Myths about the Ice Battle
Snow-covered landscapes, thousands of warriors, a frozen lake and crusaders falling through the ice under the weight of their own armor.
For many, the battle, according to the annals, which took place on April 5, 1242, is not much different from the shots from Sergei Eisenstein's film "Alexander Nevsky".
But was it really so?
The myth of what we know about the Battle of the Ice
The battle on the ice really became one of the most resonant events of the 13th century, reflected not only in "domestic", but also in Western chronicles.
And at first glance it seems that we have enough documents in order to thoroughly study all the "components" of the battle.
But upon closer examination, it turns out that the popularity of a historical plot is by no means a guarantee of its comprehensive study.
Thus, the most detailed (and most quoted) description of the battle, recorded "in hot pursuit", is contained in the Novgorod First Chronicle of the senior version. And this description has just over 100 words. The rest of the references are even more concise.
Moreover, sometimes they include mutually exclusive information. For example, in the most authoritative Western source - the Senior Livonian rhymed chronicle - there is not a word that the battle took place on the lake.
The lives of Alexander Nevsky can be considered a kind of "synthesis" of early annalistic references to the collision, but, according to experts, they are a literary work and therefore can be used as a source only with "great restrictions."
As for the historical works of the 19th century, it is believed that they did not bring anything fundamentally new to the study of the Battle on the Ice, mainly retelling what was already stated in the annals.
The beginning of the 20th century is characterized by an ideological rethinking of the battle, when the symbolic meaning of the victory over the "German-knightly aggression" was brought to the fore. According to historian Igor Danilevsky, before the release of Sergei Eisenstein's film "Alexander Nevsky", the study of the Battle on the Ice was not even included in university lecture courses.
The myth of a united Russia
In the minds of many, the Battle on the Ice is the victory of the united Russian troops over the forces of the German crusaders. Such a "generalizing" idea of the battle was already formed in the 20th century, in the realities of the Great Patriotic War, when Germany was the main rival of the USSR.
However, 775 years ago, the Battle of the Ice was more of a "local" than a nationwide conflict. In the 13th century, Russia experienced a period of feudal fragmentation and consisted of approximately 20 independent principalities. Moreover, the policies of cities that formally belonged to the same territory could differ significantly.
So, de jure Pskov and Novgorod were located in the Novgorod land, one of the largest territorial units of Russia at that time. De facto, each of these cities was "autonomy", with its own political and economic interests. This also applied to relations with the closest neighbors in the Eastern Baltic.
One of these neighbors was the Catholic Order of the Sword, after the defeat in the battle of Saul (Shauliai) in 1236, attached to the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Landmaster. The latter became part of the so-called Livonian Confederation, which, in addition to the Order, included five Baltic bishoprics.
by Notes of the Wild MistressAs the historian Igor Danilevsky notes, the main reason for the territorial conflicts between Novgorod and the Order were the lands of the Estonians who lived on the western shore of Lake Peipsi (the medieval population of modern Estonia, in most Russian-language chronicles, appeared under the name "chud"). At the same time, the campaigns organized by the Novgorodians practically did not affect the interests of other lands. The exception was the "border" Pskov, which was constantly subjected to retaliatory raids by the Livonians.
According to the historian Alexei Valerov, it was the need to simultaneously resist both the forces of the Order and the regular attempts of Novgorod to encroach on the independence of the city that could force Pskov in 1240 to “open the gates” to the Livonians. In addition, the city was seriously weakened after the defeat at Izborsk and, presumably, was not capable of long-term resistance to the crusaders.
At the same time, according to the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, in 1242, not a full-fledged "German army" was present in the city, but only two Vogt knights (presumably accompanied by small detachments), who, according to Valerov, performed judicial functions on controlled lands and monitored the activities of the "local Pskov administration".
Further, as we know from the annals, Prince Alexander Yaroslavich of Novgorod, together with his younger brother Andrei Yaroslavich (sent by their father, Vladimir Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich), "expelled" the Germans from Pskov, after which they continued their campaign, setting off "to the Chud" (i.e. e. to the lands of the Livonian Landmaster).
Where they were met by the combined forces of the Order and the Bishop of Dorpat.
The myth of the scale of the battle
Thanks to the Novgorod chronicle, we know that April 5, 1242 was a Saturday. Everything else is not so clear.
