuman stature. It is rather an expression of an ideal of beauty, a physical type not found among mere mortals. And when the geographer Dicaearchus from Messene in the 4th century BC. e. is surprised by the blond Thebans (dyed? red?) and praises the courage of the blond Spartiates, he only thus emphasizes the exceptional rarity of blonds in the Mycenaean world. And in fact, in the few images of warriors that have come down to us - be it ceramics, inlay, wall paintings of Mycenae or Pylos. we see men with blacks, slightly curly hair, and their beards - in those cases, if any - are black as agate. The wavy or curly hair of the priestesses and goddesses in Mycenae and Tiryns is no less dark. Wide open dark eyes, a long thin nose with a clearly defined, or even fleshy tip, thin lips, very light skin, relatively short stature and a slender figure - we invariably find all these features on Egyptian monuments where the artist sought to depict “the peoples that they live on the islands of the Great (Great) Green.” In the XIII, as in the XV century BC. e., most of the population of the Mycenaean world belonged to the ancient Mediterranean type, the same one that has been preserved in many regions to this day."

L. Angel

“there is no reason to assume that the Iranian-Nordic type in Greece was as lightly pigmented as the Nordic type in northern latitudes”

J. Gregor

“...Both the Latin “flavi” and the Greek “xanthos” and “hari” are generalized terms with many additional meanings. “Xanthos,” which we boldly translate as “blonde,” was used by the ancient Greeks to define “any hair color other than jet black, which color was probably no lighter than dark chestnut.” ((Wace, Keiter ) Sergi)..."

K. Kuhn

“...we cannot be sure that all prehistoric skeletal material that appears to be North Caucasian in an osteological sense was associated with light pigmentation.”

Buxton

“With regard to the Achaeans, we can say that there seems to be no basis for suspecting the presence of a northern European component.”

Dude

“In the Bronze Age population we generally find the same anthropological types as in the modern population, only with a different percentage of representatives of certain types. We cannot talk about mixing with the northern race."

K. Kuhn, L. Angel, Baker and, later, Aris Poulianos were of the opinion that the Indo-European language was brought to Greece along with the ancient tribes of Central Europe, which became part of the Dorian and Ionian tribes, assimilating the local Pelasgic population.

We can also find indications of this fact in the ancient author Polemona(who lived during the era of Hadrian):

“Those who managed to preserve the Hellenic and Ionian race in all its purity (!) are rather tall men, broad-shouldered, stately, well-cut and fairly fair-skinned. Their hair is not completely blond (that is, light brown or blond), relatively soft and slightly wavy. The faces are wide, high cheekbones, thin lips, straight noses and shiny eyes full of fire. Yes, the eyes of the Greeks are the most beautiful in the world."

Traits given: strong build, average or high growth, mixed pigmentation of hair, wide cheekbones indicate a Central European element. Similar data can be found by Poulianos, according to the results of whose research the Central European Alpine type in some regions of Greece has a specific gravity of 25-30%. Poulianos studied 3,000 people from various regions of Greece, among which Macedonia is the lightest pigmented, but at the same time, the cephalic index there is 83.3, i.e. an order of magnitude higher than in all other regions of Greece. In Northern Greece, Poulianos distinguishes the Western Macedonian (North Indian) type, it is the most lightly pigmented, is sub-brachycephalic, but, at the same time, is similar to the Hellenic anthropological group (Central Greek and Southern Greek type).

As a more or less clear example Western Macedonian complex devil - Bulgarian-speaking Macedonian:

An interesting example is the example of fair-haired characters from Pells(Macedonia)

In this case, the heroes are depicted as golden-haired, pale (as opposed to mere mortals working under the scorching sun?), very tall, with a straight profile line.

In comparison with them - image detachment of hypaspists from Macedonia:

In the depiction of the heroes, we see the emphasized sacredness of their image and features that are as different as possible from “mere mortals,” embodied by the hypaspist warriors.

If we talk about works of painting, then the relevance of their comparison with living people is doubtful, since the creation of realistic portraits begins only in the 5th-4th centuries. BC. – before this period, the image of features that are relatively rare among people dominates (an absolutely straight profile line, a heavy chin with a soft contour, etc.).

However, the combination of these features is not fantasy, but an ideal, the models for the creation of which were few. Some parallels for comparison:

In the 4th-3rd centuries. realistic images people are beginning to become widespread - some examples:

Alexander the Great(+supposed reconstruction of appearance)

Alcibiades / Thucydides / Herodotus

On the sculptures of the era of Philip Argead, the conquests of Alexander and in the Hellenistic period, which are distinguished by higher realism than in earlier periods, dominates Atlantic-Mediterranean(“basic white” in Angel’s terminology) type. Perhaps this is an anthropological pattern, or perhaps a coincidence, or a new ideal under which the traits of the depicted individuals were subsumed.

Atlanto-Mediterranean variant, characteristic of the Balkan Peninsula:

Modern Greeks of the Atlanto-Mediterranean type:

Based on the data of K. Kuhn, the Atlanto-Mediterranean substrate is largely present throughout Greece, and is also the basic element for the populations of Bulgaria and Crete. Angel also positions this anthropological element as one of the most prevalent in the Greek population, both throughout history (see table) and in the modern era.

Antique sculptural images displaying features of the above type:

These same features are clearly visible in the sculptural images of Alcibiades, Seleucus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Antiochus and other representatives of the Classical era.

As mentioned above, this element dominates among population of Bulgaria:

2) Tomb in Kazanlak(Bulgaria)

The same features are noticeable here as in the previous paintings.

Thracian type according to Aris Poulianos:

"Of all the types of the southeastern branch of the Caucasian race Thracian type most mesocephalic and narrow-faced. The profile of the nasal bridge is straight or convex (in women it is often concave). The position of the tip of the nose is horizontal or raised. The slope of the forehead is almost straight. The protrusion of the wings of the nose and the thickness of the lips are average. In addition to Thrace and eastern Macedonia, the Thracian type is common in Turkish Thrace, in the west of Asia Minor, partly among the population of the Aegean Islands and, apparently, in the north, in Bulgaria (in the southern and eastern regions). This type is closest to the central one, especially to its Thessalian variant. It can be contrasted with both the Epirus and Western Asian types, and is called southwestern..."

Both Greece (with the exception of Epirus and the Aegean archipelago), as the zone of localization of the civilizational center of the Classical Hellenic civilization, and Bulgaria, with the exception of the northwestern regions, as the ethnic core of the ancient Thracian community), are relatively tall, dark-pigmented, mesocephalic, high-headed populations, whose the specificity fits within the framework of the Western Mediterranean race (see Alekseeva).

Map of peaceful Greek colonization 7th-6th centuries. BC.

During the expansion of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Greek colonists, having left the overpopulated policies of Hellas, brought the grain of classical Greek civilization to almost all parts of the Mediterranean: Asia Minor, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Sicily, the Black Sea coast of the Balkans and Crimea, as well as the emergence of a few policies in the Western Mediterranean (Massilia, Emporia, etc. .d.).

In addition to the cultural element, the Hellenes brought there the “grain” of their race - the genetic component isolated Cavalli Sforza and associated with the zones of the most intense colonization:

This element is also noticeable when Clustering of the population of South-Eastern Europe by Y-DNA markers:

Concentration of various Y-DNA markers in the population of modern Greece:

Greeks N=91

15/91 16.5% V13 E1b1b1a2
1/91 1.1% V22 E1b1b1a3
2/91 2.2% M521 E1b1b1a5
2/91 2.2% M123 E1b1b1c

2/91 2.2% P15(xM406) G2a*
1/91 1.1% M406 G2a3c

2/91 2.2% M253(xM21,M227,M507) I1*
1/91 1.1% M438(xP37.2,M223) I2*
6/91 6.6% M423(xM359) I2a1*

2/91 2.2% M267(xM365,M367,M368,M369) J1*

3/91 3.2% M410(xM47,M67,M68,DYS445=6) J2a*
4/91 4.4% M67(xM92) J2a1b*
3/91 3.2% M92 J2a1b1
1/91 1.1% DYS445=6 J2a1k
2/91 2.2% M102(xM241) J2b*
4/91 4.4% M241(xM280) J2b2
2/91 2.2% M280 J2b2b

1/91 1.1% M317 L2

15/91 16.5% M17 R1a1*

2/91 2.2% P25(xM269) R1b1*
16/91 17.6% M269 R1b1b2

4/91 4.4% M70 T

The following writes Paul Faure:

“For several years, a group of scientists from Athens - V. Baloaras, N. Konstantoulis, M. Paidousis, X. Sbarounis and Aris Poulianos - studying the blood types of young conscripts of the Greek army and the composition of bones burned at the end of the Mycenaean era, came to a double conclusion about that the Aegean basin shows a striking uniformity in the relationship of blood groups, and the few exceptions recorded, say, in the White Mountains of Crete and Macedonia, are matched by the Ingush and other peoples of the Caucasus (while throughout Greece the blood group is “B” "approaches 18%, and group "O" with slight fluctuations - to 63%, here they are noted much less frequently, and the latter sometimes drops to 23%). This is a consequence of ancient migrations within the stable and still predominant Mediterranean type in Greece."

Y-DNA markers in the population of modern Greece:

mt-DNA markers in the population of modern Greece:

Autosomal markers in the population of modern Greece:

AS A CONCLUSION

It is worth drawing several conclusions:

Firstly, Classical Greek civilization, formed in the 8th-7th centuries. BC. included various ethno-civilizational elements: Minoan, Mycenaean, Anatolian, as well as the influence of North Balkan (Achaean and Ionian) elements. The genesis of the civilizational core of Classical civilization is a set of processes of consolidation of the above elements, as well as their further evolution.

Secondly, the racial genetic and ethnic core of Classical civilization was formed as a result of the consolidation and homogenization of various elements: Aegean, Minoan, North Balkan and Anatolian. Among which the autochthonous East Mediterranean element was dominant. The Hellenic "core" was formed as a result of complex processes of interaction between the above elements.

