Development of the human capital of the organization. Formation and development of human capital

The economic growth of the state can be increased by financing various sectors of the economy: human capital, the quality of the workforce, culture and infrastructure. One of the most important tasks of the country is the direct accumulation of spiritual, material and intellectual abilities of a person. The main purpose of the country's spending is precisely investing in human capital. To increase the significant opportunities of society, it is necessary to increase the potential of each member of society, by increasing the potential, we will achieve a dynamic rate of economic growth. The development of human capital in Russia involves:

• - creating quality conditions for the development and improvement of the abilities of each person, improving the living conditions of Russian citizens;
• - increasing the competitiveness of human capital.

At present, a lot depends on the degree of human capital formation, including economic growth.

Human capital is the knowledge and skills learned by a person, which play a very important role for him in labor productivity.

The formation of human capital can be grouped into the following groups: institutional, socio-demographic, integration, socio-mental, environmental, economic, production.

In order to ensure the implementation of functions in terms of the formation of human capital in Russia, the following is guaranteed:

• - increasing the availability of housing for citizens through mortgage mechanisms;
• - accessibility of the consumer lending market;
• - promoting the improvement of the quality of life and personal well-being;
• - Assistance in facilitating pension insurance mechanisms.

The conceptual model of human capital formation is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - The concept of the human capital formation model

The formation of human capital is a process of increasing the productive qualities of the workforce, providing a high level of education and skill. For the long-term economic growth of the country, the formation of human capital is of decisive importance. The interaction of people with each other affects the dissemination of knowledge.

On average, the process of forming human capital takes approximately 15-20 years, this most often leads to a high level of several generations of people within the country.

The leading role in the formation of human capital is assigned to the sphere of culture, which is due to the following circumstances:

• - transition to a more advanced type of economic development;
• - development of the market of services in the field of culture.

Human capital is formed from childhood and is considered formed at the age of 23-25. Every child at the age of 3-4 years has a culture of completely free access to any information. The development of a child's abilities gives him the opportunity to freely manage his talents, to put as many concepts, skills, and abilities into his toolkit as possible. The development of the child is influenced by the results of his education, which later may affect the development of the labor market. The amount of human capital acquired in the learning process depends on innate abilities. The main period for the formation of human capital is the age from 13 to 23 years. This is a period of hormonal explosion, puberty, when nature gives a growing body a surge of tremendous energy. This energy must be transformed (sublimated) at the stadium in order to improve health, on the student bench and in the theater, in order to receive education and culture, learn to set and achieve goals in life, and overcome obstacles. A person can become a skilled worker by acquiring human capital, which is characterized by a high content of knowledge, contributes to innovation and the development of new ideas. The formed human capital provides a person with a stable income, status in society, self-sufficiency.

A feature of the process of forming human capital is that:

• - life expectancy makes the acquisition of human capital relatively more attractive to people of any ability level;
• - increased innate abilities facilitate the acquisition of human capital.

Knowledge and skills embodied in a person are difficult to separate from human health, which also determines labor productivity. Public health policy is the key to effective human capital formation. Access to medical care and proper nutrition increase life expectancy and help people become more efficient at work. As the life expectancy of the population increases, it is beneficial for society to use the experience and skill of people, which allows them to do their job more efficiently.

The basis for the formation of human capital is the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. The formation of skills is becoming a priority for the country's economic development. Education is an important tool for building human capital. Education contributes to the improvement of the quality of life of people and the exercise by them of their civil rights and obligations. Education enriches a person's life by developing cognitive and social skills and informing people about their civic rights and responsibilities.

Workers with higher education are more productive than those with secondary education. Workers with a secondary education are more productive than those with a primary education, and workers with a primary education are more productive than those with no education.

Educated people are more skilled and capable of doing their job effectively, have a wider arsenal of tools to solve problems and overcome difficulties. They are also better suited to more demanding jobs, which are often associated with higher wages and greater economic benefits.

For well-being, human well-being, the formation and accumulation of human capital is the main goal of the state's economic policy. State forms of education are one of the most important means of forming human capital among the low-income strata of the population. People from low-income segments of the population, having no access to physical and financial resources, while having a high cost of their own human capital, acquire the opportunity to earn and influence the level and quality of life.

Countries can invest in public schools as well as adult education to reap these benefits and also help build human capital.

Building human capital through education and training encourages investment, stimulates the development and deployment of new technologies, and increases productivity per worker. However, the relationships between education, inequality, human capital creation, and economic development and growth are complex and often unique to a country's context.

The accumulation of human capital precedes economic growth and serves as the basis for economic growth. The process of human capital accumulation is an investment in education and training. Investing in education is a tool that influences the labor income of people's life cycle. The degree of accumulation of human capital varies by culture, country, region of residence of the holder of human capital. Human capital can accumulate until a person retires. The accumulation of human capital, being endogenous, responds to incentives associated with changes in technological knowledge. Human capital accumulation tends endogenously to zero some time before retirement. Older workers have low motivation for professional training (retraining).

Developed countries have more financial resources to invest in human capital accumulation. In less developed countries, labor productivity is very low. To increase this potential, there is a need for the formation of human capital. In developing countries, the formation of human capital is carried out by the provision of public services for the introduction of new production methods and the creation of an education system.

The development of human capital occurs through the creation of comfortable living conditions: income growth, good roads, landscaped yards, modern medical and educational services, as well as a cultural environment.

The state of human capital in the least developed countries is reflected in the indicators of the Human Capital Index, related to the level of education, health and nutrition:

• - percentage of the population that is undernourished;
• - mortality rate among children under five years of age;
• - general indicator of children's education in secondary school;
• is the adult literacy rate.

The complementarity of human and physical capital in the economy leads to an acceleration of investment in human and physical capital in the long run.

Along with the priority development of human capital and the service economy, the most important sector for the implementation of knowledge, employment and income generation in the next 10-15 years will be the basic industries, transport, construction and the agricultural sector. It is in these sectors that Russia has significant competitive advantages, but it is here that major barriers to growth and efficiency gaps have accumulated. Intensive technological renewal of all basic sectors of the economy, based on new information nano- and biotechnologies, is the most important condition for the success of innovative socially oriented development and the success of the country in global competition.

Increasing the productive qualities of the labor force can be increased by providing a higher level of education and skills.

The formation of human capital increases the income, level and quality of life of people, and is also an important factor in improving labor efficiency.

The theory of human capital began to be dealt with in the 19th century. Then it became one of the promising directions in the development of economic science. The economic category "human capital" was formed gradually, and at the first stage it was limited by the knowledge and ability of a person to work. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, from the point of view of economic theory, a costly factor. It was believed that investments in upbringing, in education, are costly. Since the second half of the twentieth century. the attitude towards human capital and education has gradually and radically changed, and this economic category has become the main achievement, first of all, of the economics of education and labor. Initially, human capital was understood only as a set of investments in a person that increases his ability to work - education and professional skills. In the future, the concept of human capital has expanded significantly. The latest calculations made by the World Bank experts include consumer spending - the cost of families for food, clothing, housing, education, health care, culture, as well as government spending for these purposes.

The term "human capital" first appeared in the works of American economists Theodore Schultz and Gary Becker.

G. Becker considered human capital as a set of skills, knowledge and skills of a person, and according to T. Schultz, human capital is a valuable quality acquired by a person that can be enhanced by appropriate investments. However, T. Schultz and G. Becker paid more attention to explaining and defending the idea of ​​the equal role of human capital with material resources in creating the total social product.

For the creation of the “foundations of the theory of human capital”, American scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics - Theodore Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. The founders of the theory of human capital gave its narrow definition, which over time has expanded and continues to expand, including all new components of human capital.

In later works, there is no consensus among scientists on the definition and content of "human capital", which can be explained by the complexity and versatility of this phenomenon. That is why there are a large number of definitions of this concept:

• - according to W. Bowen, human capital consists of the acquired knowledge, skills, motivations and energy that a person is endowed with and which can be used over a certain period of time in order to produce goods and services;
• - according to Edwin J. Dolan, human capital is capital in the form of mental abilities obtained through training or education or through practical experience;
• - according to M.M. Cretan human capital is a universal specific form of life activity, assimilating previous forms and being realized as a result of the historical movement of human society to its current state;
• - B.M. Genkin and B.G. Yudin believe that human capital characterizes the components of a person's potential, which can become a source of income for a household, enterprise and country. Such components can be the physical and creative abilities of a person, his knowledge, skills, activity;
• - according to A.I. Dobrynina, S.A. Dyatlova, E.D. Tsyrenova, human capital is a stock of health, knowledge, skills, abilities, motivations formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person, which are expediently used in a particular area of ​​social reproduction, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and production, thereby affecting the growth of income of a given person. ;
• - V.S. Efimov considers human capital as a universal, independent component of the "production process" that provides additional value for the product. He also identifies three aspects of human capital:
  • a) the biological aspect - the preservation of human capital: demography + health + activity;
  • b) the social aspect - the development of human capital: education + qualifications + social organization + initiative;
  • c) economic aspect - capitalization of human capital: production systems + social institutions + infrastructure of opportunities.

Summarizing the above definitions of human capital, several main approaches can be distinguished: most scientists understand human capital as a set of skills, abilities and abilities of a person, others - only those that were obtained through training, others define it through investments and investments in a person that provide savings certain abilities and qualities. Some researchers also include in it the social, psychological, worldview, cultural characteristics of people.

The very concept of human capital was introduced to explain why education and experience affect wages, as well as to understand what determines the level of education people receive.