Difficulties begin already when trying to establish the number of participants in the battle. The only figures we have are those of German casualties. So, the Novgorod First Chronicle reports about 400 killed and 50 prisoners, the Livonian rhymed chronicle - that "twenty brothers remained killed and six were captured."
The researchers believe that these data are not as contradictory as it seems at first glance.
Historians Igor Danilevsky and Klim Zhukov agree that several hundred people participated in the battle.
So, on the part of the Germans, these are 35–40 knight brothers, about 160 knechts (on average, four servants per knight) and Estonian mercenaries (“chud without number”), who could “expand” the detachment by another 100–200 soldiers . At the same time, by the standards of the 13th century, such an army was considered a fairly serious force (presumably, during the heyday, the maximum number of the former Order of the Sword-bearers, in principle, did not exceed 100-120 knights). The author of the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle also complained that there were almost 60 times more Russians, which, according to Danilevsky, although an exaggeration, still suggests that Alexander's army significantly outnumbered the Crusaders.
So, the maximum number of the Novgorod city regiment, the princely squad of Alexander, the Suzdal detachment of his brother Andrei and the Pskovites who joined the campaign was unlikely to exceed 800 people.
From chronicles we also know that the German detachment was lined up by a "pig".
According to Klim Zhukov, most likely, this is not about the "trapezoid" pig, which we are used to seeing in the diagrams in textbooks, but about the "rectangular" one (since the first description of the "trapezium" in written sources appeared only in the 15th century). Also, according to historians, the estimated size of the Livonian army gives grounds to talk about the traditional construction of the "hound banner": 35 knights that make up the "wedge banner", plus their detachments (up to 400 people in total).
As for the tactics of the Russian army, the Rhymed Chronicle only mentions that "the Russians had many shooters" (who, apparently, made up the first line), and that "the brothers' army was surrounded."
We don't know anything more about this.
The myth that the Livonian warrior is heavier than the Novgorod one
There is also a stereotype according to which the combat attire of Russian soldiers was many times lighter than the Livonian one.
According to historians, if there was a difference in weight, it was extremely insignificant.
Indeed, on both sides, exclusively heavily armed horsemen participated in the battle (it is believed that all assumptions about infantrymen are a transfer of the military realities of subsequent centuries to the realities of the XIII century).
Logically, even the weight of a war horse, without taking into account the rider, would be enough to break through the fragile April ice.
So did it make sense in such conditions to withdraw troops to it?
The myth of the battle on ice and drowned knights
Let's disappoint right away: there are no descriptions of how the German knights fall through the ice in any of the early chronicles.
Moreover, in the Livonian Chronicle there is a rather strange phrase: "On both sides, the dead fell on the grass." Some commentators believe that this is an idiom meaning "fall on the battlefield" (version of the medievalist historian Igor Kleinenberg), others - that we are talking about thickets of reeds that made their way from under the ice in shallow water, where the battle took place (version of the Soviet military historian Georgy Karaev, displayed on the map).
As for the chronicles mentioning that the Germans were driven "on the ice", modern researchers agree that the Battle on the Ice could "borrow" this detail from the description of the later Battle of Rakovor (1268). According to Igor Danilevsky, reports that the Russian troops drove the enemy seven miles ("to the Subolichi coast") are quite justified for the scale of the Rakovor battle, but they look strange in the context of the battle on Lake Peipsi, where the distance from coast to coast at the supposed location battle is no more than 2 km.
Speaking of the "Raven Stone" (a geographical landmark mentioned in part of the annals), historians emphasize that any map indicating a specific battle site is nothing more than a version. Where exactly the massacre took place, no one knows: the sources contain too little information to draw any conclusions.
In particular, Klim Zhukov is based on the fact that during the archaeological expeditions in the area of Lake Peipus not a single "confirming" burial was found. The researcher connects the lack of evidence not with the mythical nature of the battle, but with looting: in the 13th century, iron was highly valued, and it is unlikely that the weapons and armor of the dead soldiers could have been preserved to this day.
The myth of the geopolitical significance of the battle
In the view of many, the Battle on the Ice "stands apart" and is perhaps the only "action-packed" battle of its time. And it really became one of the most significant battles of the Middle Ages, "suspending" the conflict between Russia and the Livonian Order for almost 10 years.
Nevertheless, the XIII century is rich in other events.