Third, unlike the “Romans,” who were essentially a polytonym (“Roman = citizen of Rome”), the Hellenes formed a unique ethnic group that retained family ties with the ancient Thracian and Asia Minor populations, but became the racial genetic basis for a completely new civilization. Based on the data of K. Kuhn, L. Angel and A. Poulianos, between modern and ancient Hellenes there is a line of anthropological continuity and “racial continuity”, which manifests itself both in comparisons between populations as a whole, as well as in comparisons between specific micro-elements.

Fourth, despite the fact that many people have an oppositional opinion, Classical Greek civilization became one of the bases for Roman civilization (along with the Etruscan component), thereby partly predetermining the further genesis Western world.

Fifthly, in addition to the influence on Western Europe, the era of Alexander’s campaigns and the Diadochi wars was able to give rise to a new Hellenistic world, in which various Greek and Oriental elements were closely intertwined. It was the Hellenistic world that became fertile soil for the emergence of Christianity, its further spread, as well as the emergence of the Eastern Roman Christian civilization.

Hellenes

oov, units -in, -a, m. Self-name of the Greeks (usually of the classical era). K. Hellenic, -i. and adj. Hellenic, -aya, -oe. Hellenic culture. E. theater.

New explanatory and word-formative dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

Hellenes

pl.

Ancient Greeks.

Hellenes

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

Hellenes

HELLENES (Greek Hellenes) self-name of the Greeks.- self-name of the Greeks. The Hellenes received the name “Greeks” from the Romans who conquered them. In modern Russian, the word “Hellenes” is usually used to refer to the inhabitants of Ancient Greece, although modern Greeks also call themselves this.

For the first time, a small tribe of Hellenes in southern Thessaly is mentioned in Homer. They were also placed there by Herodotus, Thucydides, the Parian Chronicle, and Apollodorus. However, Aristotle transfers ancient Hellas to Epirus. According to Eduard Meyer, expressed in his work “Geschichte des Altertums” (II vol., Stuttgart, 1893), in the prehistoric period the Greeks who occupied Epirus were driven out from there to Thessaly and took with them the previous tribal and regional names to new lands.

Later, genealogical poetry (starting with Hesiod) created the eponym of the Hellenic tribe Hellene, making him the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who survived the great local flood and were considered the ancestors of the Greek people. The same genealogical poetry created in the person of Hellenus' brother, Amphictyon, the eponym of Thermopylae-Delphic amphictyony. Members of the Amphictyony, connecting themselves by origin with the Phthiotians, got used to calling themselves Hellenes and spread this name throughout Northern and Central Greece, and the Dorians transferred it to the Peloponnese.

In the 7th century BC, mainly in the east, the correlative concepts of barbarians and panhellenes arose, but this latter name was supplanted by the name Hellenes, which had already come into use, which united all the tribes that spoke Greek, with the exception of the Macedonians, who lived an isolated life.

As a national name Hellenes found for the first time in the 8th century BC by Archilochus and in the Hesiod catalogue, as “the greatest people of all times.”

Examples of the use of the word Hellenes in literature.

What surprised Thais most was the bestiality of the gods among the people, before whose wisdom and secret sciences Hellenes bowed down!

According to Nearchus, Hellenes they slandered the Cretans themselves - there was no more faithful and reliable person in all of Pella than Nearchus.

If there are many truly brave and strong men around you, you can consider yourself completely safe,” the hetaera answered her, laughing, “they are Hellenes and, especially, the Spartans.

Grateful Hellenes They placed her portrait statue of gold-plated bronze on the stairs leading to the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi.

How long have we been Hellenes, worshiped the rivers, so important in our low-water country?

We, Hellenes, are still very immature - we do not have morality and understanding of human feelings, like in the far East.

To find out the roots of our faith, the origin of our gods, to understand why we still Hellenes live without understanding the responsibilities and goals of man among other people and in the surrounding Ecumene.

Then Thais heard the bearded poet ask the Delian philosopher: “Should we understand what you said, that we, Hellenes, despite enormous knowledge and great art, we do not deliberately strive to create new tools and machines, so as not to part with the feelings of Eros, beauty and poetry?

We, Hellenes, not so long ago they began on this wild and evil path, earlier the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria came to it, and now an even worse domination of Rome is ripening in the west.

All - heavenly, earthly and underground, she who is called Ashtoreth, Cybele or Rhea, and Hellenes They are also considered Artemis or Hecate.

Leoforos was his name Hellenes a convenient road, adapted for heavy carts, - led to the treasured Persepolis, the largest gazophilakia, the treasury of Persia, sacred place coronations and throne receptions of the Achaemenid dynasty.

These were Hellenes, captured or deceived to work in the capital of Persia.

Persepolis was not a city in the sense that the word meant Hellenes, Macedonians, Phoenicians.

For this, the crippled worked here Hellenes, Ionians, Macedonians and Thracians, a crowd of whom we met?

We are above all else in life, Hellenes, we consider the perfection of man, the harmony of his development, physical and spiritual, callocathia, as we say.

CHAPTER TWO. Hellenes. Origin and history of the nation before the clash with the Persians

East and West

Moving from a review of various aspects of the life of the huge Persian kingdom to the history of the West, one is involuntarily amazed at the complete opposite to the East, which is found in all manifestations of historical life. In the East, the state, organization and order come, so to speak, from above, as a result of which a certain mechanically correct social system is created, usually leading to an exorbitant development of the power of the one who in this system constitutes the main basis and support, that is, the king. The rights of the people there turn out to be completely insignificant before the will of the monarch, and the very concept of law, of state law in the Western sense of the word does not exist there.

In the West it is different: here the force that creates the state comes from below, from the unit; a single good is a constant and main goal that creates and binds society. Here alone could the concept of personal freedom be formed, which, both as a concept and as a word, is sought in vain in the ancient languages ​​and inscriptions of the East, or even in the Old Testament itself. For the first time, the Hellenes managed to consciously introduce this concept into public life and thereby give new strength to human moral activity: this is their world-historical merit, this is the whole essence of their history.

Origin of the Hellenes

Relocations from Asia

The main and initial event in the history of that part of the world, which is called by the ancient Semitic name of Europe (the midnight country), was the endlessly long migration of peoples from Asia to it. What preceded this resettlement is covered in complete darkness: if there was a native population anywhere before this resettlement, it was very rare, stood at the lowest level of development, and therefore was forced out by settlers, enslaved, exterminated. This process of resettlement and permanent settlement in new villages began to take the form of a historical and reasonable manifestation of folk life, primarily on the Balkan Peninsula, and moreover in its southern part, to which a bridge was drawn from the Asian coast, in the form of an almost continuous series of islands . Really. The Sporades and Cyclades islands lie so close to each other that they seem to lure the migrant, attract him, hold him, and show him his further path. The Romans called the inhabitants of the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and the islands belonging to it Greeks (graeci); They themselves later called themselves one common name - Hellenes [Perhaps originally this was the name of some separate tribe.]. But they adopted this general name already at a fairly late era in their historical life, when they formed into a whole people in their new fatherland.

Drawing on an archaic Greek black-figure vessel from the 8th century. BC e. The painting style has oriental features.

These inhabitants, who moved to the Balkan Peninsula, belonged to the Aryan tribe, as is positively proven by comparative linguistics. The same science in general outline explains the amount of culture they carried from their eastern ancestral home. Their circle of beliefs included the god of light - Zeus, or Dius, the god of the all-encompassing firmament - Uranus, the earth goddess Gaia, the ambassador of the gods - Hermes and several other naive religious personifications that embodied the forces of nature. In the area of ​​everyday life, they knew the most necessary household utensils and agricultural tools, the most common domestic animals of the temperate zone - bull, horse, sheep, dog, goose; they were characterized by the concept of settled life, a durable dwelling, a home, as opposed to the portable tent of a nomad; finally, they already possessed a highly developed language, indicating a fairly high degree of development. This is what these settlers came out with from their old places of settlement and what they brought with them to Europe.

Their resettlement was completely arbitrary, guided by no one, and without any specific purpose or plan. It was carried out, without a doubt, similar to the European evictions to America that are taking place at the present time, that is, families and crowds were resettled, of which, for the most part, after a long time, separate clans and tribes were formed in the new fatherland. In this migration, as in the modern migration to America, it was not the rich and noble who took part, nor the lowest stratum of the population, the least mobile; The most energetic part of the poor moved, who, when evicted, count on an improvement in their lot.

Nature of the country

They found the territory chosen for settlement not completely empty and deserted; they met a primitive population there, which they later called the Pelasgians. Among the ancient names of various tracts of this territory there are many that bear the imprint of Semitic origin [For example, Salamis - the city of peace, prosperity.], and it can be assumed that some parts of the territory were inhabited by Semitic tribes. Those settlers who had to enter the Balkan Peninsula from the north came across a different kind of population there, and things did not happen without struggle everywhere. But nothing is known about this, and one can only assume that the original Pelasgian population of the territory was small. The new settlers were apparently looking not for pastures or marketplaces, but for places where they could settle firmly, and the area south of Olympus, although not particularly rich in large and fertile plains, seemed especially attractive to them. From northwest to southeast, the Pindus mountain range stretches across the entire peninsula with peaks up to 2.5 thousand meters, with passes of 1600-1800 meters; it forms the watershed between the Aegean and Adriatic seas. From its heights, facing south, on the left side to the east a fertile plain with a beautiful river is visible - a country that later received the name Thessaly; to the west, a country cut by mountain ranges parallel to Pindus, is Epirus with its wooded heights. Further, at 49° N. w. extends the country that later became known as Hellas - Central Greece itself. This country, although it has mountainous and rather wild areas, and in the middle of it rises the double-peaked Parnassus, rising to 2460 meters, was still very attractive to look at; clear skies, rare rainfall, a lot of variety in the general appearance of the area, a little further away - a vast plain with a lake in the middle, abounding in fish - this is later Boeotia; the mountains everywhere were more abundantly covered with forest at that time than later; There are few rivers and their waters are shallow; to the west, everywhere to the sea is a stone's throw; the southern part is a mountainous peninsula, almost completely separated by water from the rest of Greece - this is the Peloponnese. This whole country, mountainous, with sharp changes in climate, has something in itself that awakens energy and tempers strength, and most importantly, by the very structure of its surface it favors the formation of separate small communities, completely closed, and thereby contributes to the development in them of an ardent love for native corner. In one respect, the country has truly incomparable advantages: the entire eastern coast of the peninsula is extremely winding, with no less than five large bays and, moreover, with many branches - therefore, it is accessible everywhere, and there is an abundance of the purple clam, highly valued at that time, in some bays and straits ( for example, Euboean and Saronic), and in other areas the abundance of ship timber and mineral wealth began to attract foreigners here very early on. But foreigners could never penetrate far into the interior of the country, since, by the very nature of the terrain, it was easy to protect everywhere from external invasion.