Since each person, one way or another, in his life is faced with such concepts as the need for education, lack of experience when applying for a job, the level of remuneration, then everyone is able to subjectively define the concept of human capital.

Often there is a definition of human capital as creativity, physical, moral, psychological and social health, spiritual qualities, the ability to human mobility. In addition, human capital implies the accumulated stock of health, knowledge, abilities, culture, experience, expediently used for productive activities to create products and services, which increases the income of a person, enterprise, society.

For a more complete definition of human capital, the following features should be taken into account:

• - nowadays human capital is the main value of society and the main factor of economic growth;
• - the formation of human capital requires high costs both from society and from the person himself;
• - human capital can be accumulated (in terms of knowledge, skills, abilities, experience);
• - human capital can physically wear out, economically change its value and depreciate;
• - investments in human capital in the future bring its owner a higher income;
• - human capital is inseparable from its carrier - a person;
• - regardless of what sources form human capital (state, family, honest), the receipt of income and the use of human capital is controlled by a person;
• - the functioning of human capital is due to the free will of a person, depending on his preferences, worldview and culture.

As a result, we can say that human capital is everything that concerns people, their intelligence, knowledge and experience, and includes other qualities, such as loyalty, motivation and the ability to work in a team. Despite the wide range of definitions of the concept of human capital, its essence is clear: human capital is defined as a measure of the ability to generate income embodied in a person, which includes innate abilities and talent, as well as education and acquired qualifications.

In the economic literature, there are several approaches to the classification of types of human capital. Economists classify the types of human capital according to the elements of costs, investments in human capital.

From the point of view of the nature of promoting the economic well-being of society, there are:

• - Consumer capital - creates a flow of services consumed directly. It can be creative and educational activity. The result of such activities is expressed in the provision to the consumer of such consumer services that lead to the emergence of new ways to meet needs or increase the effectiveness of existing ways to meet them;
• - Productive capital - creates a flow of services, the consumption of which contributes to social utility. In this case, we mean scientific and educational activities that have practical application in production (creation of means of production, technologies, production services and products).

The next criterion for classifying the types of human capital is the difference between the forms in which it is embodied:

• - Living capital - includes knowledge embodied in a person;
• - Non-living capital - is created when knowledge is embodied in physical, material forms;
• - Institutional capital - consists of living and non-living capital associated with the production of services that meet the collective needs of society. It includes all governmental and non-governmental institutions that promote the efficient use of the two types of capital (educational and financial institutions).

According to the form of employee training in the workplace, we can distinguish:

• - special human capital;
• - total human capital.

Special human capital includes skills and knowledge acquired as a result of special training and of interest only to the firm where they were obtained.

Unlike special human capital, general human capital is knowledge that can be in demand in various areas of human activity.

As a productive factor, human capital can be divided according to the degree of efficiency into negative (destructive) human capital and positive (creative) human capital.

Negative human capital is a part of accumulated human capital that does not give any useful return on investment in it for society, the economy and hinders the growth of the quality of life of the population, the development of society and the individual. Not every investment in upbringing and education is useful and increases human capital. Corrupt officials, criminals, drug addicts, excessive drinkers and just idlers are investments lost for society and family. A particularly significant contribution to the negative accumulated human capital can be made by the active part of the nation - its elite, since it is she who determines the policy and strategy of the country's development, leads the nation along the path of either progress, or stagnation or even regression.

Negative human capital requires additional investment to compensate for negative capital accumulated in the past.

Positive human capital (creative) - is defined as the accumulated human capital that provides a useful return on investment in it in the development and growth processes. In particular, in the development of the education system, the growth of knowledge, the development of science, the improvement of public health, and the improvement of the quality and availability of information.

Thus, in the presence of a large number of definitions and types of human capital, this concept, like many terms, is a "metaphor, transfers the properties of one phenomenon to another according to their common feature."

Human capital

Human capital- a set of knowledge, abilities, skills used to meet the diverse needs of a person and society as a whole. The term was first used by Theodor Schultz, and his follower, Gary Becker, developed this idea by substantiating the effectiveness of investments in human capital and formulating an economic approach to human behavior.

Human capital in a broad sense, it is an intensive productive factor of economic development, the development of society and the family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, the tools of intellectual and managerial work, the environment and labor activity that ensure the effective and rational functioning of human capital as a productive development factor.

Briefly: Human capital- this is intelligence, health, knowledge, quality and productive work and quality of life.

Human capital is the main factor in the formation and development of the innovation economy and the knowledge economy as the next highest stage of development.

One of the conditions for the development and improvement of the quality of human capital is a high index of economic freedom.

Use the classification of human capital:

1. individual human capital.
2. The human capital of the firm.
3. national human capital.

In the national wealth, human capital in developed countries is from 70 to 80%. In Russia, about 50%.

Background

Elements of the theory of human capital (HC) have existed since ancient times, when the first knowledge and the education system were formed.

In the scientific literature, the concept of human capital (Human Capital) appeared in the publications of the second half of the 20th century in the works of American economists Theodor Schultz and Gary Becker (1992). For creating the foundations of the theory of human capital (HC), they were awarded the Nobel Prizes in Economics - Theodor Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, a native of Russia, who received the Nobel Prize, made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of human capital (HC). in economics for 1971

The theory of human capital is based on the achievements of institutional theory, neoclassical theory, neo-Keynesianism and other particular economic theories. Its appearance was the response of economic and related sciences to the demand for real economy and life. There was a problem of in-depth understanding of the role of man and the accumulated results of his intellectual activity on the pace and quality of development of society and the economy. The impetus for the creation of the theory of human capital was the statistical data on the growth of the economies of the developed countries of the world, which exceeded the calculations based on the classical growth factors. An analysis of the real processes of development and growth in modern conditions has led to the establishment of human capital as the main productive and social factor in the development of the modern economy and society.

T. Schultz, G. Becker, E. Denison, R. Solow, J. Kendrick, S. Kuznets, S. Fabrikant, I. Fisher, R. Lucas and other economists, sociologists and historians contributed to the development of the modern theory of human capital .

The concept of human capital is a natural development and generalization of the concepts of the human factor and human resource, however, human capital is a broader economic category.

The economic category "human capital" was formed gradually, and at the first stage it was limited by the knowledge and ability of a person to work. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, a costly factor, from the point of view of economic theory. It was believed that investments in upbringing, in education, are unproductive and costly. In the second half of the 20th century, the attitude towards human capital and education gradually changed dramatically.

Broad definition of human capital

The concept of human capital (Human Capital) appeared in the publications of the second half of the 20th century in the works of American economists Theodor Schultz and Gary Becker (1992). For creating the foundations of the theory of human capital (HC), they were awarded the Nobel Prizes in Economics - Theodor Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, a native of Russia, who received the Nobel Prize, made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of human capital (HC). in economics for 1971

The founders of the theory of human capital (HC) gave it a narrow definition, which has expanded over time and continues to expand, including all new components of HC. As a result, HC has become a complex intensive factor in the development of the modern economy - the knowledge economy.

Currently, on the basis of the theory and practice of human capital, a successful paradigm for the development of the United States and leading European countries is being formed and improved. Based on the theory of the Cheka, which was lagging behind, Sweden modernized its economy and returned its leadership position in the world economy in the 2000s. Finland, in a historically short period of time, has managed to move from a predominantly resource-based economy to an innovative economy. And to create their own competitive high technologies, without giving up the deepest processing of their main natural wealth - the forest. Managed to reach the first place in the world in terms of the competitiveness of the economy as a whole. Moreover, the Finns created their innovative technologies and products on the income from timber processing into goods with high added value.

All this took place not because the theory and practice of human capital realized a kind of magic wand, but because it became the answer of economic theory and practice to the challenges of the time, to the challenges of the innovative economy (knowledge economy) emerging in the second half of the 20th century and venture science. -technical business.

The development of science, the formation of the information society to the fore as components of a complex intensive development factor - human capital - have brought forward knowledge, education, health, the quality of life of the population and the leading specialists themselves, who determine the creativity and innovation of national economies.

In the context of the globalization of the world economy, in the conditions of free flow of any capital, including the Cheka, from country to country, from region to region, from city to city in the conditions of intense international competition, the accelerated development of high technologies.

And huge advantages in creating stable conditions for the growth of the quality of life, the creation and development of the knowledge economy, the information society, the development of civil society have countries with accumulated high-quality human capital. That is, countries with an educated, healthy and optimistic population, competitive world-class professionals in all types of economic activity, in education, science, management and other areas.

Understanding and choosing human capital as the main development factor literally dictates a systematic and integrated approach in developing a development concept or strategy and linking all other private strategies and programs with them. This dictate follows from the essence of the national Cheka as a multicomponent development factor. Moreover, this diktat emphasizes the conditions of life, work and the quality of the tools of specialists that determine the creativity and creative energy of the country.

The core of the Cheka, of course, was and remains a man, but now he is an educated, creative and enterprising person, with a high level of professionalism. Human capital itself determines in the modern economy the main share of the national wealth of countries, regions, municipalities and organizations. At the same time, the share of unskilled labor in the GDP of developed and developing countries, including Russia, is getting smaller, and in technologically advanced countries it is already vanishingly small.

Therefore, the division of labor into unskilled labor and labor requiring education, special skills and knowledge is gradually losing its original meaning and economic content when defining human capital, which the founders of the human capital theory identified with educated people and their accumulated knowledge and experience. The concept of human capital as an economic category is constantly expanding along with the development of the global information community and the knowledge economy.

Human capital in a broad definition is an intensive productive factor in the development of the economy, society and family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools for intellectual and managerial work, the environment and labor activity that ensure the effective and rational functioning of human capital as a productive development factor.