From the point of view of the clash with the crusaders, they include the battle with the Swedes on the Neva in 1240, and the already mentioned battle of Rakovor, during which the combined army of the seven northern Russian principalities opposed the Livonian Landmaster and Danish Estland.
Also, the XIII century is the time of the Horde invasion.
Despite the fact that the key battles of this era (the Battle of Kalka and the capture of Ryazan) did not directly affect the North-West, they significantly influenced the further political structure of medieval Russia and all its components.
In addition, if we compare the scale of the Teutonic and Horde threats, then the difference is calculated in tens of thousands of soldiers. Thus, the maximum number of crusaders who ever participated in campaigns against Russia rarely exceeded 1000 people, while the alleged maximum number of participants in the Russian campaign from the Horde was up to 40 thousand (version of the historian Klim Zhukov).
TASS expresses gratitude for the help in preparing the material to the historian and specialist in Ancient Russia Igor Nikolaevich Danilevsky and the military medievalist historian Klim Aleksandrovich Zhukov.
© TASS INFOGRAPHICS, 2017
Materials worked on:
Many books and articles have been written about the famous battle on the ice of Lake Peipsi in April 1242, but it itself has not been fully studied - and our information about it is replete with blank spots...
At the beginning of 1242, the German Teutonic Knights captured Pskov and advanced towards Novgorod. On Saturday, April 5, at dawn, the Russian squad, led by the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky, met the crusaders on the ice of Lake Peipus, at the Raven Stone.
Alexander skillfully flanked the knights, built in a wedge, and with the blow of an ambush regiment took him into the ring. The Battle on the Ice, famous in Russian history, began. “And there was an evil slash, and a crack from breaking spears, and a sound from a sword cut, and the frozen lake moved. And no ice was visible: it was all covered in blood...” The chronicle reports that the ice cover could not withstand the retreating heavily armed knights and collapsed. Under the weight of their armor, the enemy warriors quickly went to the bottom, choking in the icy water.
Some circumstances of the battle remained a real "blank spot" for researchers. Where does truth end and fiction begin? Why did the ice collapse under the feet of the knights and withstand the weight of the Russian army? How could the knights fall through the ice, if its thickness near the shores of Lake Peipsi in early April reaches a meter? Where did the legendary battle take place?
In domestic chronicles (Novgorod, Pskov, Suzdal, Rostov, Lavrentiev, etc.) and the "Senior Livonian Rhymed Chronicle" both the events that preceded the battle and the battle itself are described in detail. Its landmarks are indicated: “On Lake Peipsi, near the Uzmen tract, near the Raven Stone.” Local legends specify that the warriors fought right outside the village of Samolva. The annalistic miniature depicts the confrontation of the parties before the battle, and defensive ramparts, stone and other structures are shown in the background. In ancient chronicles, there is no mention of Voronii Island (or any other island) near the place of the battle. They talk about the battle on the ground, and the ice is mentioned only in the final part of the battle.
In search of answers to the numerous questions of researchers, in the late 50s of the 20th century, Leningrad archaeologists, led by military historian Georgy Karaev, were the first to go to the shores of Lake Peipus. Scientists were going to recreate the events of more than seven hundred years ago.
In the beginning, chance helped. Once, while talking with fishermen, Karaev asked why they called the section of the lake near Cape Sigovets "a cursed place." The fishermen explained: in this place, until the most severe frosts, there remains a polynya, “cigovica”, because whitefish have been caught in it for a long time. In a frost, of course, the ice will seize the "sigovitsa", only it is fragile: a person will go in there and disappear ...
So, it is no coincidence that the locals call the southern part of the lake the Warm Lake. Perhaps this is where the crusaders drowned? Here is the answer: the bottom of the lake in the area of \u200b\u200bSigovits is replete with groundwater outlets that prevent the formation of a solid ice cover.
Archaeologists have found that the waters of Lake Peipsi are gradually advancing on the shores, this is the result of a slow tectonic process. Many ancient villages were flooded, and their inhabitants moved to other, higher shores. The lake level is rising at a rate of 4 millimeters per year. Consequently, since the time of the right-believing Prince Alexander Nevsky, the water in the lake has risen by a good three meters!
G.N. Karaev removed depths of less than three meters from the map of the lake, and the map "rejuvenated" by seven hundred years. This map prompted: the narrowest place of the lake in ancient times was just next door to the “sigovitsy”. This is how the annalistic “Uzmen”, a name that does not exist on the modern map of the lake, received an exact reference.