An image of a navy on the blade of a bronze sword.

The first Greek civilizations were famous for their warlike spirit and knowledge of maritime affairs, for which in Egypt these tribes received the common name “peoples of the sea.” III century BC e.

Phoenician influence

However, at that distant time of the first settlements of the Aryan tribe on the Balkan Peninsula, only one people could interfere with the natural growth and development of the Aryans, namely the Phoenicians; but they did not even think about colonizing on a large scale. Their influence, however, was very significant and, generally speaking, even beneficial; According to legend, the founder of one of the Greek cities, the city of Thebes, was the Phoenician Cadmus, and this name really bears a Semitic imprint and means “man from the East.” Therefore, we can assume that there was a time when the Phoenician element was predominant among the population. He delivered to the Aryan population a precious gift - writing, which among this mobile and resourceful people, gradually developing from an Egyptian basis, turned into a real sound letter with a separate sign for each individual sound - an alphabet. Of course, in this form, writing served as a powerful tool for the further success of the development of the Aryan tribe. Both the religious ideas and rituals of the Phoenicians also had some influence, which is not difficult to recognize in individual deities of later times, for example, in Aphrodite, in Hercules; in them one cannot help but see Astarte and Baal-Melkart of Phoenician beliefs. But even in this area, the Phoenician influence penetrated shallowly. It only excited, but did not completely master, and this was most clearly demonstrated in the language, which subsequently retained and adopted only a very small number of words of a Semitic character, and then mainly in the form of trade terms. The Egyptian influence, about which legends have also been preserved, was, of course, even weaker than the Phoenician.

Formation of the Hellenic Nation

These contacts with an alien element were important precisely because they revealed to the arriving Aryan population their unique character, the peculiarities of their way of life, brought them to the consciousness of these peculiarities, and thereby contributed to their further independent development. The active spiritual life of the Aryan people, on the basis of their new homeland, is evidenced by the endless number of myths about gods and heroes, in which creative imagination is shown, restrained by reason, and not vague and unbridled like the Eastern model. These myths represent a distant echo of those great upheavals that gave the country its final form and are known as the “Wanderings of the Dorians.”

The Dorian wandering and its influence

This era of migrations is usually dated to 1104 BC. e., of course, completely arbitrarily, because for events of this kind one can never definitely indicate either their beginning or end. The external course of these migrations of peoples in a small space is presented in the following form: the tribe of Thessalians, who settled in Epirus between the Adriatic Sea and the ancient sanctuary of the Dodonian oracle, crossed the Pindus and took possession of a fertile country in the east of this ridge, extending to the sea; The tribe gave its name to this country. One of the tribes displaced by these Thessalians moved south and defeated the Minyans in Orkhomenes and the Cadmeans in Thebes. In connection with these movements, or even earlier, their third people, the Dorians, who settled on the southern slope of Olympus, also moved in a southern direction, conquered a small mountainous region between Pindus and Eta - Doridu, but were not satisfied with it, because it seemed cramped to this numerous and warlike people, and therefore he settled even further south in the mountainous Peloponnese peninsula (i.e., the island of Pelops). According to legend, this seizure was justified by some rights of the Dorian princes to Argolis, a region in the Peloponnese, rights passed to them from their ancestor, Hercules. Under the command of three leaders, reinforced along the way by Aetolian crowds, they invaded the Peloponnese. The Aetolians settled in the northeast of the peninsula on the plains and hills of Elis; three separate crowds of Dorians, over a certain period of time, take possession of the entire rest of the peninsula, except for the mountainous country of Arcadia lying in the center of it, and thus found three Dorian communities - Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, with some admixture of the Achaean tribe conquered by the Dorians, who originally lived here. Both the winners and the vanquished - two different tribes, not two different peoples - formed here some semblance of a small state. Some of the Achaeans in Laconia, who did not like their enslavement, rushed to the Ionian settlements of the northeastern coast of the Peloponnese on the Gulf of Corinth. The Ionians displaced from here moved to the eastern outskirts of Central Greece, to Attica. Soon after, the Dorians tried to move north and penetrate into Attica, but this attempt failed, and they had to be content with the Peloponnese. But Attica, not particularly fertile, could not tolerate too much population overflow. This led to new evictions across the Aegean Sea, to Asia Minor. The settlers occupied the middle strip of the coast there and founded a certain number of cities - Miletus, Miunts, Prienou, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Erythrae, Theos, Klazomeni, and fellow tribesmen began to gather for annual festivities on one of the Cyclades islands, Delos, to which Hellenic legends indicate as the birthplace of the solar god Apollo. The shores to the south of those occupied by the Ionians, as well as the southern islands of Rhodes and Crete, were inhabited by settlers of the Dorian tribe; the areas to the north - by the Achaeans and others. This area received the very name Aeolis precisely from the diversity and diversity of its population, for which the island of Lesbos was also a well-known gathering point.

Homer

During this period of persistent tribal struggle, which laid the foundation for the subsequent structure of the individual states of Greece, the spirit of the Hellenes found expression in heroic songs - this first flower of Greek poetry, and this poetry very early, in the 10th-9th centuries. BC e., reached the highest degree of its development in Homer, who managed to create two large songs from separate songs epic works. In one of them he sang the wrath of Achilles and its consequences, in the other - the return of Odysseus home from distant wanderings, and in both of these works he brilliantly embodied and expressed all the youthful freshness of the distant heroic period of Greek life.

Homer. Late Antique bust.

The original is kept in the Capitoline Museum.

Nothing is known about his personal life; only his name is preserved reliably. Several significant cities of the Greek world competed with each other for the honor of being called the birthplace of Homer. Many can be confused by the often used expression “people's poet” in relation to Homer, and yet his poetic works were apparently created for a select, noble public, for gentlemen, so to speak. He is excellently familiar with all aspects of the life of this upper class, whether he describes hunting or martial arts, a helmet or another part of the weapon, a subtle connoisseur of the matter is visible in everything. With amazing skill and knowledge, based on keen observation, he draws individual characters from this highest circle.

The throne room of the palace in Pylos, the capital of the legendary Homeric king Nestor.

Modern reconstruction

But this upper class, described by Homer, was not at all a closed caste; at the head of this class was the king, who ruled a small region in which he was the main landowner. Below this class there was a layer of free farmers or artisans who temporarily turned into warriors, and they all had their own common cause, common interests. [The life of the upper class of Homeric times was supplemented by important excavations by Schliemann carried out on the site of ancient Troy (in Asia Minor) and on the Greek mainland itself (in Mycenae and other places). The things obtained from these excavations and making a precious contribution to the science of ancient archeology make up the richest Schliemann Museum in Athens.].

Mycenae, the legendary capital of King Agamemnon, reconstruction of the original view and plan of the fortress

A. Lion Gate; V. barn; S. wall supporting the terrace; D. platform leading to the palace; E. circle of burials found by Schliemann; F. palace: 1 - entrance; 2 - guard room; 3 - entrance to the propylaea; 4 - western portal; 5 - northern corridor: 6 - southern corridor; 7 - western passage; 8 - large yard; 9 - staircase; 10 - throne room; 11 - reception hall: 12-14 - portico, large reception hall, megaron: G. foundation of the Greek sanctuary; N. back entrance.

Lion Gate in Mycenae.

Inner courtyard of the palace in Mycenae. Modern reconstruction.

An important feature of life during this time is the absence of a closely knit class, and there is no separate class of priests; different layers of the people were still in close contact with each other and understood each other, which is why these poetic works, even if they were originally intended for the upper class, soon became the property of the entire people as the true fruit of their self-consciousness. Homer learned from his people the ability to curb and artistically moderate his imagination, just as he inherited from him the tales of his gods and heroes; but, on the other hand, he managed to put these legends into such vivid art form that he forever left on them the stamp of his personal genius.

It can be said that since the time of Homer, the Greek people began to imagine their gods more clearly and distinctly in the form of separate, isolated individuals, in the form of certain beings. The chambers of the gods on the impregnable peak of Olympus, the highest of the gods Zeus, the great deities closest to him are his wife Hera, proud, passionate, grumpy; the dark-haired god of the seas, Poseidon, who carries the earth and shakes it; god of the underworld Hades; Hermes - ambassador of the gods; Ares; Aphrodite; Demeter; Apollo; Artemis; Athena; god of fire Hephaestus; a motley crowd of gods and spirits of the sea depths and mountains, springs, rivers and trees - thanks to Homer, this whole world was embodied in living, individual forms that were easily assimilated by the popular imagination and easily clothed in tangible forms by poets and artists emerging from the people. And everything that has been said applies not only to religious ideas, to views on the world of the gods... And people are definitely characterized in the same way by the poetry of Homer, and, contrasting characters, he draws poetic images - a noble youth, a royal husband, an experienced old man - and so, that these human images: Achilles, Agamemnon, Nestor, Diomedes, Odysseus forever remained the property of the Hellenes, as did their deities.

Warriors of Mycenaean times. Reconstruction by M. V. Gorelik

This is roughly what the heroes of Homer's epic should have looked like. From left to right: a warrior in charioteer armor (based on a find from Mycenae); infantryman (according to the drawing on the vase); cavalryman (based on a painting from the Pylos Palace)

Domed tomb in Mycenae, excavated by Schliemann and called by him the "tomb of the Atrides"

Such a literary treasure for the entire people as the Iliad and the Odyssey became in a short time for the Greeks, before Homer, as far as we know, had never happened anywhere else. We should not forget that these works, mainly transmitted orally, were spoken and not read, which is why the freshness of living speech seems to still be heard and felt in them.