Briefly: Human capital is intelligence, health, knowledge, quality and productive labor and quality of life.

The composition of the human capital includes investments and returns from them in the tools of intellectual and managerial labor, as well as investments in the environment for the functioning of the human capital, ensuring its effectiveness.

Human capital is a complex and distributed intensive development factor. It, like blood vessels in a living organism, permeates the entire economy and society. And ensures their functioning and development. Or, on the contrary, it depresses with its low quality. Therefore, there are objective methodological difficulties with assessing its individual economic efficiency, its individual productivity, its individual contribution to GDP growth and to improving the quality of life. HC, through specialists and IT, contributes to the development and growth of the economy everywhere, in all types of economic and industrial activities.

Cheka contributes to improving the quality and productivity of labor in all types of life and life support. In all types of economic activity, management, educated professionals determine the productivity and efficiency of labor. And knowledge, high-quality work, qualifications of specialists play a decisive role in the effectiveness of the functioning and work of institutions and organizations of all forms and types.

The main drivers of HC development are competition, investment, and innovation.

The innovative sector of the economy, the creative part of the elite, society, and the state are sources of accumulation of high-quality human capital, which determines the direction and pace of development of the country, region, medical organizations, and organizations. On the other hand, the accumulated high-quality human capital underlies the innovation system and economy (IE).

The development processes of HC and IE constitute a single process of formation and development of the innovation-information society and its economy.

What is the difference between human capital and human potential? The human potential index of a country or region is calculated according to three indicators: GDP (or GRP), life expectancy and literacy of the population. That is, it is a narrower concept than the Cheka. The latter absorbs the concept of human potential as its enlarged component.

How is human capital different from labor resources? The labor force is directly people, educated and uneducated, who determine skilled and unskilled labor. Human capital is a much broader concept and includes, in addition to labor resources, accumulated investments (taking into account their depreciation) in education, science, health, security, quality of life, in the tools of intellectual labor and in the environment that ensures the effective functioning of the human capital.

Investments in the formation of an effective elite, including in the organization of competition, are among the most important investments in Cheka. It has been known since the time of the classics of science D. Toynbee and M. Weber that it is the elite of the people that determines the vector of the direction of its development. Forward, side or back.

An entrepreneurial resource is a creative resource, an intellectual resource for the development of the economy. Therefore, investment in an entrepreneurial resource is an investment in the development of human capital in terms of increasing its constructiveness, creativity and innovation. In particular, business angels are a necessary component of the HC.

Investments in institutional services are aimed at creating comfortable conditions for servicing the state. institutions of citizens, including doctors, teachers, scientists, engineers, that is, the core of the Cheka, which helps to improve the quality of their life and work.

With such an expansion of the economic category “human capital”, it comes out, as already noted, from the “flesh” of a person. People's brains do not work effectively with a poor quality of life, with low security, with an aggressive or oppressive environment for living and working.

The foundation on which innovative economies and information societies are created is the rule of law, the high quality of human capital, the high quality of life and an efficient industrial economy, which has smoothly transformed into a post-industrial or innovative economy.

National human capital includes social, political capital, national intellectual priorities, national competitive advantages and the natural potential of the nation.

National human capital is measured by its value, calculated by various methods - by investment, by the discount method and others.

The national human capital makes up more than half of the national wealth of each of the developing countries and over 70-80% of the developed countries of the world.

Features of national human capital determined the historical development of world civilizations and countries of the world. National human capital in the 20th and 21st centuries has been and remains the main intensive factor in the development of the economy and society.

Estimates of the cost of national human capital of the countries of the world

The cost of the national human capital of the countries of the world on the basis of the cost method was estimated by the specialists of the World Bank.

Estimates of the components of the human capital for the costs of the state, families, entrepreneurs and various funds were used. They make it possible to determine the current annual costs of society for the reproduction of human capital.

In the United States, the value of human capital at the end of the 20th century was $95 trillion, or 77% of the national wealth (NW), 26% of the global total value of human capital.

The value of the world human capital amounted to 365 trillion dollars or 66% of world wealth, 384% of the US level.

For China, these figures are: $ 25 trillion, 77% of the total NB, 7% of the world's total HC and 26% of the US level. For Brazil, respectively: $9 trillion; 74%, 2% and 9%. For India: 7 trillion; 58%, 2%; 7%.

For Russia, the figures are: $30 trillion; fifty %; eight %; 32%.

The G7 countries and the EEC accounted for 59% of the world's HC for the reference period, which is 78% of their national wealth.

Human capital in most countries exceeded half of the accumulated national wealth (with the exception of the OPEC countries). The HC percentage is significantly affected by the cost of natural resources. In particular, for Russia, the share of the cost of natural resources is relatively large.

The bulk of the world's human capital is concentrated in the developed countries of the world. This is due to the fact that investments in HC in these countries over the past half century have significantly outpaced investments in physical capital. In the United States, the ratio of "investment in people" and productive investment (social spending on education, health care and social security as a % of productive investment) in 1970 was 194%, and in 1990 318%.

There are certain difficulties in the comparative assessment of the cost of HC in countries with different levels of development. The human capital of an underdeveloped country and a developed country has a significantly different productivity per unit of capital, as well as a very different quality (for example, a significantly different quality of education and health care). To assess the effectiveness of national human capital, factor analysis methods are used using country-specific international indices and indicators. At the same time, the values ​​of the HC efficiency coefficient for different countries differ significantly, which is close to the differences in their labor productivity. The methodology for measuring national human capital is set out in the work.

The cost of Russian national human capital has been declining over the past 20 years due to low investment in it and the degradation of education, medicine, and science.

National human capital and historical development of countries and civilizations

The economic category "human capital" was formed gradually. And at the first stage, the composition of the Cheka included a small number of components - upbringing, education, knowledge, health. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, a costly factor, from the point of view of the theory of economic growth. It was believed that investments in upbringing, in education, are unproductive and costly. In the second half of the 20th century, the attitude towards human capital and education gradually changed dramatically.

In reality, it was investments in education and science that in the past ensured the outstripping development of Western civilization - Europe and North America in comparison with China, India and other countries. Studies of the development of civilizations and countries in past centuries show that even then human capital was one of the main development factors that predetermined the success of some countries and the failure of others.

Western civilization at a certain historical stage won the global historical competition with more ancient civilizations precisely due to the faster growth of human capital, including education, in the Middle Ages. At the end of the 18th century, Western Europe surpassed China (and India) by one and a half times in per capita GDP and twice in terms of literacy. The latter circumstance, multiplied by economic freedom and then democracy, became the main factor in the economic success of Europeans, as well as the United States and other Anglo-Saxon countries.

The influence of human capital on economic growth is also indicative on the example of Japan. In the land of the Rising Sun, which has pursued isolationist policies for centuries, the level of human capital has always been high, including education and life expectancy. In 1913, the average number of years of adult education in Japan was 5.4 years, in Italy 4.8, in the USA 8.3 years, and the average life expectancy was 51 years (roughly the same as in Europe and the USA). In Russia, these figures were equal: 1-1.2 years and 33-35 years. Therefore, Japan, in terms of the level of starting human capital, turned out to be ready in the 20th century to make a technological breakthrough and become one of the most advanced countries in the world.

Human capital is an independent complex intensive development factor, in fact, the foundation of GDP growth in combination with innovations and high technologies in modern conditions. The difference between this complex intensive factor and natural resources, classical labor and ordinary capital is the need for constant increased investment in it and the existence of a significant time lag in the return on these investments. In the developed countries of the world in the late 1990s, about 70% of all funds were invested in human capital, and only about 30% in physical capital. Moreover, the main share of investments in human capital in the advanced countries of the world is carried out by the state. And this is precisely one of its most important functions in terms of state regulation of the economy.

An analysis of the processes of changing the technological structures of the economy and types of societies shows that human capital, the cycles of its growth and development are the main factors in the generation of innovative waves of development and the cyclical development of the world economy and society.

With a low level and quality of human capital, investments in high-tech industries do not give returns. The relatively rapid success of the Finns, Irish, Japanese, Chinese (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, China, etc.), Koreans, new European developed countries (Greece, Spain, Portugal) confirm the conclusion that the foundation for the formation of human capital is a high culture the bulk of the population of these countries.

Structure, type and methods for assessing the value of human capital

Structure

Once upon a time, upbringing, education and fundamental science were considered a costly burden for the economy. Then the understanding of their importance as factors in the development of the economy and society changed. Both education, and science, and mentality as components of human capital, and the Cheka itself as a whole, have become the main factor in the growth and development of the modern economy, the development of society and the improvement of the quality of life. The core of the Cheka, of course, was and remains a man. Human capital itself now determines the main share of the national wealth of countries, regions, municipalities and organizations.

With the development and complication of the concept and economic category "human capital", its structure became more complicated.

Human capital is formed primarily through investments in improving the level and quality of life of the population. Including - in upbringing, education, health, knowledge (science), entrepreneurial ability and climate, in the information support of labor, in the formation of an effective elite, in the security of citizens and business and economic freedom, as well as in culture, art and other components. The Cheka is also formed due to the influx from other countries. Or it decreases due to its outflow, which is observed so far in Russia. Cheka is not a simple number of people, workers of simple labor. Cheka is professionalism, knowledge, information service, health and optimism, law-abiding citizens, creativity and efficiency of the elite, etc.

Investments in the components of the human capital make up its structure: upbringing, education, health, science, personal security, entrepreneurial ability, investment in the training of the elite, tools for intellectual work, information services, etc.