The most difficult thing was to determine the location of the "Raven Stone", because on the map of the lake of the Raven Stones, rocks and islands, there are more than a dozen. Karaev's divers explored Voroniy Island near Uzmen and found that it was nothing more than the top of a huge sheer underwater cliff. A stone rampart was unexpectedly discovered next to it. Scientists decided that the name "Raven Stone" in ancient times referred not only to the rock, but also to a rather strong border fortification. It became clear: the battle began here on that distant April morning.
The expedition members came to the conclusion that several centuries ago the Raven Stone was a high fifteen-meter hill with steep slopes, it was visible from afar and served as a good guide. But time and waves did their job: the once high hill with steep slopes disappeared under the water.
The researchers also tried to explain why the fleeing knights fell through the ice and drowned. In fact, at the beginning of April, when the battle took place, the ice on the lake is still quite thick and strong. But the secret was that not far from the Raven Stone, warm springs form “sigovits” from the bottom of the lake, so the ice here is less strong than in other places. Previously, when the water level was lower, underwater springs undoubtedly hit right on the ice sheet. The Russians, of course, knew about this and bypassed dangerous places, and the enemy ran straight ahead.
So this is the solution to the riddle! But if it is true that in this place the icy abyss swallowed up an entire knightly army, then somewhere here his trace must be hidden. Archaeologists set themselves the task of finding this last proof, but the circumstances prevented the achievement of the ultimate goal. It was not possible to find the burial places of the soldiers who died in the Battle of the Ice. This is clearly stated in the report of the complex expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences. And soon there were allegations that in ancient times the dead were taken with them for burial in their homeland, therefore, they say, their remains cannot be found.
A few years ago, a new generation of search engines - a group of Moscow enthusiasts, lovers of the ancient history of Russia, again tried to solve a centuries-old mystery. She had to find burial places hidden in the ground related to the Battle of the Ice on a large territory of the Gdovsky district of the Pskov region.
Studies have shown that in those distant times, in the area south of the village of Kozlovo, which exists today, there was some kind of fortified outpost of the Novgorodians. It was here that Prince Alexander Nevsky went to join the detachment of Andrei Yaroslavich, hidden in an ambush. At a critical moment in the battle, an ambush regiment could go behind the knights, surround them and ensure victory. The place is relatively flat. The troops of Nevsky from the north-western side were protected by the “sigovits” of Lake Peipsi, and from the eastern side - by the wooded part, where the Novgorodians settled in the fortified town.
On Lake Peipus, scientists were going to recreate the events of more than seven hundred years ago
The knights advanced from the south side (from the village of Tabory). Not knowing about the Novgorod reinforcements and feeling their military superiority in strength, they, without hesitation, rushed into battle, falling into the "nets" placed. From here it can be seen that the battle itself was on land, not far from the shore of the lake. By the end of the battle, the knightly army was driven back to the spring ice of Zhelchinskaya Bay, where many of them died. Their remains and weapons are still at the bottom of this bay.
The battle on the ice took place on April 5, 1242. The army of the Livonian Order and the army of North-Eastern Russia - Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities came together in battle.
The army of the Livonian Order was headed by the commander - the head of the administrative unit of the Order - Riga Andreas von Velven, former and future Landmeister of the Teutonic Order in Livonia (from 1240 to 1241 and from 1248 to 1253).
At the head of the Russian army was Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky. Despite his youth, then he was 21 years old, he had already managed to become famous as a successful commander and a brave warrior. Two years earlier, in 1240, he defeated the Swedish army on the Neva River, for which he received his nickname.
This battle got its name, "Battle on the Ice", from the place of this event - the frozen Lake Peipsi. The ice at the beginning of April was strong enough to withstand a mounted rider, so the two armies converged on it.
Causes of the Battle of the Ice.
The battle on Lake Peipsi is one of the events in the history of the territorial rivalry between Novgorod and its western neighbors. The subject of dispute long before the events of 1242 was Karelia, the lands near Lake Ladoga and the Izhora and Neva rivers. Novgorod sought to extend its control over these lands not only to increase the territory of influence, but also to secure access to the Baltic Sea. Access to the sea would greatly simplify trade with its western neighbors for Novgorod. Namely trade was the main source of prosperity of the city.Novgorod's rivals had their own reasons for contesting these lands. And the rivals were all the same western neighbors, the Novgorodians "both fought and traded" with them - Sweden, Denmark, the Livonian and Teutonic Orders. All of them were united by the desire to expand the territory of their influence and take control of the trade route on which Novgorod was located. Another reason to gain a foothold in the lands disputed with Novgorod was the need to secure their borders from the raids of the tribes of Karelians, Finns, Chuds, etc.