The position of the lower classes of society. Hesiod

We should not forget that poetry is not reality and that the reality of that distant era was very harsh for most of those who were neither kings nor nobles. Might then replaced right: little people lived poorly even where kings treated their subjects with paternal gentleness, and nobles stood for their people. An ordinary man put his life in danger in a war that was fought over a matter that did not directly and personally concern him. If he was kidnapped by a sea robber lying in wait everywhere, he would die a slave in a foreign land and there would be no return to his homeland. This reality, in relation to the life of ordinary people, was described by another poet, Hesiod - the direct opposite of Homer. This poet lived in a Boeotian village at the foot of Helicon, and his “Works and Days” taught the farmer how he should act during sowing and harvesting, how he should cover his ears from the cold wind and harmful morning fogs.

Vase with warriors. Mycenae XIV-XVII centuries. BC e.

Harvest festival. Image from a black-figure vessel of the 7th century. BC e.

He ardently rebels against all noble people, complains about them, claiming that in that Iron Age no control could be found on them, and very aptly compares them, in relation to the lower stratum of the population, to a kite that carries away a nightingale in its claws.

But no matter how well-founded these complaints were, a big step forward was already made in the fact that as a result of all these movements and wars, certain states were formed everywhere with a small territory, urban centers, states with certain, although harsh for the lower stratum, legal orders.

Greece in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e.

Of these, in the European part of the Hellenic world, which was given the opportunity to develop freely for quite a long time, without any external, foreign influence, they rose to highest value two states: Sparta in the Peloponnese and Athens in Central Greece.

Depiction of plowing and sowing on a black-figure vase from Vulci. VII century BC e.

Dorians and Ionians; Sparta and Athens

Sparta

The Achaeans also submitted to the courageous Dorians in Laconia, the extreme southeastern part of the Peloponnese. But they did not obey quickly and not completely. The Achaean city of Amycles (in the lower reaches of Eurotas) offered stubborn resistance to the pressure of the Dorian military force, which was moving down the Eurotas valley. From a military camp located on the right bank of the same river, the city of Sparta arose, which, in the subsequent development of the state that formed around it, retained the character of a military camp.

Phalanx battle. Image on a black-figure Peloponnesian vase of the 4th century. BC e.

The warriors have classic hoplite weapons: large round shields, helmets, bell-shaped cuirasses, greaves, two spears, one of which the warrior holds in his left hand, the other raised above his head for throwing.

The flutist walks behind the phalanx to maintain the rhythm of walking in step. The warriors' shields are painted with personal emblems.

Shield characteristic of VIII BC. e. forms. Bell-shaped cuirass from excavations in Argos, dated to the 6th century. BC e., belly from finds in Corinth, 6th century. BC BC, the greaves and greaves were reconstructed from a figurine from Boeotia. Right hand protect the bracers. Helmet of the Illyrian type of the 7th century. BC. The shield is of the usual hoplite form, wooden, bound with copper sheets. Armament consists of a heavy hoplite spear with a shotgun and a throwing spear with a loop

One of the citizens of Sparta, Lycurgus, who came from a royal family, became the legislator of his homeland and was subsequently revered in a special sanctuary dedicated to his memory, where he was honored as a hero. Much was subsequently told about his travels, about the sayings of the oracle, which pointed him out to the people as the chosen one, and, finally, about his death in a foreign land. The task of the legislator was to gather and concentrate the power of the Spartiates - the Dorian military aristocracy, contrasting it with a large layer of subjects who belonged to another tribe and, moreover, in a fairly vast country. These subjects - the Achaeans - fell into two classes: perieki and helots. The latter were, as the name suggests, prisoners of war who belonged to the population of those Achaean cities and towns that resisted conquest to the last extreme and who were therefore dealt with to the fullest extent of military laws. They became the property of the state and were given into slavery by its power to one or another aristocracy. As slaves, they, themselves landless, worked the land for their masters and received half the harvest for their maintenance. Some of them, placed at the personal disposal of their masters, accompanied them to war, carried their weapons and food supplies, and thus acquired some military importance. It was not difficult to distinguish them by their special clothes and leather caps and by all the external signs of people forced into slavery. The only protection of the law to which they were entitled was that the master who used them as labor bore some responsibility for them to the state, which in this case was the owner, so he could neither kill nor mutilate them , could neither be released nor sold. The situation of the Perieks was better. They came from that much larger part of the Achaean population, which managed to enter into negotiations with the winner in time and voluntarily recognized his dominance over themselves. They were mostly small landowners and artisans and enjoyed personal freedom. In their work activities they were not constrained by anything, they paid taxes, and carried out military service; in various humiliating forms they had to show their admiration for the noble class and had no political rights. Issues of war and peace were decided against their will by representatives of the upper class of Sparta, and the perieki learned about this only from the lips of their harmosti, or elders, who also belonged to the upper class.

Legislation of Lycurgus

As for the Spartiates, that is, the Dorian aristocratic community, it constantly maintained its strictly military organization, as in the times of conquest. They lived in the scattered houses of their unwalled city of Sparta along the banks of the Eurotas, like an army in a camp. However, the position of the city was such that it excluded any possibility of an open attack: in the west there is the steep wall of Taygetus, in the east and south there is a coast without a single harbor, and on it everywhere, in those places where the coast is approachable, garrisons are located; to the north there is mountainous terrain with narrow passages that were not difficult to block. Moreover, their entire army could be assembled in a few hours. According to some ancient custom, the origin of which is unknown, the troops were led by two kings from two different families. Dual power, perhaps since Achaean times, therefore, already from the very foundation, was a very weak power, only in wartime, as military leaders, both of these kings acquired some importance. Although in peacetime they were given external honors and had all sorts of advantages, their hands were tied by the council of elders, the so-called gerusia - an advisory meeting of 28 elders (geronts), who were elected by the people from among the old people at least 60 years old. In this highest government council, the king had only one vote, like every other geront. Every month, on the full moon, all the noble Spartiates were convened for a general national assembly, at which, however, no free debate was allowed. Only the officials could speak; exclamation or silence, a more or less loud cry - this is how the will of the people was expressed. If it was necessary to obtain a clearer solution, those denying and confirming were forced to move in opposite directions. Folk customs were carefully protected and all customs were supported camp life. The state laid its hand heavily on the home life of the Spartiates and on the education of youth. Whoever did not marry was subject to atymia, that is, deprivation of honorary rights; they tried to prevent the commission of unequal marriages, sometimes they were even punished for them; weak children were banished to the helots or even simply killed. From the age of 7, boys were already raised at the expense of the state. Dress, hair cutting, maintenance - all this was strictly determined in accordance with ancient Dorian customs. The young men, divided into agels (or ils), were given training to special gymnastics teachers and brought to such perfection in military exercises that at that time no one could equal them in this. They were accustomed to enduring all possible difficulties - hunger, thirst, difficult transitions, unquestioning, quick, silent obedience, and at the same time, along with this education, they perceived an exorbitantly high sense of self-esteem, which was based as much on national pride as on class arrogance and the consciousness of his military perfection. This public education continued until the age of 30. Consequently, it can be assumed that the young man could have repeatedly shown his courage in war before he was accepted into one of the sissitia, that is, tent associations or table associations, which represented one of the remarkable institutions of this warlike state. Each such session had 15 participants. The admission of a new member was carried out through a certain kind of ballot; Such partnerships were obliged to dine together and in everything, even in food [Very often that national dish was served here, that “black” lentil soup, which all the citizens of the seaside and commercial rich cities constantly laughed at.], strictly adhere to the old customs.

Archaic relief found near Sparta. VII century BC e.

They even tried to supplement the education of youth in the simplest way, forcing young men to be present at this dinner as spectators or listeners, so that they could hear the table conversations of their husbands, constantly revolving around two inexhaustible topics: war and hunting. Under such conditions, of course, there was little time left for home life, and the state also took care of the education of young girls. It was not carried out publicly, but it was based on the same strictly defined point of view - the cultivation of warlike, physically strong offspring, and this was surrounded by rational rules and was subject to strict supervision. Meanwhile, women, as in any aristocratic environment, enjoyed great honor and influence. In the rest of Greece, they paid attention to the fact that they were called “mistresses” (despoine).

Position of Sparta in the Peloponnese

This social structure of Sparta, which consisted mainly in the renewal and final consolidation of ancient Dorian customs, dates back to 840 BC. e. It gave Sparta superiority over all, and the glory of her power spread even to the most distant countries. Such a military state, of course, could not remain inactive; it began by conquering the most beautiful of Greek lands, the country that lay on the other side of Taygetos - Messenia. After a heroic struggle, some of the Messenians were evicted from their country, the rest were converted into helots. The subsequent attack on Arcadia, which lay in the center of the Peloponnese, was not entirely successful. However, the most important of the cities of Arcadia, Tegea, entered into an agreement with Sparta, according to which it undertook to provide Sparta with a well-known detachment of warriors at the command of the Spartan military leader during the war. Even more fierce and even less successful were the wars of Sparta with Argos, also inhabited by Dorians. These wars lasted a long time, were renewed many times, and yet they did not lead to anything... Argos remained independent from Sparta. In the same way, the power of the Spartans did not extend to the semi-Ionian and Achaean cities on the northern coast of the Peloponnese: Corinth, Sikyon, Epidaurus, Megara, etc. Nevertheless, however, around 600 BC. e. historical circumstances were such that nothing could happen in the Peloponnese without the will and participation of Sparta, and since the states of Central Greece had not yet achieved independent significance, Sparta, undoubtedly, should have seemed to foreigners the most powerful of the powers on the Greek mainland.

Bronze plate and image of the head of Medusa the Gorgon. Diameter 32 cm. Find from Laconia, dated to the 7th century.