Types of human capital

According to the degree of efficiency as a productive factor, human capital can be divided into negative human capital (destructive) and positive human capital (creative). Between these extreme states and the components of the total human capital, there are intermediate states and components of the human capital in terms of efficiency.

This is a part of the accumulated human capital, which does not give any useful return on investment in it for society, the economy and hinders the growth of the quality of life of the population, the development of society and the individual. Not every investment in upbringing and education is useful and increases HC. An incorrigible criminal, a hired killer is an investment in them lost for society and family. A significant contribution to the accumulated negative HC is made by corrupt officials, criminals, drug addicts, and excessive drinkers. And just loafers, loafers and thieving people. And, on the contrary, a significant share of the positive part of the Cheka is made by workaholics, professionals, world-class specialists. The negative accumulated human capital is formed on the basis of the negative aspects of the nation's mentality, on the low culture of the population, including its market components (in particular, the ethics of work and entrepreneurship). Contribute to it are the negative traditions of the state structure and the functioning of state institutions on the basis of lack of freedom and underdevelopment of civil society, on the basis of investments in pseudo-education, pseudo-education and pseudo-knowledge, in pseudo-science and pseudo-culture. A particularly significant contribution to the negative accumulated human capital can be made by the active part of the nation - its elite, since it is she who determines the policy and strategy of the country's development, leads the nation along the path of either progress, or stagnation (stagnation) or even regression.

Negative human capital requires additional investment in HC to change the essence of knowledge and experience. To change the educational process, to change the innovation and investment potential, to change for the better the mentality of the population and improve its culture. In this case, additional investments are required to compensate for the negative capital accumulated in the past.

Inefficient investments in human capital - investments in inefficient projects or family expenses to improve the quality of human capital components associated with corruption, lack of professionalism, false or suboptimal development ideology, trouble in the family, etc. In fact, these are investments in the negative component of human capital. Inefficient investments, in particular, are: - investments in individuals incapable of learning and acquiring modern knowledge, which give zero or insignificant results; - in an inefficient and corrupt educational process; - into the system of knowledge, which is formed around a false core; - in false or ineffective R&D, projects, innovations.

The accumulated negative human capital begins to fully manifest itself during periods of bifurcations - in conditions of highly non-equilibrium states. In this case, there is a transition to another coordinate system (in particular, to another economic and political space), and the HC can change its sign and magnitude. In particular, during the transition of the country to another economic and political system, with a sharp transition to another, much higher technological level (for enterprises and industries). This means that the accumulated human capital, primarily in the form of accumulated mentality, experience and knowledge, as well as existing education, is not suitable for solving new tasks of a more complex level, tasks within a different development paradigm. And when moving to another coordinate system, to radically different requirements for the level and quality of human capital, the accumulated old human capital becomes negative, becomes a brake on development. And we need new additional investments in the Cheka for its modification and development.

An example of inefficient investments can be investments in the USSR in chemical warfare agents (CW). They were created almost twice as many as in the rest of the world. Billions of dollars have been spent. And almost as much money had to be spent on the destruction and disposal of OV as on their production in the past. Another close example is investment in the production of tanks in the USSR. They were also produced more than in the rest of the world. Military doctrine has changed, tanks now play a smaller role in it, and investment in them has given zero return. They are difficult to use for peaceful purposes and impossible to sell - outdated.

Let us explain once again the essence of the negativity of the unproductive component of human capital. It is determined by the fact that if a person is a carrier of knowledge that does not meet the modern requirements of science, engineering, technology, production, management, the social sphere, etc., then retraining him often requires much more money than training the corresponding employee with zero. Or an invitation from an outside worker. In other words, if the quality of labor is determined by pseudo-knowledge, then a fundamental change in this quality is more expensive than the formation of a qualitatively new labor on a modern educational basis and on the basis of other workers. In this regard, huge difficulties lie, in particular, in the way of creating a Russian innovation system and venture business. The main obstacle here is the negative components of human capital in terms of innovative entrepreneurial ability, mentality, experience and knowledge of Russians in this area. The same problems stand in the way of introducing innovations at Russian enterprises. So far, investments in this area do not give the proper return. The share of the negative component in the accumulated human capital and, accordingly, the effectiveness of investment in human capital in different countries of the world varies greatly. The effectiveness of investments in human capital is characterized by the conversion coefficients of investments in human capital at the country level and for the regions of the Russian Federation.

Positive human capital(creative or innovative) are defined as the accumulated human capital that provides a useful return on investment in it in the development and growth processes. In particular, from investments in improving and maintaining the quality of life of the population, in the growth of innovative potential and institutional capacity. In the development of the education system, the growth of knowledge, the development of science, the improvement of public health. To improve the quality and availability of information. Cheka is an inertial productive factor. Investments in it give a return only after a while. The value and quality of human capital depend primarily on the mentality, education, knowledge and health of the population. In a historically short period of time, one can get a significant return on investment in education, knowledge, health, but not in the mentality that has been formed over the centuries. At the same time, the mentality of the population can significantly reduce the transformation coefficients of investments in HC and even make investments in HC completely inefficient.

Passive human capital- human capital, which does not contribute to the country's development processes, to the innovative economy, aimed mainly at its own consumption of material goods.

The fact that human capital cannot be changed in a short time, especially with a significant amount of negative accumulated human capital, is, in fact, the main problem in the development of the Russian economy from the point of view of the theory of human capital development.

The most important component of human capital is labor, its quality and productivity. The quality of labor, in turn, is determined by the mentality of the population and the quality of life. Labor in Russia, unfortunately, has traditionally been and remains of low quality (that is, the products of Russian enterprises, with the exception of raw materials and primary products from it, are uncompetitive in world markets, productivity and labor intensity are low). The energy consumption of Russian products is two to three times higher, depending on the industry, than in countries with efficient production. And labor productivity is several times lower than in developed countries. Low-productivity and low-quality labor significantly reduces the accumulated Russian HC and reduces its quality.

Methods for assessing the value of human capital

There are various methodological approaches to calculating the cost of human capital. J. Kendrick proposed a costly method for calculating the cost of human capital - based on statistical data, calculate the accumulation of investments in a person. This technique has proved to be convenient for the United States, where there are extensive and reliable statistical data. J. Kendrick included in investments in the Cheka the costs of the family and society for raising children until they reach working age and receive a certain specialty, for retraining, advanced training, health care, labor migration, etc. He also included investments in housing, household durables, stocks of goods in households, expenditures on research and development. As a result of the calculations, he obtained that human capital in the 1970s was more than half of the accumulated national wealth of the United States (excluding public investment). The Kedrick method made it possible to evaluate the accumulation of human capital at its full "replacement cost". But it did not give the opportunity to calculate the "net value" of human capital (minus its "wear and tear"). This method did not contain a methodology for separating from the total amount of costs a part of the costs used for the reproduction of human capital, for its real accumulation. In the work of J. Mincer, the contribution of education and duration of labor activity to human capital is assessed. On the basis of the US statistics of the 1980s, Mincer obtained dependences of the effectiveness of the human capital on the number of years of general education, vocational training, and the age of the worker.

The FRASCAT methodology is based on detailed information in the United States on the costs of science since 1920. The methodology takes into account the time lag between the period of R&D and the period of their implementation in accumulated human capital as an increase in the stock of knowledge and experience. The average life of this type of capital was assumed to be 18 years. The calculation results turned out to be close to the results of other researchers. The calculation algorithm was as follows. 1. Total current spending on science (for basic research, applied research, R&D). 2. Accumulation for the period. 3. Changes in stocks. 4. Consumption for the current period. 5. Gross capital formation. 6. Net accumulation. International economic and financial institutions show constant interest in the problem of human capital. Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC) back in the 1970s. prepared a document on the strategy for the further development of mankind, where the problem of the role and importance of the human factor in global economic development was raised. In this study, methods were created for calculating some components of the human capital: the average life expectancy of one generation, the duration of the active working period, the net balance of the labor force, the family life cycle, etc. The cost of human capital included the cost of educating, training and training new workers, the cost of advanced training , the cost of lengthening the period of labor activity, losses due to diseases, mortality, etc.

A significant contribution to the development of the expansion concept of national wealth (taking into account the contribution of the CHK) was made by the World Bank analysts, who published a series of papers substantiating this concept. The World Bank methodology summarizes the results and methods for assessing the human capital of other schools and authors. The WB methodology, in particular, takes into account the accumulated knowledge and other components of the human capital.

Sources of human capital are selected by grouping the costs for the relevant areas. These are science, education, culture and art, healthcare and information support.

These sources must be supplemented with the following: investments in the security of the population and entrepreneurs - ensure the accumulation of all other components of human capital, ensure the realization of the creative and professional potential of a person, ensure the maintenance and growth of the quality of life; investments in the training of the society's elite; investment in entrepreneurial capacity and entrepreneurial climate - public and private investment in small business and venture capital. Investments in creating conditions for maintaining and developing entrepreneurial ability ensure its implementation as an economic productive resource of the country; investment in raising children; investment in changing the mentality of the population in a positive direction is an investment in the culture of the population, which determines the effectiveness of human capital; investments in institutional services to the population - the country's institutions should contribute to the disclosure and implementation of the creative and professional abilities of the population, improve the quality of life of the population, especially in terms of reducing bureaucratic pressure on it; investments in knowledge associated with the invitation of specialists, creative people and other talented and highly professional people from other countries, which significantly increase human capital; investments in the development of economic freedom, including freedom of labor migration.