New castles and strongholds in new lands were to become outposts in the fight against restless neighbors.
And there was another, very important, reason for the zeal to the east - ideological. The XIII century for Europe is the time of the Crusades. The interests of the Roman Catholic Church in this region coincided with the interests of the Swedish and German feudal lords - expanding the sphere of influence, obtaining new subjects. The conductors of the policy of the Catholic Church were the Livonian and Teutonic Knightly Orders. In fact, all campaigns against Novgorod are the Crusades.
On the eve of the battle.
What were the rivals of Novgorod on the eve of the Battle of the Ice?Sweden. Due to the defeat of Alexander Yaroslavovich in 1240 on the Neva River, Sweden temporarily dropped out of the dispute over new territories. In addition, at that time a real civil war for the royal throne broke out in Sweden itself, so the Swedes had no time for new campaigns to the east.
Denmark. At this time, the active king Valdemar II ruled in Denmark. The time of his reign was marked for Denmark by an active foreign policy and the annexation of new lands. So, in 1217 he began expansion to Estonia and in the same year founded the fortress of Revel, now Tallinn. In 1238, he entered into an alliance with the master of the Teutonic Order Herman Balk on the division of Estonia and joint military campaigns against Russia.
Warband. The Order of the German Crusader Knights strengthened its influence in the Baltic states by merging with the Livonian Order in 1237. In fact, the Livonian Order was subordinated to the more powerful Teutonic Order. This allowed the Teutons not only to gain a foothold in the Baltic, but also created the conditions for the spread of their influence to the east. It was the knighthood of the Livonian Order, already as part of the Teutonic Order, that became the driving force behind the events that culminated in the Battle of Lake Peipus.
These events unfolded in this way. In 1237, Pope Gregory IX announced a Crusade to Finland, that is, including the lands disputed with Novgorod. In July 1240, the Swedes were defeated by the Novgorodians on the Neva River, and already in August of the same year, the Livonian Order, having picked up the banner of the Crusade from the weakened Swedish hands, began its campaign against Novgorod. This campaign was led by Andreas von Velven, Landmeister of the Teutonic Order in Livonia. On the side of the Order, the militia from the city of Derpt (now the city of Tartu), the squad of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, detachments of Estonians and Danish vassals participated in this campaign. Initially, the campaign was accompanied by luck - Izborsk and Pskov were taken.
At the same time (the winter of 1240-1241) paradoxical events are taking place in Novgorod - Alexander Nevsky, the winner of the Swedes, leaves Novgorod. This was the result of the intrigues of the Novgorod nobility, who rightly feared competition in the management of the Novgorod land from the side of the prince, who was rapidly gaining popularity. Alexander went to his father in Vladimir. He appointed him to reign in Pereslavl-Zalessky.
And the Livonian Order at that time continued to carry the "word of the Lord" - they founded the fortress of Koropye, an important stronghold that allows you to control the trade routes of the Novgorodians. They advanced all the way to Novgorod, raiding its suburbs (Luga and Tesovo). This made the Novgorodians seriously think about defense. And they did not come up with anything better than to invite Alexander Nevsky to reign again. He did not force himself to be persuaded for a long time and, having arrived in Novgorod in 1241, energetically set to work. To begin with, he took Koropye by storm, killing the entire garrison. In March 1242, having united with his younger brother Andrei and his Vladimir-Suzdal army, Alexander Nevsky takes Pskov. The garrison was killed, and two vicegerents of the Livonian Order, shackled, were sent to Novgorod.
Having lost Pskov, the Livonian Order concentrated its forces in the Dorpat region (now Tartu). The command of the campaign planned, having passed between the Pskov and Peipsi lakes, to move to Novgorod. As in the case of the Swedes in 1240, Alexander made an attempt to intercept the enemy on his way. To do this, he moved his army to the junction of the lakes, forcing the enemy to enter the ice of Lake Peipsi for a decisive battle.
The course of the Battle of the Ice.