Further development of the internal system. Ephors

In addition to the military glory that Sparta deservedly enjoyed, there were three more circumstances to which it owed its high position. The first is that Sparta, precisely at a time when the struggle of political parties was in full swing throughout the rest of Greece (a phenomenon unknown in the East!), managed to reconcile all the contradictions in its internal life and remained completely calm. Attempts by some more energetic kings to expand royal power led to the complete triumph of the aristocracy, but at the same time royal power was not eliminated, but only a new and highly original institution was added - something like control: five ephors (overseers), which they soon appropriated to themselves the right to monitor not only the royal power, but also the aristocracy in general.

Relief depicting scenes from the Trojan War, on a bronze archaic vessel from the 7th century. BC e.

It is believed that the ephors were originally representatives of the five settlements from which the city of Sparta grew, or the five parts (quarters) into which it was subsequently divided. It is reliably known that the ephors were elected annually and their elections were not constrained by any aggravating restrictions, such as, for example, the elections of geronts; that, by virtue of a principle that was previously completely alien to this state, they turned over time into an active government body, and the kings themselves swore an oath before these representatives of the people to observe the laws of the country, and, in turn, the ephors swore allegiance to the kings on behalf of of your community. Gradually, the ephors moved from monitoring the activities of the kings to monitoring the activities of all officials in general, and unlimited disciplinary power was in their hands, to which the Spartan nobility, brought up in the strict rules of military obedience, almost voluntarily submitted. During the frequently repeated elections of ephors, it was constantly kept in mind that persons belonging to the same family or party did not fall into the ephors, and in general they tried to make this important position available to the largest possible number of Spartans. But this new institution did not change anything in the ancient, centuries-honored system of the state, but only further strengthened its inviolability.

Tyranny

As a result of precisely this inviolability of the state institutions of Sparta, another condition appeared that strengthened its importance and power in the Greek world: all the states of the Peloponnese and many outside its borders in Sparta saw the support of aristocracy, the ideal of a closely united big party. This party, which consisted of the upper class, exclusively owning land property, began to be threatened everywhere by an opposition composed of the most diverse elements and becoming more and more dangerous. The aristocracy everywhere abolished royal power, which was mainly a support and protection for the weak, and in very many places replaced it with oligarchy, that is, the rule of one clan or a few families. In the coastal cities, where the aristocrats initially took control of trade, a spirit of independence soon began to develop, purely democratic aspirations appeared, supported by the discontent of the lower strata of the population, and the aristocracy turned out to be powerless in the fight against these elements if the people had a leader. The opposition often found such leaders among the ambitious upper class, and these confusing conditions public life led in some places to a new form of monarchy - tyranny, that is, to the seizure of power by one person. The power of these tyrants, supported mainly by the mass of the people, bore little resemblance to the former royal power of Homeric times. She relied on the interests of the present, and, moreover, not only on material ones, but also on spiritual and ideal ones. Writers and artists everywhere found generous patrons in tyrants, and the mass of the people found material support and permanent job in public buildings and structures erected by tyrants. This contrast between the popular power of tyrants and the selfish aspirations of the aristocracy caused great shocks everywhere. Sparta, calm at home, although maintaining this calm with the most severe measures [One only has to remember the secret internal guard (cryptia), which was established in Sparta to monitor the helots. Each Spartiate who was part of this guard had the right to kill a helot who for some reason seemed suspicious to him.], treated these extra-Peloponnesian unrest in a completely unique way... She everywhere sympathized only with the aristocratic element in connection with large landownership, and this encouraged the aristocracy the rest of the Greek states looked at Sparta as an unshakable support of aristocracy and all conservative principles.

Delphic Oracle. Olympic Games

The third important condition that contributed to the rise of Sparta was the long-established close ties with the sanctuary and oracle of Apollo of Delphi in Central Greece and the relationship with the Olympic Games - the ancient festival of Zeus in Elis, in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese.

Reconstruction of the archaeological ensemble of Delphi

These games have long been accepted by Sparta under special protection, and Sparta’s own glory increased along with the splendor and significance of these sacred games in honor of Zeus, which very soon acquired the significance of a festival common to all Hellenes, who gathered for these games from all countries, because sea ​​and from all corners of the Hellenic world, to participate in competitions for awards given out every fourth year, or just to be present at these solemn games.

Wrestlers. Olympic Games. Antique sculptural group.

Left: relay race with a torch (image on a jug, 4th century BC).

Right and below: short- and long-distance runners (depicted on a Panathenaic amphora, 6th century BC).

Thus, Spartan power undoubtedly served as a kind of brake amid the troubled life of the Greek world, made up of many small states with their restless population, with their heterogeneous opposites and peculiarities of life. To some extent, it provided only external order, but Sparta could not exert spiritual influence, in the highest sense of the word, on Greece, since in its life and activities everything was designed only to maintain what already existed. For this purpose, in order to protect Sparta from foreign influence, the most radical measures were taken there: foreigners were directly expelled from Spartan cities and from the borders of the state, Spartans were allowed to travel outside of Sparta only with the permission of the government. Moreover, the Spartiates were forbidden to keep silver money and, to satisfy their needs, were ordered to be content with money made from iron mined in Taygetos, i.e., a coin that could have value only in Sparta. Spiritual progress in Greece was created by another city of Central Greece, Athens, which completely independently developed and developed its political system on completely different, opposite principles.

Athens and Attica

The city of Athens rose in Attica, in the country representing the most prominent part of Central Greece to the east. This country is not vast in size, only about 2.2 thousand square meters. km, and not very fertile; between the mountains, which are not very rich in forests, stretch plains that are not abundant in irrigation; among the vegetation are mulberry, almond and laurel trees; the country is also rich in fig and olive trees. But the wonderful sky and the proximity of the sea give the Attic landscape color and freshness, and behind Cape Sunium, the far-protruding southeastern tip of Attica, begins a whole world of islands that stretch in the form of a continuous series of ports and harbors almost to the very coast of Asia Minor, facilitating relations and trade. Attica did not attract settlers from outside, and subsequently the inhabitants of Attica loved to boast that they were “the sons of their land,” who never left their ashes. According to some ancient legends and legends (for example, according to the myth about young men and maidens sacrificed to the Minotaur who lived on the island of Crete), there is reason to believe that Phoenician trading posts once existed in Attica and on the adjacent islands, but not for long .

Ancient history of Athens

And in Athens, the history of public life begins with the kings, who gathered a small Attic state under their rule and founded their residence in the lower reaches of the Kephisus stream - the largest in a country poor in water sources. Ancient legends praise King Theseus, who is credited with many important achievements in relation to the culture of the country. The last of the descendants of Theseus, King Codrus, is no less glorified, who sacrificed his life for his fatherland and fell in battle with the Dorians who were trying to invade Attica through the Isthmian Isthmus.

Royal power; upper classes and people

The aristocratic element that prevailed everywhere and in Attica turned out to be so strong that it eliminated royal power without any violence. Around 682 BC e. At the head of the Attic state there were 9 archons (rulers), elected by the upper class from the upper class for one year. This class - the Eupatrides (sons of a noble father) are the exclusive and only stewards of the country's destinies. When the archons served their year of service to the state, they joined a special high council - the Areopagus, in which the Eupatrides (aristocrats both by birth and by property) concentrated all their power.

Theseus killing the Minotaur. Image on an archaic Greek seal of the 8th century. BC e.

Behind the hero stands Ariadne, the Minotaur - a human-bull monster, born by the wife of King Minos, placed in a labyrinth built by Daedalus on the island of Crete. The legend is believed to reflect Athens' dependence on Crete.

Goddess Athena, patroness of the city of Athens.

Image on the prize Panathenaic amphora of the 5th century. BC e.

But in this aristocratic element on Attic soil there was one very significant difference compared to the Spartan aristocracy: the lower strata of the people were of the same tribe as the Eupatrides. The Eupatrides were rich people, large landowners - “people of the plain” (pediei), as they were then called - between them and the lower class there was a difference in property, in education, in a word - the difference and contrast are purely social. Next to the Eupatrides - two more classes in Attic society - small landowners (diacrii), who, given the general poverty of the country, were heavily burdened with debt and therefore fell into increasingly heavy dependence on the rich, and, finally, coastal residents (paralia), people , who were engaged in trade and navigation everywhere along the shores.

Panathenaea. The central episode of the annual festival of Athens.

A solemn procession with sacrificial animals ascended the Acropolis to the statue of Athena. Girls in new clothes, who had been weaving for several months, laid branches of the sacred olive on the altar. After the sacrifices, the holiday ended with musical and athletic competitions, the winners of which were awarded olive branches and luxurious amphorae with olive oil. Image on the prize Panathenaic amphora of the 6th century. BC e.

Consequently, here we encounter completely different social conditions, different needs, than in Sparta; The most urgent need among the emerging democracy here was the need for a written law that would eliminate the arbitrariness of the powerful and rich. The attempt to establish a tyranny, so common at this time, caused partly by personal ambition, partly by the desire to satisfy the needs of the masses, failed in Athens. Cylon, the son-in-law of the Megarian tyrant Theagenes, captured the Athenian Acropolis (628 BC). But the aristocratic party gained the upper hand in the struggle: the adherents of Quilon had to seek salvation at the foot of the altars, gave in to deceptive promises and were killed.

Cylon and Dragon

Around 620 BC e. the first attempt to establish correct legislation is observed in the person of Draco. It seems that he had already established the division of citizens according to property, attributed to Solon: the real right of citizenship was enjoyed by everyone who was able to obtain full weapons for themselves, and these citizens elected archons and other officials for whom there was a certain qualification, property qualification. The council, consisting of 401 co-members elected by lot, was the representative of all citizens, and a fine was imposed for absence from council meetings. However, this social system did not lead to anything, it did not improve the situation of the lower classes, did not provide the correct solution to the social problem, which was the basis of the Attic social system. Relations between rich and poor have not improved; the oppression of the upper classes seems to have been further intensified by the attempts to establish tyranny made by the above-mentioned Quilon. In many places, stone pillars were visible, on which it was written how much this or that household of small landowners owed to such and such a rich man, who, therefore, had the opportunity to sell it in the near future, and very many of the citizens of Attica were sold during this time into slavery in a foreign land, to pay debts to their creditors.