The results of calculations of the human capital of Russia and the CIS countries based on the cost method using the algorithm of the World Bank specialists are given in the works. Estimates of the components of the human capital for the costs of the state, families, entrepreneurs and various funds were used. They make it possible to determine the current annual costs of society for the reproduction of Russian human capital. To assess the value of real savings, the authors of the work used the calculation of the “true savings” indicator according to the methodology of the World Bank specialists.

The human capital of most countries exceeds half of the accumulated national wealth (with the exception of the OPEC countries). This reflects the high level of development of these countries. The HC percentage is significantly affected by the cost of natural resources. In particular, for Russia, the share of the cost of natural resources is large.

It should be noted that the above methodology for assessing human capital by costs, which is quite correct for developed countries with efficient state systems and efficient economies, gives a significant error for developing countries and countries with economies in transition. There are certain difficulties in the comparative assessment of the cost of HC in different countries. The human capital of an underdeveloped country and a developed country has a very different productivity per unit of capital, a very different level and quality.

The growing income gap between people with and without world-class higher education is pushing for this. According to 1990 data, Americans with elementary education had a total lifetime income of $756,000; . High pay for skilled and intellectual labor is one of the main incentives for obtaining knowledge in developed countries and the main factor in their development.

In turn, the high image of intellectual work, its great importance for the knowledge economy, generates powerful synergistic effects of strengthening the total intelligence of the country, industries, corporations, and ultimately, the total human capital of the country. Hence the huge advantages of the developed countries of the world and the problems for countries with catching up economies trying to join their ranks.

Modern methods for measuring the cost and quality of human capital are given in the works.

An analysis of modern methods for measuring human capital shows that the most accurate methods for measuring it are by its share in national wealth or in GDP, as an intensive productive factor.

Human capital is the main factor in the formation of the "knowledge economy"

All these provisions are included in one form or another (often truncated and scholastic) both in the federal innovation strategy and in regional innovation strategies, programs and laws.

In essence, the understanding of what needs to be done to create a national IP from the point of view of the theory and experience of developed countries has matured at all levels of government (among those who write programs and strategies). However, the real progress in solving the problem is insignificant.

The creative core, the engine of IP and the economy is venture business. Venture business is by definition risky and highly profitable (if successful). And in this case, the participation of the state as a regulator and investor is generally accepted. Some of the risks are assumed by the state. Venture business is aimed at the implementation of major, sometimes breakthrough innovations, innovations coming from fundamental science. Therefore, the participation of the state in it on the basis of public-private partnership is necessary and useful.

Venture capitalists - specialists, managers and business angels - are highly professional, gifted people who require, accordingly, comfortable conditions for life and work, and high incomes. Venture capitalists - specialists and entrepreneurs - are in short supply all over the world. In the context of the globalization of the world economy and open borders, business angels and other venture capitalists "fly" to where it is more convenient and profitable for them.

World experience has shown that at an early stage of creating a venture business, highly professional venture capitalists can only be nurtured and formed on the basis of an effective venture school, for example, in Silicon Valley, as Israel and Singapore did. This way of establishing a venture business, in one form or another, was used by all countries in which IE and venture business have already been created. The foundation on which innovative economies and information societies are created is the rule of law, the high quality of human capital, the high quality of life and an efficient industrial economy, which has smoothly transformed into a post-industrial or innovative economy.

Venture business is of particular importance in the process of creating an efficient and competitive economy. High technologies allow a country with a “catching up” economy to approach the developed countries of the world in terms of per capita income in the foreseeable future. The mission of generators of high technologies and innovative products is carried out by the venture technology and scientific and technical business.

The accumulated experience of the functioning of the Russian Venture Company, the implementation of the "FTP Electronic Russia (2002-2010)" and other private programs for the development of high technologies and the introduction of innovations, according to the estimates of the President of the Russian Federation Dmitry Medvedev, independent experts and analysts, showed that their activities have not yet led to any significant positive results. Venture business and innovation activities in Russia and in Voronezh, in particular, are not yet economically beneficial for entrepreneurs and the state. Favorable environment and conditions have not been created for this activity.

The tasks of creating a national innovation system and an innovative sector of the economy, technological modernization of the economy, development of science and high technologies were set in all federal and regional development strategies and programs. There are no shifts yet. Dmitry Medvedev at a meeting on May 15, 2009 on the issues of modernization and technological development of the economy said on this occasion:

“The main problem is that, despite the correct program settings, there are no significant changes in the technological level of our economy. And this is especially evident during the global financial and economic crisis. So far, neither the small firms that we have tried and are trying to create, nor technoparks, nor various kinds of technology transfer centers, all kinds of new forms that we are trying to use, nor the Russian Venture Company, nor technology-innovative special economic zones have shown any serious results. All this basically, I must admit frankly, exists only on paper.

Why is this happening? The answer, in principle, is not complicated. Corruption and criminalization of the economy and society reduce the effectiveness of the constructive components of human capital. Reduce the efficiency of labor, economy, business and the state.

Innovation in a market economy is a consequence of free competition in the markets. In the absence of a source of innovation generation - competition - there are no innovations themselves or they are of a random nature. The desire and need to make a big profit pushes the private owner to do something special, useful, which competitors do not have, so that his product is more attractive and sells better. Economic freedom, competitive markets, the rule of law and private property - these are the factors that automatically generate innovation, demand for it, investment in an innovative product and pave the way between an idea and an innovative product. Outside of a market economy with free competitive markets, it is impossible a priori to create an innovative economy and self-sustaining generation of innovations and innovative products. This was proved by the experience of the USSR and other socialist countries in this area.

A feature of the innovative economy, venture business and the information society is the fact that favorable conditions for venture business, high quality of life should be fulfilled in relation to the developed countries of the world in the context of globalization and open borders and economies. Ventureists, as especially highly professional specialists, work where they are more comfortable, and favorable and competitive conditions have been created for business. It was not possible to create such conditions in the USSR. And so he lost the scientific and technological competition. The current conditions are less favorable for this than they were in the USSR. The remnants of the former science and education, as well as other components of the innovation system, do not correspond to the level of the knowledge economy. Therefore, Russian business angels prefer to invest in foreign technology parks, for example, in India. In Russia, the profit on venture projects is noticeably lower, and the risks are very high. Including criminal risk.

The main reasons for the slowdown in scientific, technical and innovation activity in Russia are the low quality of human capital and an unfavorable, oppressive environment for innovation activity. The quality of all components of Russian human capital has declined: education, science, the security of citizens and business, the elite, and specialists. And for venture business and innovative economy it would be necessary first to build a solid foundation.

Notes

1. Ilya Konstantinov. Human capital and strategy of national projects
2. Nesterov L., Ashirova G. National wealth and human capital. // VE, 2003, No. 2.
3. Korchagin Yu. A. The broad concept of human capital. - Voronezh: TsIRE, 2009.
4. SHULGINA EV DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN POTENTIAL. Moscow Business School, Moscow, Russia
5. Shultz T. Human Capital in the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. - N.Y., 1968, vol. 6.
6. Becker, Gary S. human capital. - N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 1964.
7. Kendrick J. The total capital of the United States and its functioning. - M.: Progress, 1976
8. Korchagin Yu. A. Investment strategy. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2006 ISBN 5-222-08440-X
9. Korchagin Yu. A. Russian human capital: a factor of development or degradation? - Voronezh: TSIRE, 2005.
10. Fischer S., Dornbusch R., Schmalenzi R. Economic theory. - M., Unity, 2002.
11. The Economics of Resources and the Resources of Economics (1974).
12. Kendrick J. Economic growth and capital formation. Questions of Economics, 1976, No. 11.

At the present stage, the economy in developed countries has become technotronic, which is reflected in the unity of "man - computer - automated means of production." That is why socio-economic development in the second half of the last century and at the beginning of the present is characterized by the growing role of the human factor. Under such conditions, a person, who is the main productive force, must be armed with the means of production and knowledge, that is, be sufficiently educated. Information support is a well-known method of transmission and helps a person in the implementation of expedient labor actions, but does not perform them instead. At present, intellectual work that generates knowledge is gaining more and more value. That is why in the modern economy human resources play a decisive role in achieving competitive advantages and ensuring the qualitative parameters of economic growth.

Building intellectual strength is the key to success. Under the current economic conditions, the development of the intellectual factor is more effective than, for example, the capital-intensive improvement of the organization of the use of various outdated technologies. According to Peter Drucker, “No matter what material resources a system has, they do not multiply by themselves. Both the state and the firm are developed by the energy and intellect of the people who make them up.

Now the labor resources of the enterprise are increasingly considered as human capital. It should be noted that the concepts of "labor resources" and "human capital" are not synonymous. Labor resources can be converted into capital, but for this it is necessary to create conditions that provide the opportunity to realize human potential in the results of the organization's activities. That is, if a person is engaged in social production, and labor resources bring real income and create wealth, then they can be called capital.
The effectiveness of the development of an enterprise and the economy of states as a whole to a large extent depends on how much money and at what point in time they are directed to the development of human capital. This type of investment brings a significant in volume, long-term and integral in nature economic and social effect, therefore it is the most beneficial from the point of view of a person, an enterprise and the whole society as a whole. Thus, in the United States, according to some estimates, part of investment in human capital is more than 15% of GDP, which exceeds gross investment in houses, equipment and storage facilities.

According to the website auditfin.com, in developed countries, 60% of the increase in national income is due to the increase in knowledge and education of society. American scientists have calculated the value of GDP produced by workers with a duration of education of 10.5; 12.5 and over 14 years: it turned out that it is the third group (with education over 14 years) that provides more than half of GDP. Similar studies were carried out several years ago in Russia. According to Rossiyskaya Gazeta, the results were similar: people with higher education, who make up a quarter of the workforce, produced 56% of the value of the national income.