The two armies met in the early morning on the ice of the lake on April 5, 1242. Unlike the battle on the Neva, Alexander gathered a significant army - its number was 15 - 17 thousand. It consisted of:- "grassroots regiments" - the troops of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (teams of the prince and boyars, city militias).
- the Novgorod army consisted of Alexander's squad, the bishop's squad, the townsman's militia and private squads of boyars and wealthy merchants.
The entire army was subordinated to a single commander - Prince Alexander.
The enemy army numbered 10 - 12 thousand people. Most likely, he did not have a single command, although Andreas von Velven led the campaign as a whole, he did not personally participate in the Battle of the Ice, instructing a council of several commanders to command the battle.
Having adopted their classic wedge-shaped formation, the Livonians attacked the Russian army. At first, they were lucky - they managed to break through the ranks of the Russian regiments. But having been drawn deep into the Russian defenses, they got bogged down in it. And at that moment, Alexander brought reserve regiments and a cavalry ambush regiment into battle. The reserves of the Novgorod prince hit the flanks of the crusaders. The Livonians fought courageously, but their resistance was broken, and they were forced to retreat in order to avoid encirclement. Russian troops pursued the enemy for seven miles. The victory over the Livonians by their allies was complete.
Results of the Battle of the Ice.
As a result of their unsuccessful campaign against Russia, the Teutonic Order made peace with Novgorod and renounced territorial claims.The battle on the ice is the largest in a series of battles in the course of territorial disputes between northern Russia and its western neighbors. Having won a victory in it, Alexander Nevsky secured most of the disputed lands for Novgorod. Yes, the territorial issue was not finally resolved, but over the next few hundred years it was reduced to local border conflicts.
The victory on the ice of Lake Peipus stopped the Crusade, which had not only territorial, but also ideological goals. The question of the adoption of the Catholic faith and the acceptance of the patronage of the Pope by northern Russia was finally removed.
These two important victories, military and, as a result, ideological, were won by the Russians in the most difficult period of history - the invasion of the Mongols. The Old Russian state actually ceased to exist, the morale of the Eastern Slavs was weakened, and against this background, a series of victories by Alexander Nevsky (in 1245 - a victory over the Lithuanians in the battle of Toropets) had important not only political, but also moral and ideological significance.
April 18 is the Day of Military Glory of Russia, the day of the victory of the Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the German knights on Lake Peipsi (the so-called Battle on the Ice, 1242). The date is celebrated in accordance with the Federal Law "On the days of military glory (victory days) of Russia" dated March 13, 1995 No. 32-FZ.
In the early 40s. XIII century, taking advantage of the weakening of Russia, which occurred as a result of the devastating invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, the German crusaders, Swedish and Danish feudal lords decided to seize its northeastern lands. Together they hoped to conquer the Novgorod feudal republic. The Swedes, with the support of the Danish knights, tried to capture the mouth of the Neva, but in the Battle of the Neva in 1240 they were defeated by the Novgorod army.
In late August - early September 1240, the crusaders of the Livonian Order, which was formed by the German knights of the Teutonic Order in 1237 in the Eastern Baltic in the territory inhabited by the tribes of Livs and Estonians, invaded the Pskov land. After a short siege, the German knights captured the city of Izborsk. Then they laid siege to Pskov and, with the assistance of the traitorous boyars, soon occupied it as well. After that, the crusaders invaded the Novgorod land, captured the coast of the Gulf of Finland and built their own on the site of the ancient Russian fortress of Koporye. Before reaching Novgorod 40 km, the knights began to rob its environs.
(Military Encyclopedia. Military Publishing. Moscow. in 8 volumes - 2004)
An embassy was sent from Novgorod to the great prince of Vladimir Yaroslav, so that he would release his son Alexander (Prince Alexander Nevsky) to help them. Alexander Yaroslavovich ruled in Novgorod from 1236, but because of the intrigues of the Novgorod nobility, he left Novgorod and went to reign in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Yaroslav, realizing the danger of the threat emanating from the West, agreed: the matter concerned not only Novgorod, but all of Russia.
In 1241, Prince Alexander Nevsky, returning to Novgorod, gathered an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga, Izhora and Karelians. Covertly making a quick transition to Koporye, it seized this strong fortress by storm. By taking Koporye, Alexander Nevsky secured the northwestern borders of the Novgorod lands, secured his rear and the northern flank for further struggle against the German crusaders. At the call of Alexander Nevsky, troops from Vladimir and Suzdal arrived to help the Novgorodians under the command of his brother Prince Andrei. United Novgorod-Vladimir army in the winter of 1241-1242. undertook a campaign in the Pskov land and, cutting off all roads from Livonia to Pskov, stormed this city, as well as Izborsk.