Solon

Of course, such sad conditions of social life in a country that is infertile and not densely populated, with the full possibility of deportation to neighboring countries, should have had the most noticeable impact on the upper class... And from the class itself, the Eupatrides finally emerged wonderful person- Solon, son of Exekestidas, descendant of King Codrus, who found an opportunity to restore prosperity to his homeland by removing the heavy burden of unpaid debt from the enslaved Attic population. You can become somewhat more familiar with the moral character of this great man from several of his poems that have survived in fragments. The spirit of a true sage and a completely truthful person is revealed in these poems! Not without some humor, he says in them that he had to make his way, like a wolf between dogs, without deviating in one direction or the other and without listening to anyone, in order to come to a reasonable conclusion. From these poems one can even trace the transitions in the mood of his soul. Almost without deviating either towards optimism or towards pessimism, he everywhere shows the balance of spirit characteristic of the Greeks and, going through all the ages of man and all the occupations associated with his various positions, strictly defines for everyone the boundaries of what is accessible and possible. He attaches value to property, as well as to the pleasures of love and wine at the right time, but with disgust he speaks of insatiable greed in possession. In one of the poems, he expresses the desire that his death not remain unmourned. Two personal qualities of Solon appear especially clearly in these poetic passages: a strong and clearly expressed sense of rightness (right is the deity of Solon!) and no less strong, beautiful Athenian patriotism. Reading these poems, you might think that he foresees a great future for his native country: “By the will of Zeus and by the thoughts of the immortal gods, our city has not yet perished!” - this is how one of Solonov’s poems begins. “The daughter of the Almighty, the highly intelligent Pallas-Athena, extends her hand over us to protect us!” It must be assumed that the evil that Solon set about correcting had long been recognized by many, therefore, as soon as he began his legislative reforms, he immediately saw a circle of people around him ready to help and sympathize with him. Solon, born in 639 BC. e., gained popularity among his fellow citizens with a very important patriotic feat: he returned to the Athenians the island of Salamis, which blocked the exits from the Athenian harbors and, through the fault of the rulers, was taken from the Athenians by the Megarians. In 594 he was elected archon and showed himself to be practical statesman: he managed to save the state from the terrible harm caused by the unsustainable debt of citizens and all its consequences. Complete amnesty for all debtors who have fallen under athymia, i.e. deprivation civil rights, the ransom and return of debtors sold abroad, the addition of debts, the facilitation of their payment and the new streamlined rules of collateral - this was part of the legislation of Solon, which until later times retained the name of “great relief” (sysakhfiy). The rest concerned the future arrangement of the same relations between the poor and rich classes: it prohibited loans secured by the person of the debtor himself, and thus abolished slavery for debts. This was a lasting cure for a terrible social malady, and in the subsequent history of Attica there is not a single such case when the tranquility of the country was disturbed by any of the economic unrest so common in other countries.

Solon's legislation

But this “great relief” was not enough to correct all the evils that had crept into the social structure of Attica, and meanwhile Solon’s term of office as archon was approaching. He realized that the disnomy (i.e., confusion in the law) that he saw around him constituted a great evil, and could easily seize power into his own hands for a good purpose - putting into effect the legal reform he had conceived. But he did not want to show his fellow citizens a bad example and resigned as archon within the legal period. Then the new rulers, highly appreciating the merits and modest moderation of Solon, invited him to introduce into state life that eunomia (balance of law), which was his ideal, in other words, they invited him to give the state a new structure.

Solon's social reform

This new device fully corresponded to the conditions of Attic social life. Solon was well aware of the difference between the aristocracy in Attica and the same class in other states of Greece. The Attic aristocracy was mainly a property aristocracy, and therefore the legislator highlighted property as the main principle for dividing society into classes when introducing a new organization among the people. He retained the division that existed before him (probably introduced by Dracon) into classes according to average income from the harvest: into pentacosiomedimni (who received up to 500 medimni of grain from the harvest), into horsemen, zeugites (peasant owners who cultivated the field with a pair of oxen) and fetians ( day laborers). The latter were not subject to any taxes; the first three classes are taxed according to their income; but everyone, both the haves and the have-nots, were equally obliged military service to defend the fatherland. Very wisely, he distributed honor to everyone according to their merits. Only those who were subject to the highest taxes could be elected as archons (9 rulers were elected annually); they actually had to manage affairs - politics, war and foreign relations, cult and court. The first of the archons, eponymous (his name denoted the year of his reign), presided over the council and the people's assembly; the archon polemarch took care of the external relations of the state; the third archon, basileus (king), oversaw the service of the gods; the remaining six archons, thesmothetes (legislators), sat in the courts. In addition to the archons, a council of elected citizens was formed: each of the four phylas or districts into which the country was divided annually elected 100 people to this council; the election of members to this council of four hundred could be made only by citizens of the three first classes and only from the three first classes. This corporation dealt with current affairs and prepared matters that were subject to decision by the ecclesia - the national assembly. The people in Attica for the first time appeared in the form of a sovereign ruler, as the highest and final authority, to which the highest dignitaries had to account for their actions.

Fragment of a wall tombstone of an Athenian citizen from the equestrian class. V century BC e.

The laws of Solon ordered citizens of this class to maintain a war horse at their own expense and go on a campaign on horseback. But cavalry never occupied a privileged position in the Athenian militia. Often the riders left their horses and joined the ranks of the phalanx.

It is doubtful, however, that in the time of Solon the Fetas were already taking part in these meetings. At first, after the establishment of the ecclesia, this meeting was convened infrequently, on average four times a year, and this was very reasonable, since not politics, but work to acquire daily bread should be the main occupation and main interest of the people. Moreover, at first these meetings were not as stormy as they were later.

Plan of the Athenian Agora, the central square of the city where public meetings were held

It is known about Solon that he spoke to the people in a calm position, half covering his hand with clothes. These meetings gathered in a special place, which was specially consecrated each time for this purpose; The meeting opened, as in Sparta and everywhere in Greece, with sacrifices and prayer. And old age was honored - the herald suggested that those who were over 50 years old speak first. By the nature of this lively, inflammable people of the Ionian tribe and by the very spirit of this kind of state institutions, these meetings here very soon acquired a more lively character and received higher value, rather than popular meetings in Sparta and anywhere else among the Dorian tribe. Solon believed that he had given the people enough power; he also took care to educate the people, and for this purpose placed judicial punishment in their hands as the most close to the people case. In this sense and for this purpose, every year from citizens who had passed the age of 30, 4 thousand people were chosen by lot at the disposal of the thesmothetes, and more or less of them were called to court to be present as jurors in those trials that involved deprivation of the defendant's life, property or civil rights. They took a general oath when entering into the correction of their important honorary duties, and those of them who were called upon to pronounce the agreement in one case or another took another special oath before the start of each trial. This people's court, helium, was given special significance by the fact that before it, the archons themselves, before taking office, had to withstand some kind of test (dokimasia) concerning their rights, their moral purity, military merits rendered by them and their performance other civil duties; in the same way, at the end of their year of service, the archons had to give an account (eutin) of their activities to the same institution. The scope of activity of this court at first was not excessively large; individual communities of the country had their own village judges for less important cases, and all complaints concerning the resolution of any litigation had to always be brought first before the arbitration court.

Athenian hoplites preparing for a campaign. Image on an Attic vase. V century BC e.

Warriors put on armor and clean their weapons. On the left figure, the design of the Greek canvas armor with folded shoulder pads is clearly visible, which the warrior tightens on his left side. The warrior on the far right puts on bronze greaves, which were made individually according to the leg and were held in place due to elasticity. The young men help the hoplites.

The legislator tried to preserve from antiquity everything that was possible to retain. Thus, the old court, which was subject to criminal offenses, survived - the ancient Areopagus. Archons who completed their service, therefore, people who occupied the highest position in the state, entered this highest state institution, the powers of which were significantly expanded, so that it even acquired some political significance. Solon’s contemporaries looked at the general political system not as something mechanically created, not as a kind of insurance society, but as something vital, sacred, and therefore Solon and his followers, knowing human nature well, understood perfectly well that for the government and its Officials are unable to achieve much of what could be of serious importance for the entire population. That is why the Areopagus was entrusted with a certain kind of surveillance over the lives of citizens, and, moreover, he was invested with unlimited punitive power against all violators of basic moral laws - against the lazy, ungrateful or any people of disgraceful behavior. At the same time, the Areopagus was also the keeper of the laws, and its members were lifelong, belonging to the highest and richest classes of society, moreover, independent of external influences- gave him such authority that he could, if necessary, override the decisions of even the national assembly, either canceling them completely, or at least postponing their implementation for an indefinite time.

World-historical significance of Solon's laws

Here, in general terms, is the most important of Solon's legislation. From the above it is clear that in this people there lived a different spirit than in the Spartans - a spirit that was freer and more sublime. This legislation was not the result of mistrust of a suppressed population, but it was a free and, one might say, a joyful creation of true statesmanship. Solon managed to develop a reliable legal basis for his people, which in the subsequent history of Athens constantly had a beneficial influence on people's life. For all subsequent history and for the entire life of the people, it was important that such a huge organic reform was carried out by Solon in a legal way - through free agreement, without any bloodshed, without any seizure of power and violence. In this sense, Solon is much more worthy of the world-historical name than Lycurgus. As a supplement or addition to Solon’s legislation, they cite a certain number of moral sayings and teachings, supposedly also coming from Solon, such as the well-known “do not mock the dead,” “always tell the truth in front of the people,” etc. It is possible that among the wooden tables kept in the Acropolis, on which the legislation of Solon was written, one table was dedicated to the sayings of such practical wisdom. But the well-known position attributed to Solon, according to which every citizen in civil strife had to openly speak out in favor of one or another party - this position, of course, belongs more early era revival of democracy.