Currently, considerable attention is paid to the problem of formation, development and use of human capital. Such Ukrainian scientists as E.A. Grishnova, A.M. Kolot, V.N. Petyukh, V.M. Danyuk, V.I. Kutsenko, G.I. Evtushenko, T.I. Shparaga, Ya.M. Dutkevich, V.P. Antonyuk, I.N. Lashchenko, Yu.B. Skazhenik, A.V. Lokhmach and many others explore the essence of human capital and the specifics of its formation in Ukraine.

The emergence of the theory of human capital is associated with the scientific works of William Patty, Adam Smith, Alfred Marshall. The final formation of the theory of human capital refers to 50-60 years. XX century. The theoretical foundations were formulated by the American economist Theodor Schultz, and the basic theoretical model was developed by Gary Becker. Becker was the first to carry out a statistically objective calculation of the economic efficiency of the education process, defining the return on investment in education as the ratio of income to expenses. According to G. Becker, the efficiency is 12-14% of the annual profit.

According to the author, in order to determine the income from higher education, it is necessary to compare the incomes of people who graduated from college and those who graduated only from high school. At the same time, the expenses for education can, along with direct expenses, include the lost income by students during the years of study, which is measured by the value of the time they spent on education. Despite the presence of a large number of opponents, the theory of human capital is one of the main ones in the field of research on human resources.

One of the controversial issues is the formation of human capital. The definition of which is an important aspect in considering the entire system of human capital recovery. The formation of human capital should be studied as a process of searching, renewing and improving high-quality productive characteristics of a person with which he acts in social production. The factors on which the formation of human capital depends can be combined into the following groups: socio-demographic, institutional, integration, socio-mental, environmental, economic, production, demographic, socio-economic (Fig. 1) .

Fig.1: Groups of factors that form human capital

From this we can conclude that the category of human capital is a complex structurally systemic object of socio-economic research. O.A. Grishnova believes that human capital is an economic category that characterizes the totality of productive abilities formed and developed as a result of investments, personal traits and motivations of individuals that are owned by them, are used in economic activity, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and, due to this, influence growth. income (earnings) of its owner and national income.

Thus, human capital should be considered at the national, regional, sectoral levels, as well as at the level of an enterprise and an individual. At the macroeconomic level, human capital includes the contribution of the region, the country to the level of education, training and competence, health, and so on. This level consists of the total human capital of the entire population of a region or country. At the level of an enterprise, human capital represents the combined skills and productive abilities of all its employees. At the individual level, human capital is knowledge, skills, accumulated experience and other production characteristics acquired by a person in the process of study, training, practical experience with which he can earn income.
The American scientist J. Kendrick distinguishes between real and intangible forms of human capital. To the material capital embodied in people, he refers the costs necessary for the physical formation of a person, that is, the costs of raising children (excluding the costs of their education). J. Kendrick refers to intangible human capital the accumulated expenses for general education and special training, part of the accumulated expenses for health protection and the expenses for the movement of labor. He believes that the concept of "human capital" reflects not only a quantitative assessment of the qualification and educational potential, but also expands the boundaries of the concept of "capital", displaying all those working in the role of entrepreneurs who have property that makes a profit. In this interpretation, each worker who has a certain, growing level of education and practical experience becomes the owner of "individual capital", contributions to which increase his future income. With this approach, the fundamental line between social classes is erased, leaving only differences in the scale of entrepreneurial ownership, and not in the absence of such among workers. In this case, the role of entrepreneurship is constantly decreasing, and workers become the owners of an increasing part of the capital.

MM. Kritsky believes that human capital is carried out as an enrichment of the life of a person and society, based on the saving of direct labor. The basic law of the movement of human capital expresses the unity of saving labor and enriching this life activity. Human capital is the self-enrichment of people's life activity, which is realized as their life quality.

Understanding human capital as a set of socially expedient production knowledge, skills, abilities gives grounds for such important generalizations:

• human capital is a combination of natural abilities and human energy with acquired general educational and professional knowledge. Such unity occurs in the process of forming human capital through all types of acquiring new knowledge on the basis of certain investments;
• human capital should be considered at three levels: macroeconomic, enterprise level and individual level;
• human capital is divided into real and intangible forms. The material form of human capital is the cost of the physical formation of a person, and the non-material form includes the cost of education, health care and the movement of labor.

There is no unity in the views of researchers on the problem of the relationship between human capital and physical capital. One of the main problems of the present time is the distinction between the concepts of "human capital" and "labor force". Some consider these two concepts to be synonymous, others give definitions that are similar in content. According to O.F. Liskov, in order to form a labor force - a product that is put up for sale, an individual must select the necessary elements of human capital that are part of the labor force, that is, the labor force consists of some necessary elements of human capital.

Most of these features of physical and human capital, formulated by S.A. Woodpecker, fair:

• human capital takes the form of variable capital and interacts with physical capital as part of the total productive capital;
• both capitals must correspond to each other, that is, complex and expensive equipment must be managed by highly qualified specialists, who in turn are highly paid;
• the formation of both requires significant expenditures and the diversion of funds from current consumption;
• investments in both physical and human capital can lead to accumulation;
• human and physical capital have a monetary value.

There are a number of analogies between human and physical capital. For example, both bring income to the owner, both are integral components of economic growth. Investment decisions and their consequences are analyzed in the same way for both physical and human capital.

Russian economist A.F. Lyskov notes that the most important property of human capital is its dynamic nature. Elements are constantly added to human capital under the influence of certain circumstances, and the value of existing ones decreases, increases or is completely removed. This is how the value of human capital itself changes. Often, only positive dynamics of human capital is considered, but negative dynamics also have an impact on the production process and on the success of the enterprise as a whole. Another feature of human capital is the nature of the risk that an entrepreneur takes on when buying labor.

Other Russian scientists believe that human capital has a dual character. In a broad sense, it should be considered as a socio-economic form of the existing quality of human potential on the scale of a particular society. In a narrow sense, this is that part of it that is productively used by entrepreneurs to make a profit and bears the signs of K. Marx's variable capital. The theory of human capital divides it into two types: general and specific. The general capital consists of the general training of the worker, allowing him to work in different profiles in many enterprises, paid by himself. Specific capital is training that is directly related to the activities of a particular enterprise and is paid for by it.

When an employee is released, both parties bear the losses: the enterprise spent money on training in vain, and the employee will not be able to transfer the acquired knowledge to another organization. It is important for an employee to stay at the enterprise, because when changing jobs, he will have to master specific training from scratch. The enterprise, in turn, clings to the employee, because there is no such specific resource in the labor market. A striking example of specific human capital are workers in a knowledge-intensive industry, such as nuclear and aircraft manufacturing. Therefore, the closure of such an industry leads to the depreciation of specific human capital.

Human capital is also classified into forms:

• living capital contains knowledge, health, embodied in a person;
• non-living capital, which is created in cases of the embodiment of knowledge in physical and material forms;
• institutional capital is institutions that contribute to the effective use of all types of human capital.

Human capital, being part of total capital, represents the accumulated costs of general education, special training, health care, and the movement of labor.

There is a classification by types of expenses, investments in human capital. I.V. Ilyinsky identifies a classification by type of expenditure and investment in human capital, divided into the following components: education capital, health capital and culture capital. Health capital is an investment in a person, carried out with the aim of forming, maintaining, improving and strengthening his health and performance. It is the basis for human capital in general. Educational capital consists of the cost of a person's education, starting with general secondary education and continuing with work-based learning. Cultural capital refers to the costs of constantly raising the cultural level of a person.

There are two types of capital according to the form of consumption:

• consumer - created by the flow of services consumed directly (creative and educational activities);
• productive, consumption that contributes to social utility (the creation of means of production, technologies, productive services and products).

It should also be borne in mind that in the theory of human capital the concept of "capital" is interpreted differently than in the methodology of K. Marx, who wrote that "capital is not a thing, but a certain, social production relation belonging to a certain historical formation of society, which represented in a thing and gives this thing a specific social character. In Marxist theory, this concept is considered on the basis of social class positions, as a relationship of ownership and control over the means of production. In classical English political economy, the concept of capital combined two aspects: firstly, control over the factors of production and, secondly, the right to receive future income. Neoclassical theory associates the concept of capital with the ability to generate income.

The relationship between human capital and capital can be traced through the concepts of labor force and variable capital, which is directed by the entrepreneur to acquire labor force. The labor force is that part of human capital that an individual is willing to sell to an entrepreneur in order to receive from the latter a means of subsistence for himself and his family in the form of wages. K. Marx believed that "becoming a commodity, labor power, like any other commodity, has two properties: value and use value." The first is interesting for the worker, because this is the price of labor power, which is equal to the value of his wages. The second is of interest to the employer, since it is with the help of the productive consumption of labor that the added value is created, which is appropriated by the entrepreneur.
Proponents of the theory of human capital on the example of education justify the growing cost of capital: if an increase in the educational level of an employee entails additional earnings that exceed the cost of training, then the cost of education is characterized as an investment in human capital. Critics of the theory of human capital believe that there is no self-growing value, that is, capital. This is justified by the fact that a necessary condition for increasing the cost of qualification is the work of the employee himself, it does not grow by itself.