After this defeat, the Livonian knights, having gathered a large army, marched to the Pskov and Peipsi lakes. The basis of the army of the Livonian Order was the heavily armed knightly cavalry, as well as the infantry (bollards) - detachments of peoples enslaved by the Germans (Ests, Livs, etc.), which many times outnumbered the knights.
Having found out the direction of movement of the main enemy forces, Alexander Nevsky sent his army there as well. Coming to Lake Peipsi, the army of Alexander Nevsky found himself in the center of possible enemy movement routes to Novgorod. In this place, it was decided to give battle to the enemy. The armies of the opponents converged on the shores of Lake Peipus at the Voronye stone and the Uzmen tract. Here, on April 5, 1242, a battle took place, which went down in history as the Battle of the Ice.
At dawn, the crusaders approached the Russian position on the ice of the lake at a slow trot. The army of the Livonian Order, according to the established military tradition, attacked with an "iron wedge", which appears in Russian chronicles under the name "pigs". On the tip was the main group of knights, some of them covered the flanks and rear of the "wedge", in the center of which the infantry was located. The wedge had as its task the fragmentation and breakthrough of the central part of the enemy troops, and the columns following the wedge were to crush the enemy flanks with coverage. In chain mail and helmets, with long swords, they seemed invulnerable.
Alexander Nevsky countered this stereotypical tactic of the knights with the new formation of the Russian troops. He concentrated the main forces not in the center ("chela"), as the Russian troops always did, but on the flanks. Ahead was the advanced regiment of light cavalry, archers and slingers. The battle formation of the Russians was facing the rear towards the steep, steep eastern shore of the lake, and the prince's cavalry squad hid in an ambush behind the left flank. The chosen position was beneficial in that the Germans, advancing on open ice, were deprived of the opportunity to determine the location, number and composition of the Russian troops.
The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russian army. Having stumbled upon the steep shore of the lake, the inactive, armored knights could not develop their success. The flanks of the Russian battle order ("wings") clamped the wedge into pincers. At this time, Alexander Nevsky's squad struck from the rear and completed the encirclement of the enemy.
Under the onslaught of the Russian regiments, the knights mixed their ranks and, having lost their freedom of maneuver, were forced to defend themselves. A fierce battle ensued. Russian infantrymen pulled the knights off their horses with hooks and chopped them with axes. Clamped on all sides in a limited space, the crusaders fought desperately. But their resistance gradually weakened, it took on an unorganized character, the battle broke up into separate pockets. Where large groups of knights accumulated, the ice could not withstand their weight and broke. Many knights drowned. The Russian cavalry pursued the defeated enemy over 7 km, to the opposite shore of Lake Peipus.
The army of the Livonian Order was completely defeated and suffered huge losses for those times: up to 450 knights died and 50 were captured. Several thousand knechts were destroyed. The Livonian Order was faced with the need to make peace, according to which the crusaders renounced their claims to Russian lands, and also renounced part of Latgale (a region in eastern Latvia).
The victory of the Russian troops on the ice of Lake Peipus was of great political and military significance. The Livonian Order was dealt a crushing blow, the advance of the crusaders to the East stopped. The battle on the ice was the first example in history of the defeat of knights by an army consisting mainly of infantry, which testified to the advanced nature of Russian military art.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources
Sources brought to us very scarce information about the Battle of the Ice. This contributed to the fact that the battle was gradually overgrown with a large number of myths and conflicting facts.
Mongols again
The battle on Lake Peipsi is not entirely correct to call the victory of Russian squads over German chivalry, since the enemy, according to modern historians, was a coalition force that included, in addition to the Germans, Danish knights, Swedish mercenaries and a militia consisting of Estonians (chud).
It is quite possible that the troops led by Alexander Nevsky were not exclusively Russian. The Polish historian of German origin Reinhold Heidenstein (1556-1620) wrote that Alexander Nevsky was pushed to battle by the Mongol Khan Batu (Batu) and sent his detachment to help him.
This version has the right to life. The middle of the 13th century was marked by a confrontation between the Horde and Western European troops. So, in 1241, Batu's troops defeated the Teutonic knights in the Battle of Legnica, and in 1269, the Mongolian detachments helped the Novgorodians defend the walls of the city from the invasion of the Crusaders.