Tyranny of Peisistratus and his sons. 538

Although Solon managed to reject from himself any thought of seizing supreme power into his own hands, his state structure did not save Attica from temporary tyranny. One of the young Eupatrides, Pisistratus from the house of Neleids, relying on his military merits in the fight against the Megarians and supported by the diacries, managed to seize power into his own hands even in the time of Solon and lost it twice and seized it again until he finally retained it for himself (538- 527 BC). He established himself in power using the usual means of all Greek tyrants - Thracian mercenaries, alliances with other tyrants, Lygdamidas of Naxos and with the most famous of all, Polycrates of Samos, colonization and the acquisition of new lands. At the same time, he encouraged the development of rural culture and loved to surround himself with writers and artists. He paid special attention to the organization of justice in village communities, which he often visited personally, and, according to Aristotle, he was very loved by the people as a ruler. He left the laws of Solon inviolable, as long as they did not interfere with his rule, which he surprisingly skillfully and deftly knew how to reconcile with the rapidly growing power of the people. He died as a ruler, and even transferred his power as a completely secure property to his sons. The eldest of them, Hippias, followed in the footsteps of his father, entered into new alliances, even managed to get along with Sparta, but the murder of his brother, Hipparchus, who fell victim to the private revenge of two citizens, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, shook the calm of Hippias and forced him to take harsh measures , which significantly damaged him.

Harmodius and Aristogeiton, murderers of Hipparchus.

Antique marble copy of the copper group of Antenor of Athens, taken by Xerxes to Persia as war booty and returned after the victory of Alexander the Great

The fall of tyranny. 510

In addition, the power of the house of Neleids, to which Pisistratus belonged, had long been undermined by the descendants of another noble family - the Alcmaeonids, who were expelled after Cylon's unsuccessful attempt to seize power and establish tyranny in Athens. These Alcmaeonids worked actively in exile, preparing the death of the Peisistratids. They entered into relationships with the priests of the Delphic Oracle, won them over to their side, and through them influenced Sparta. Twice they tried to overthrow Hippias, but without success. The third time, when a happy accident delivered the children of Hippias into their hands, they achieved their goal, Hippias fled, and the Alcmaeonids returned to their homeland (510 BC).

But what happened was not at all what all the Greek states expected. The aristocratic form of government was not restored. On the contrary, there was a sharp turn towards pure democracy, and the main figure in this sense was one of the Alcmaeonids, Cleisthenes, who contributed to the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias. It is now impossible to know from what motives he acted. It is only known that he restored the Solonian state structure and gave it a new form in the further development of democracy.

Democracy. Cleisthenes

The reform plan was conceived by Cleisthenes on a broad scale and required a long time for its implementation. Instead of the very ancient division of the country into 4 phyla, in which the Eupatrides had every opportunity to exert strong local influence, Cleisthenes introduced a division into 10 phyla, and each of them annually elected 50 members to the council, 500 heliasts to the people's court, and thus the council consisted of already 500 members, and helium of 5 thousand citizens. The bold innovation was followed by a strong reaction. The leader of the opposing party, Isagoras, called on the Spartans for help; The Spartan army led by King Cleomenes occupied the Acropolis of Athens. But during this time the self-awareness of the people managed to increase so much that the people did not allow foreign interference in their affairs. There was a general popular uprising, and the small Spartan army was forced to capitulate. After this, the Athenians began to fear revenge from their formidable neighbor Sparta, and these fears were so great that at one time the Athenians even began to seek help from Persia and even turned to the nearest Persian satrap, Sardis, for this. But the danger soon passed: the Spartan army advancing on Attica was forced to return, because discord began between its commanders and things came to a complete violation of military discipline. However, the Spartans still did not think of giving up, and a strong party among them sought the restoration of tyranny in Athens with Spartan help.

To many, this form of government in a neighboring state seemed more advantageous than popular government, under which a clever and courageous demagogue could easily carry the crowd along with him. Hippias was even invited to Sparta. But when discussing the issue of Sparta’s intervention at the general meeting of the Peloponnesian allied states, many rebelled against this, and mainly the Corinthians. Their speaker began his speech with a passionate introduction: “Heaven and earth - are you in the right place?!” and proved the unnaturalness of intercession for tyranny on the part of the state, which would never allow it in itself. The Spartan intervention thus did not take place, and the democratic principle finally triumphed in Athens.

In individual demes or village districts of Attica, which first numbered 100, and then 190, self-government in the broadest sense of the word developed. Every 10 demos formed a phylum. At the same time, another major innovation was made: archons began to be replaced not by elections, but by lot among those who sought archonship or had rights to it. A very unique measure was invented against attempts to restore tyranny - ostracism (the court of shards, so to speak). Every year, the people's assembly, sometimes on the proposal of the council, sometimes on the initiative of a private individual, was asked the question: “Isn’t there a basis for expelling such and such a citizen?”, i.e., does such and such a person harbor a secret desire to be a tyrant, or even - Isn’t he so influential that such a temptation could come into his head? If the meeting answered this question in the affirmative, then the question was put to the vote, that is, the name of the dangerous citizen was scratched on the shards, and if 6 thousand such shards were collected, then the fate of the citizen was decided: he was expelled from the country, although this expulsion was not associated neither with loss of honor, nor with confiscation of property. Expulsion by ostracism condemned him to 10 years of stay outside the country, but this was a mere formality, and by decision of the people he could be called back at any time.

General picture of Hellenic life around 500 BC. e.

Hellenic colonization

This is how a new state was formed in central Greece, in a vibrant and convenient place for relations with neighboring countries, which grew from a completely different foundation than Sparta, and quickly moved along the path of development. The formation of this state was the most important political event of the last two centuries. During this time, the whole life of that people, who had long been known under one general name of Hellenes, changed significantly. With a speed unparalleled in the history of mankind, the Hellenes took possession of almost the entire Mediterranean Sea and dotted its shores and islands with their colonies.

Greek bireme. Image on a 6th century vase. BC e.

Modern reconstruction of the Greek military bireme. VI century BC e.

The Phoenicians, somewhat weakened by the historical conditions of life already established in the East, were everywhere forced to give way to this more capable, more versatile, more energetic people; and everywhere new and unique cities arose, characterized by such rapid population growth that new colonies had to be organized. All Greek tribes equally took part in this majestic, all-victorious procession, and it was in these various settlements that the pan-Hellenic national feeling grew, which isolated the Greeks from the alien or barbarian tribes among which they had to settle. The motives for these continuously renewed and enormous evictions were varied. Some were forced to evict from their homeland by real need, others by the victory of the opposing party in the intensely heated struggle of parties everywhere, others were carried away by the passion for adventure, and sometimes the government itself supervised the eviction of some citizens in order to rid the cities of excess population. Very few of these evictions were carried out as a result of a forced, violent break with the fatherland. The settlers usually took with them a brand from their native hearth and used it to light their new hearth on the site of the new settlement, and the names of the squares and streets of their native city were revived in his settlement, and honorary embassies began from the new city to the festivities of their native city, and embassies from the old began back native city for holidays in honor of the deities of the new settlement. But mutual ties were limited to that; the deportees sought independence in a foreign land and found it everywhere. To give an idea of ​​​​these relations between the metropolis and the colonies, let us recall that one city of Miletus, over the course of a century and a half, separated from itself 80 colonies in different directions, and these colonies did not constitute either the Milesian kingdom or the Milesian union of cities, and each of them existed on its own on its own and lived its own life, although it maintained friendly relations with its fellow citizens and countrymen [This fragmentation into parts was so characteristic of the Hellenes that they did not even create a separate term for themselves, like our word “state”: the word polis, the city itself , was also used in the sense of the state.].

The extreme point of Hellenic colonization in the west was Massalia in the country of the Gauls, near the mouth of the Rhone. In southern Italy and Sicily, the Hellenic colonies formed a kind of special region. Here they had to compete with the western descendants of the Phoenicians (Carthaginians), the Etruscans in northwestern Italy and others different peoples who traded in sea robbery. But in the eastern half they were complete masters of the Mediterranean Sea and its adjacent seas. Their colonies reached the farthest shores of the Black and Azov Seas, extended to the east as far as Phenicia and the island of Cyprus, and in the south, in Egypt, they inhabited the beautiful area of ​​Cyrenaica - west of the mouth of the Nile. It is impossible to list all these Hellenic colonies, to look into their history, curious and instructive; but it is impossible not to notice that the consequences of this colonization activity were extremely important: the new culture uncontrollably took root everywhere, from Pontus Euxine to the distant shores of Iberia, covering the entire vast area of ​​​​the Mediterranean coast.

People's life. Literature

No matter how varied the life of this people was, the connection of all its tribes was strong everywhere, since they all equally possessed one common treasure. This treasure was a single language common to all, which, although divided into various dialects and dialects, was still equally understandable to everyone in all parts of the Hellenic world, just as later the Greek literature common to all Hellenes became accessible and understandable to them. Homeric songs have long become a popular, national treasure, and, moreover, the most precious one, they have long been enshrined in a written edition, and the great legislators of Greece - Lycurgus and Solon - are pointed to as zealous distributors of Homeric poetry, and to Peisistratus - as the compiler of the best and most thorough editions of Homeric songs. This news is important because it proves what a close mutual connection existed among the Greeks between their literary and state aspirations and successes. The incomparable works of Homer, in turn, gave rise to a rich epic literature, in the form of continuations and imitations of his poems, especially since for this literature a strictly developed and, as it were, created for it, size was already ready - the hexameter. From epic poetry, through some change in poetic meter, a new poetic form emerged - elegy, into which new content was also inserted: in elegy, the poet from simple epic story moved into the realm of purely subjective sensations, and thus opened up vast new horizons for poetic inspiration. The new elegiac meter served as a form either for a tender complaint, or for calm contemplation, or for a work of satirical shade; With one of these elegies, Solon encouraged his fellow citizens to conquer Salamis. The same poetic meter, somewhat shortened, served Solon's contemporary, Theognis of Megara, for epigrams directed against the emerging democracy. Another excellent language expert and pleasant poet, Archilochus of Paria, invented another poetic meter - iambic verse as a form convenient for expressing excited feelings - anger, ridicule, passion. The poets of the talented island of Lesbos, Arion, Alcaeus and the poetess Sappho, used this verse for new poetic images, and sang to them wine and love, warlike excitement and the passionate struggle of parties. Few poets, like Anacreon of Theos, practiced their art under the patronage of tyrants. Most of these brave thinkers were hostile in their works to tyranny, which relied in its aspirations on the lower strata of the people. Perhaps this is precisely why the Peisistratidas hastened to take drama under their protection, this youngest, but most important of the branches of poetry, which arose in the soil of Attica, rich in spiritual life.