At present, the role of science and education is growing, the importance of intellectual activity in all spheres of production is increasing. Intellectual labor, which is the activity of people in the production, assimilation and practical application of knowledge, has gained a dominant position. This process manifests itself in two ways: the role of such branches of the social sphere as education and science is growing; the importance of intellectual activity within other branches of the national economy is growing. These trends contribute to the formation and improvement of the educational, professional, scientific, spiritual potential of society and are the most important factors in socio-economic progress. At the beginning of the 20th century, according to A. Marshall, the number of manual workers was five times higher than the number of those employed in intellectual labor. Now in developed countries, more than 60% of the economically active population is engaged in mental work, and in the USA - 75%.
Very convincing factual data on cardinal shifts in the proportions of capital investments that have occurred over the past centuries are cited in V. Shchetinin's article "Human capital and the ambiguity of its interpretation." If in the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the total mass of capital, the share of human capital did not exceed 10%, then by 1913 it had risen to almost 33%. But even these proportions changed dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. and especially in the last two decades in connection with the information revolution. In Western countries, the share of accumulated investments in human capital in the total fund of their capitalized development expenditures rose, according to minimal estimates, to 56-57% in 1973 and 67-69% (in the USA to 74-76%) in 1997-1998 gg. (Table 1).

Table 1 - Change in the structure of total capital in Western countries.

The undoubted merit of human capital theorists is the recognition of the primary role of man in social production. This is due to the strengthening of the role of education, which is becoming the main resource and source for the formation of a highly developed workforce. It should be noted that domestic enterprises currently have at their disposal a fairly high potential of human capital. In 2002, 25.5% of all workers in Ukraine graduated from universities of I-II levels of accreditation, another 22.6% graduated from universities of III-IV levels of accreditation, in industry the proportion of such workers was 25 and 15.1%, respectively.
The theory of human capital can be applied as an analytical tool in identifying the economic efficiency of education. Proponents of this theory have clearly defined its individual economic effect for the individual. The main result of the economic return of education is an increase in the income of an employee due to an increase in his educational and professional level. Human capital theorists are based on the fact that differences in earnings reflect differences in labor productivity. Educational income is calculated as the difference in lifetime earnings of those who have unequal education. In addition to direct expenses, education expenses also include lost income. This is the potential earnings that a person could receive if he worked, and did not study.

The theory of human capital has gained significant public distribution and recognition in world scientific thought. Scientific research is constantly carried out and many scientific publications are published on these issues. Unfortunately, today the issues related to the study of the problems of formation, preservation and improvement of the efficiency of the use of the human capital of Ukraine are among the most unexplored in the general structure of economic science.

There is now a need for a comprehensive lifelong learning strategy consisting of early childhood education, primary education, an improved school-to-work transition system with stronger links between education and the labor market, and effective learning systems, which provide the opportunity to stay in the field of education throughout life. However, in order for this to become feasible, continuous investment in human capital is needed, both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise and the state.

The division of investment in human capital at the individual level, at the level of the enterprise and the state is also advisable due to the fact that the degree of underinvestment at these levels is different. By nature, a person is, on the one hand, a physical being, and on the other hand, a social being. Because of this, he acts as a carrier of both certain natural individual abilities and talents that he possesses from birth and that nature has endowed him with, and the accumulated knowledge, skills, skills acquired in the process of social life and due to the costs of certain physical, material and financial resources.

The natural abilities of a person and acquired social qualities are similar in their economic role to natural resources and physical capital. This is manifested in the fact that in its original state, a person, like natural resources, does not bring any economic effect. But after the implementation of certain expenses and preparation, an individual human capital and a set of individual competencies are formed, which can subsequently potentially generate income, like physical capital.
Individual human capital will generate income only if a person has the opportunity to engage himself in social production by organizing his own activities or selling his labor force to an entrepreneur. This justifies the expediency of using individual human capital. For the transformation of individual human capital into production, it is necessary to determine the conditions that would ensure the realization of human potential in the results of its activities.
Getting an education and starting a job is the initial stage in the formation of individual human capital. The next stage is longer. It is based on the acquisition of professional qualifications and life experience. Human capital is intangible durable goods that are accumulated and realized as a result of the production activities of people over time. The most important feature of capital is that it is itself a product of production. Human capital as a product of production is the knowledge, skills and abilities accumulated in the process of training and work. Human capital, like any other, can accumulate. The accumulation of human capital begins with preschool education and continues throughout social activity.

The main tool for the formation of human capital, both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise and the state, is investing in a person. Investments in human capital are all types of investments in a person that can be valued in monetary or other form and are expedient, that is, they contribute to the growth of labor productivity and income at all three levels. Current expenditures are carried out with the expectation that they will be repeatedly compensated by higher income levels in the future.

Of all the types of investment in human capital, the most important are investments in health care and education, as well as in continuing vocational training. Health care spending, which includes health care, lifestyle improvements, and others, creates conditions for improving the quality and efficiency of human capital use. A feature of such investments is that they contribute to a better perception of knowledge, skills and abilities and, accordingly, contribute to an increase in human productivity. General and vocational education, in turn, improves the quality and level of human knowledge, and, consequently, improves the quality of human capital in general.

In comparison with investments in other forms of capital, investments in human capital are the most beneficial from the point of view of both an individual and society as a whole, since they bring a fairly significant in volume, long-term and integral economic and social effect.

Investment is an important prerequisite for the formation of human capital, but is not yet development. The development of human capital occurs both in the process of initial investment and subsequent investment, which occurs in the process of human practical activity. That is, the development of human capital is the process of creating a person's productive abilities with the help of investments in specific processes of his activity.

It should be especially noted that personal motivation is a very important and necessary condition for the process of circulation of human capital (Fig. 2) to be complete. Thanks to this process, a qualitative renewal of human capital occurs through the emergence of new market needs for the production of goods that are constantly growing and require new competencies, and in which the increase in the level of knowledge and practical skills of people is accompanied by the development of opportunities for their practical implementation. Due to this, individual incomes increase, and the national income of the country grows.

Effective career management requires the availability of the necessary information about what happens to employees at different stages of their career. For this, special studies can be carried out at the enterprise, the results of which are drawn up in the form of a career chart, which makes it possible to track the work biography of the employee.

Each stage of an employee's career is connected not only with the level of the position, but also with a certain stage in life. Scientists distinguish such stages of a working career: previous, formation, promotion, preservation, completion and retirement.

The previous stage (up to 25 years) is associated with obtaining a secondary or higher education, a profession. During this period, a person can change several activities in search of the most suitable one that would satisfy all his needs. If such activity is defined, the process of self-affirmation of the employee as a person begins.

Formation (25-30 years) is the period of mastering the acquired profession, acquiring experience and skills. At this stage, qualifications are formed, the need for independence arises, a family is created that stimulates the employee to increase income.

Promotion stage (30-45 years). During this period, there is a process of growth, promotion, the process of self-expression begins, the need for self-affirmation, the achievement of a higher status and level of remuneration grows.

The preservation stage (45-60 years) is characterized by the actions of consolidating the achieved results, the highest level of improvement of qualifications, knowledge, skills, experience, mastery comes, the beginning of respect, the need for self-expression grows. A person reaches the heights of independence and self-affirmation.

The final stage (60-65 years) is the search for a replacement, the transfer of knowledge and skills to young people, and preparation for retirement. Self-expression stabilizes, respect grows, interest in other sources of income increases.

Retirement stage (after 65 years) - retirement, preparation and conduct of a new type of activity, self-expression in a new field of activity, stabilization of respect, health care, pension amount.

Let us analyze the stages of the labor career of an employee of our enterprise, Table. 2.

Table 2 - Career of the head of the financial and economic department of our enterprise

A career chart is a career management tool that is a graphical description of what should happen or happens to people at different stages of a career.

On the basis of the work book of an employee of our enterprise, it has been established that his labor career is a model of a "springboard" within a certain enterprise. Figure 3 allows us to conclude that the main reason for demotion at certain stages of labor activity is the transition to other enterprises.

The period of a working career is the first before the start of studies at the institute and the employment of low-paid professions is due to the young age of the worker, industrial adaptation, secondary education and insufficient knowledge and skills in work. Work in such positions as a miner's apprentice, a drifter of the 5th category is due to training at the Donetsk Polytechnic Institute and the internship for workers. The position of acting head of the economic analysis department, which the employee has held since the age of 23, characterizes the beginning of self-assertion and the process of completing production adaptation. Since the employee holds the position of head of the financial and economic department at the age of 38, it can be judged that this is not yet the highest possible level of his professional development. Until the age of 45, he has the opportunity to grow up to the position of director through the ranks.

As shown in fig. 4, the employee whose career we are analyzing, before taking the position of the head of the financial and economic department of our enterprise, changed several positions and enterprises. Ukrainian scientists offer an indicator to reflect the promotions received by an employee within a particular enterprise. In view of the fact that the number of promotions in itself does not indicate anything, it is worth correlating it with the time during which a person works. We get the following expression for this indicator:

where Р is an indicator of the rate of increases that the employee received;
m - the number of promotions that the employee received at the enterprise;
t is the time during which the employee is engaged in labor activity at this enterprise, years.

Consequently, the employee whose career is being analyzed has changed eleven enterprises during his career. At some, he did not receive a single increase, therefore, the indicator for other enterprises should be calculated using the above formula (Table 3).

Table 3 - Calculation of the rate of promotions that the employee received

Thus, the calculations show that the most effective career in terms of the speed of advancement of this employee is observed at the Donetsk branch of the INKO Joint-Stock Bank, where the calculated increase rate is the highest in comparison with others and is equal to 1.28. However, the figure shows that from the point of view of the achieved social status of the director for economics and marketing, and, consequently, the level of wages, a labor career at the enterprise Association "Ukrogneupor" is more effective. Therefore, when calculating the effectiveness of a career, it is necessary to take into account various factors, such as the level of wages, the social status of the employee, the employee's own life value orientations, and his worldview. This is due to the fact that the employee compares his career not only with career advancement, but also with life goals for the future.