Who went under water?
In Russian historiography, one of the factors that contributed to the victory of the Russian troops over the Teutonic and Livonian knights was the fragile spring ice and the bulky armor of the crusaders, which led to the mass flooding of the enemy. However, according to the historian Nikolai Karamzin, the winter that year was long and the spring ice preserved the fortress.
However, it is difficult to determine how much ice could withstand a large number of warriors dressed in armor. Researcher Nikolai Chebotarev notes: “It is impossible to say who was heavier or lighter armed at the Battle of the Ice, because there was no uniform as such.”
Heavy plate armor appeared only in the XIV-XV centuries, and in the XIII century the main type of armor was chain mail, over which a leather shirt with steel plates could be worn. Based on this fact, historians suggest that the weight of the equipment of the Russian and order warriors was approximately the same and reached 20 kilograms. If we assume that the ice could not support the weight of a warrior in full gear, then the sunken ones should have been on both sides.
It is interesting that in the Livonian rhymed chronicle and in the original edition of the Novgorod Chronicle there is no information that the knights fell through the ice - they were added only a century after the battle.
On Voronii Island, near which Cape Sigovets is located, due to the peculiarities of the current, there is rather weak ice. This gave rise to some researchers to suggest that the knights could fall through the ice exactly there when they crossed a dangerous area during the retreat.
Where was the massacre?
Researchers to this day cannot accurately establish the place where the Battle of the Ice took place. Novgorod sources, as well as historian Nikolai Kostomarov, say that the battle was near the Raven Stone. But the stone itself has never been found. According to some, it was a high sandstone, washed away over time, others argue that this stone is the Crow Island.
Some researchers are inclined to believe that the massacre is not at all connected with the lake, since the accumulation of a large number of heavily armed warriors and cavalry would make it impossible to conduct a battle on thin April ice.
In particular, these conclusions are based on the Livonian rhymed chronicle, which reports that "on both sides the dead fell on the grass." This fact is also supported by modern research using the latest equipment on the bottom of Lake Peipsi, during which neither weapons nor armor of the XIII century were found. The excavations also failed on the shore. However, this is not difficult to explain: armor and weapons were very valuable booty, and even damaged ones could be quickly carried away.
However, back in Soviet times, the expeditionary group of the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences, led by Georgy Karaev, established the alleged place of the battle. According to researchers, this was a section of the Warm Lake, located 400 meters west of Cape Sigovets.
Number of parties
Soviet historians, determining the number of forces clashed on Lake Peipsi, state that the troops of Alexander Nevsky numbered approximately 15-17 thousand people, and the number of German knights reached 10-12 thousand.
Modern researchers consider such figures to be clearly overestimated. In their opinion, the order could give no more than 150 knights, who were joined by about 1.5 thousand knights (soldiers) and 2 thousand militias. They were opposed by squads from Novgorod and Vladimir in the amount of 4-5 thousand soldiers.
It is rather difficult to determine the true balance of forces, since the number of German knights is not indicated in the annals. But they can be counted by the number of castles in the Baltic, which, according to historians, in the middle of the XIII century was no more than 90.
Each castle was owned by one knight, who could take from 20 to 100 people from mercenaries and servants on a campaign. In this case, the maximum number of soldiers, excluding the militia, could not exceed 9 thousand people. But, most likely, the real figures are much more modest, since some of the knights died in the Battle of Legnica the year before.
With confidence, modern historians can only say one thing: none of the opposing sides had significant superiority. Perhaps Lev Gumilyov was right, assuming that the Russians and the Teutons gathered 4 thousand soldiers each.
Victims
The number of those killed in the Battle of the Ice is as difficult to calculate as the number of participants. The Novgorod Chronicle reports on the victims of the enemy: “and the fall of Chud was beschisla, and Nemets 400, and 50 with the hands of a yash and brought to Novgorod.” But the Livonian rhymed chronicle speaks of only 20 dead and 6 captured knights, though not mentioning the victims among the soldiers and the militia. The Chronicle of Grandmasters, written later, reports the death of 70 order knights.
But none of the chronicles contain information about the losses of Russian troops. There is no consensus on this matter among historians, although according to some reports, the losses of Alexander Nevsky's troops were no less than those of the enemy.