Festive choir in honor of the god of wine Dionysus. Image from an archaic vase of the 8th century. BC e.

Feast of Dionysus. Relief of an Attic sarcophagus.

Drama in its original form developed from those choral songs that were sung in honor of the god of wine Dionysus at his merry festivals. Tradition names Thespis from the Attic demos of Icaria as the first culprit in the emergence of a new poetic form. It was as if the idea had occurred to him to introduce an element of live action into the choral song; for this purpose, he began to clothe both the choir and the main singer (the luminary) of the choir with masks, turning the choral song into a song dialogue between the luminary and the choir; these dialogues were based on one of the many legends about Dionysus.

Mimic dance. The actors are wearing masks.

Image from a Greek vase of the 5th century. BC e.

Arts

Simultaneously with literature, other plastic arts, which the tyrants treated especially favorably, helping their development and encouraging artists. The attention of these rulers was drawn primarily to structures suitable for public use - roads, water pipes, swimming pools, but they did not neglect elegant works that were striking to everyone. And the growth of the arts in this era was as amazingly rapid as the growth of literature. With incredible speed they freed themselves from the bonds of craft and guild limitations. Architecture developed before all others, in which the creative genius of the Hellenes was brilliantly manifested.

Caryatid from the Temple of Aphrodite in Knidos, 6th century. BC e.

Reliefs from the Temple of Aphrodite, located in the Asia Minor city of Knidos.

An example of early classical sculpture from the 6th century. BC e.

Supplies of an ancient artist.

It is possible that vague legends about the huge temples, palaces and tombs of the Egyptians reached the first Greek architects, but they could not follow their example and went their own way. So, for example, very early on the Greeks encountered two completely different types of columns, in which the eastern forms were not only transformed and improved, but were so independently adopted that they even showed the characteristic features of the two main Greek tribes in the form of two styles - Doric and Ionic.

The capitals of the columns are of Doric and Ionic types.

Sculpture is also developing alongside architecture. Already Homer mentions sculptural works depicting people and animals that seemed “as if alive.” But, in essence, this art moved forward very slowly, and the artist’s chisel did not soon learn to overcome the technical difficulties of sculpting; however, even those works of Greek sculpture that end its first period, for example, the famous pediment group on the temple of Athena in Aegina, surpass in the general spirit of the work and in their artistic liveliness everything that the East managed to create in the same field of art.

Pediment group of the Temple of Athena on the island of Aegina.

Religious views of the Hellenes

In the religious views and myths of the Hellenes, the ancient Aryan principles receded into the background. The gods turned into personifications of people who hated and loved, and made peace, and quarreled, and their interests were confused in the same way as people, but only in a different way, high world- an ideal reflection of the lower. Thanks to this turn in the concepts of the people, there was a danger of too much belittling, the materialization of the deity, and many of them advanced people Greece understood this very well. The desire to cleanse religion from too crude ideas about deity, to clothe these ideas in a certain fog of mystery, has been repeatedly manifested. It was in this sense that some local cults were important, of which two were of enormous importance throughout Greece, namely the cult of the deities patronizing agriculture, Demeter, Kore and Dionysus in Attica - in Eleusis, known as the Eleusinian Mysteries. In these sacraments, the fleeting, insignificant existence of each mortal was impressively connected with phenomena of a higher order, inaccessible to human knowledge and understanding. As far as we know, the blooming time of life, its withering, death and awakening to a new one were clearly represented here in the overall picture. afterlife, about which, strictly speaking, the Greeks had only a very limited idea.

Funeral sacrifice. Image on an Attic vase.

The cult of the god Apollo in Delphi was no less important. This is a small place abandoned in the mountains of Phocis in the middle of the 6th century. BC e. became famous for its oracle, whose prophecies were revered as the will of the god who inspired it. An important step forward in the development of religious beliefs should be considered the fact that here Apollo, the god of the sun, - therefore, personifying one of the forces of nature - in the popular imagination turned into a deity capable of revelation, uttering his will through the lips of a priestess who was seated on a tripod over a crack in the rock that constantly emitted sulfur fumes. Fogged by them and brought into a frenzied state, the priestess truly became an involuntary instrument of God or his clever servants. Thousands of commoners and poor people constantly crowded into Delphi, and kings, rulers and nobles constantly sent their envoys there with requests to the oracle. Subsequently, when some cities, and then an increasing number of them, established a treasury and a reliable warehouse for their wealth and treasures in Delphi, this city turned into a very important center of trade. The Delphic priests, to whom they came from everywhere with news and requests, of course, had to know a lot and enjoyed enormous influence on the people. But to their credit it should be said, judging by their few surviving sayings, that they significantly contributed to the spread of purer moral views among the people. Herodotus tells the famous case of the Spartiate Glaucus, who, having concealed someone else’s property, dared to turn to the oracle with the question of whether he could appropriate money for himself by taking a false oath. The oracle answered sternly, forbidding any oath, and threatened Glaucus with the complete extermination of his family. Glaucus returned the wealth he had hidden, but it was too late: his hesitation was charged as a misdemeanor, and the gods cruelly punished him, eradicating his family in Sparta. This example, given by Herodotus, clearly indicates that the moral views of this time were higher than in the time of Homer, who, with amazing naivety, praises one of the princes for having advanced “by the art of thieves and the oaths that the god Hermes himself inspired in him.” .

The science

It is not difficult to understand such significant moral progress, remembering that at that time science had already declared its existence and began, boldly bypassing myths, to look for the beginning of everything that exists. This was precisely the century that was later called the “age of the 7 wise men”; The history of science at this time points to the Ionian Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander as the first scientists who observed nature, intelligently contemplating and not being carried away into the realm of fantasy, and tried to look into the very essence of the world around them, denying the religious views of their fellow citizens imposed by tradition.

Awakening of national feeling. Olympic Games

All of the above indicates a significant community of thought and feeling in the Greek world, which to a certain extent equated all the Hellenes and gave them moral unity at a time when they, striving to all ends of the world known to them, founded their settlements everywhere. But nowhere is it mentioned at this time either political or national center, to which all Hellenes would gravitate. Even the Olympic Games in honor of Zeus did not serve as such a center, although they had already acquired great importance and become the property of the entire Hellenic world. Equally accessible to all Hellenes, they have long lost their local character; According to the Olympics, that is, the four-year intervals between the games, chronology was kept throughout Greece, and anyone who wanted to see Greece or show themselves and become famous throughout Greece had to come to the Olympic Games.

Hercules (Hercules of Farnes)

Discus thrower

The winner receives a headband

During the five days of the holiday, the Althea plain was in full swing with fresh, colorful and surprisingly diverse life. But here, too, the main animating element was the rivalry of various cities and localities, which manifested itself in a more peaceful form during these sacred days, and immediately after them was ready to turn into a fierce struggle. The amphictyony - a rather original political-religious institution - shows to what extent the Hellenes were capable of unity during this period of time. This name means “a union of surrounding cities” - surrounding the sanctuary, and the most important of the amphictyony was the one for which the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi served as the center. This union met twice a year for meetings, and gradually it included a fairly significant number of tribes and states: Thessalians and Boeotians, Dorians and Ionians, Phocians and Locrians, strong and weak in their political significance. At these meetings, they came to common decisions, which were carried out jointly, in cases where the clergy was threatened by some kind of disturbance of the peace or someone’s disrespect for the shrine required revenge and atonement. But participation in this union did not prevent wars and strife between cities belonging to the same amphictyony. For these wars (and the history of Greece is replete with them), there were, however, well-known humane rules, according to which, for example, it was impossible to bring the war to the extreme devastation of a city that was part of the Amphictyony, it was impossible to divert water from it and starve it with thirst, etc.

Hellenic freedom

So, the main vital element of this world of small communities was freedom of movement, and the love for this freedom was so great that for the sake of it each of the Hellenes was ready to sacrifice everything. The eastern neighbors of the Greeks in Asia, who had no idea about the life of such small centers, looked at them with disdain and laughed at their constant disputes and strife. “Why are they quarreling? After all, they all have the same language - if only they would send ambassadors, and they would settle all their disagreements!” - thought the Persians, who did not comprehend what enormous power lay in this independence of each individual citizen, which did not tolerate any restrictions. The historian Herodotus, to whom, on the contrary, the difference between the worldviews of the Hellenes and the Asians was completely clear, since he was born a subject of the Persian king, places extremely high value on what he calls “the equality of all people in the market,” that is, the equality of citizens before law, as it was established after the expulsion of the tyrants. Who does not know his story about the conversation between Croesus and Solon, which so perfectly depicts the ideals of the Hellenes of a better time? Croesus, having shown Solon all the innumerable riches with which his treasury was overflowing, asked: “Have you seen people in the world happier than him, Croesus?” To this the great legislator of Attica answered. that “the happiest people are not among mortals, but, as far as this expression can be applied to a mortal, he could point out to Croesus one of his fellow citizens as one of the happiest people in the world,” and then told the king his simple, simple story. Such a lucky man, according to Solon, was the Athenian Tell, who spent his whole life working and acquiring for himself, and not for the despot. He is neither rich nor poor, he has as much as he needs, he has both children and grandchildren who will survive him, in the fight not for Hellas, but for his hometown, in one of the small strife with the neighboring city, Tell dies with weapons in his hands, and his fellow citizens give him the honor he deserves. They bury him in the place where he fell, and they bury him at their own expense...

And the hour came when the Asians were to test this strength in a huge war - in a war that should be recognized as one of the great heroic epics of world history and which, of course, is of a completely different interest than the devastating campaigns of Ashurbanipal and Nebuchadnezzar.

Greek coin stamped in honor of the Olympic Games, depicting the awards given to the winners.