Vocational training of employees is a multifunctional process that affects all components of an enterprise's activities. Directly on the scale, course and results of training depend on:

• current and future results of the enterprise;
• current and future costs associated with the activities of the enterprise;
• the level of risk of incompetent actions of personnel during the work of the enterprise.

The result of the activity of the vocational training system is not unambiguous, therefore, it is necessary to assess the economic efficiency of vocational training of employees. Possible goals for calculating the economic efficiency of the vocational training process are:

• determination of the optimal amount of training costs as part of the total production costs;
• making decisions regarding the forms and methods of teaching;
• comparison of different options for technologies and instrumental base of training;
• comparison of the economic efficiency of training with the economic efficiency of other possible investments of the enterprise's funds, which provide a commensurate increase in the efficiency of the main production.

The economic efficiency of any vocational training activities can be determined by the ratio between indicators that describe the result of the enterprise's activities after the start of the activities, and indicators that characterize the full costs associated with the activities of the enterprise for the same period.

Cost indicators in assessing economic efficiency in practice are selected so that they can be summed up, that is, reduced to one point in time and adjusted for the share of the analyzed activity in the total costs. In this case, the indicator of the economic efficiency of the measure is the difference between the value of its contribution to the increase in the result of the enterprise's activity and the value of expenses. The economic efficiency of vocational training is determined by the ratio between the total costs of organizing and conducting the educational process and the financial results of training, expressed by an increase in the results of the enterprise, an increase in its potential, a decrease in the costs of ensuring the functioning of the enterprise, and a decrease in the level of risk of its functioning.

The relationship between the learning process and the change in the performance of the enterprise is expressed by a number of factors that reflect the change in motivation, functional behavior and social relationships of employees who have been trained. The results of the implementation of the personnel training system can include:

• increase in the volume of services provided as a result of meeting the additional need for workers in professional and qualification sections;
• reduction in the cost of work performed;
• improving the quality of services provided;
• reduction in the level of staff turnover as a result of professional training of personnel;
• the effect of the introduction of inventions and rationalization proposals of employees who have been trained according to the curriculum;
• increasing the speed of work of trained workers;
• reducing the duration of the analysis and assessment of the situation;
• expanding horizons, increasing the number of options considered when making decisions by managers and specialists, which affects the optimality of decisions made;
• reduction of losses from inaccurate assessment of the situation and incorrect actions of employees, which is associated with the consolidation of skills in more competent management of technical systems in the learning process;
• prevention of loss from the unforeseen occurrence of undesirable events and situations, limiting the spread of so-called "chains of undesirable developments";
• reducing the likelihood of accidents and breakdowns of equipment, threats to life and health of people;
• strengthening the corporate consciousness of employees, convergence of personal interests of employees with the interests of the enterprise;
• exchange of information between employees of different enterprises who are trained together, dissemination of best practices and other innovations;
• increasing the likelihood of coordinated conscious joint activity and decision making.

Improvement in the quality of work can be assessed:

• reduction in the number of erroneous actions of one employee during the year, associated with learning outcomes;
• the costs of eliminating the consequences of the employee's erroneous actions.

The increase in the number of action options is estimated by the change in the number of action options for one employee, which is associated with the passage of training and the average contribution from the implementation of each option to the result (income) of the training system.

The overall effect of all groups of factors is measured by the increase in the result of the enterprise's activity (income).

Thus, the evaluation of the economic efficiency of professional training of the personnel of our enterprise was carried out using the net present value method.
The discounting method is used to bring income and expenses to one moment of labor. The calculation of income from investments in human capital provides for their progressive discounting, comparing them with current expenses. Because the incomes that will be obtained in the future are always of less value to people compared to those that are obtained today.

Net present value is considered a criterion for the feasibility of an investment project in human capital and is calculated by the formula:

where NPV is the net present value of human capital, UAH;
Bt – income from investments in human capital in period t, thousand UAH;
Сt - the amount of expenses in the period t, thousand hryvnias;
n is the number of periods;
і - interest rate index, or discount rate.

An investment in human capital is profitable if the net present value of capital is greater than or equal to zero. If NPV=0, the investor only recovers his expenses. The higher the net present value of human capital relative to zero, the more efficient the investment is.

Let's consider investments in human capital, which were invested by our company in 2007 and 2008 and planned for 2009 (Table 4).

Table 4 - Indicators of economic efficiency of professional training of the personnel of our enterprise for 2007-2009.

The difficulty of applying this method in practice is the choice of the percentage level - the discount factor. In a market economy, this value is determined based on the deposit interest on deposits. In practice, it is taken higher than this value due to inflation and the risk associated with investments.

In our case, the discount rate was 10%, which is considered fair for equity. Therefore, we trace the dependence of the net present value on the size of the established interest rate. To do this, we perform the calculation of the net present value at different values ​​of the discount rate, Table. 5 .

Table 5 - The cost of human capital and the interest rate of our enterprise in 2007 and 2008

Based on the calculations given in Table 5, a graph of the dependence of the net present value on the discount rate was constructed, fig. 5.

Therefore, as the graph shows, investment projects in the human capital of our company, which were implemented in 2007 and 2008 and planned for 2009, are minimally profitable at a discount rate of 90%, that is, at such a rate percent, the efficiency of projects reaches its limit, and the company only reimburses its costs from staff training. Under the conditions, if the discount rate exceeds 90%, it would be advisable to refuse investment projects in vocational training.

Summarizing the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Human capital is a combination of natural abilities, acquired knowledge, skills in the process of production activities, as well as mobility, motivation and physical condition of a person. In other words, human capital is such a set of competencies that is expediently used by a person in one or another area of ​​social reproduction and contributes to the growth of labor productivity and production efficiency.
2. The development of human capital occurs throughout the entire social activity of a person through constant investment both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise and the state.
3. Investments in human capital are the most profitable, in comparison with other forms of capital, since they bring a fairly significant in volume and long-term economic and social effect.

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• HR policy, Corporate culture

10.1 The emergence and development of the theory of human capital

10.2 The concept of human capital

10.3 Human capital assessment

10.4 Motivation and its impact on the formation of human capital

10.1 The emergence and development of the theory of human capital

Elements of the theory of human capital have existed since ancient times, when the first knowledge and the education system were formed. The first attempt to assess human capital was made by one of the founders of Western political economy W. Petit in his work "Political Arithmetic" (1690). He noted that the wealth of society depends on the nature of people's occupations, distinguishing between useless occupations and occupations that improve the skills of people and dispose them to one or another type of activity, which in itself is of great importance. V. Petty also saw great benefit in public education. His point of view was that “schools and universities should be so organized as to prevent the ambitions of privileged parents from flooding these institutions with dullards, and so that the truly ablest may be chosen as pupils.

A. Smith, in his "Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776), considered the productive qualities of a worker as the main engine of economic progress before. A. Smith wrote that an increase in the productivity of useful labor depends only on increasing the dexterity and skill of the worker, and then on improving the machines and tools with which he worked. A. Smith believed that fixed capital consists of machines and other tools of labor, buildings, land, and the acquired and useful abilities of all residents and members of society. He drew attention to the fact that the acquisition of such abilities, including the maintenance of their owner during his upbringing, training or apprenticeship, always requires real costs, which are fixed capital, as if realized in his personality. The main idea of ​​his research, which is one of the key ones in the theory of human capital, is that the costs associated with productive investment in people contribute to productivity growth and are recovered along with profits.

At the end of the XIX - XX centuries. such economists as J.McCulloch, J.B.Say, J.Mill, N.Senior, believed that the ability to work acquired by a person should be considered as capital in its “human” form. So, back in 1870, J. R. McCulloch clearly defined a person as capital. In his opinion, instead of understanding capital as a part of the production of industry, alien to man, which could be made applicable to support him and contribute to production, there does not seem to be any reasonable reason why man himself could not be considered as such, and there are so many reasons why it can be considered as a formable part of the national wealth.

An important contribution to understanding this problem was made by Zh.B. Say. He argued that professional skills and abilities acquired through costs lead to an increase in labor productivity and, in this regard, can be considered as capital. Assuming that human abilities can accumulate, J.B. Say called them capital.

John Stuart Mill wrote: “The man himself ... I do not consider as wealth. But his acquired faculties, which exist only as a means and begotten by labor, I believe with good reason, fall into this category. And further: "The skill, energy and perseverance of the workers of the country are considered to be its wealth to the same extent as their tools and machines."

The founder of the neoclassical trend in economic theory, A. Marshall (1842-1924), in his scientific work “Principles of Economic Science” (1890), drew attention to the fact that “the motives that encourage a person to accumulate personal capital in the form of investments in education are similar to those that encourage the accumulation of material capital.

At the end of the 30s. 20th century Nassau Senior suggested that man could be successfully treated as capital. In most of his discussions on this topic, he took in this capacity the skill and acquired abilities, but not the person himself. Nevertheless, he interpreted the person himself as capital with maintenance costs invested in a person with the expectation of receiving benefits in the future. Except for the terminology used by the author, his reasoning is very closely related to the theory of reproduction of the labor force of K. Marx. The key component of the definition of the concept of "labor force" by Marx and the theorists of human capital is the same component - human abilities. K. Marx repeatedly spoke about their development and cumulative effectiveness, emphasizing the need for the development of the “individual”.

Scientific studies of the classics of world economic thought, the development of the practice of market economy made it possible at the turn of the 50-60s of the XX century to form the theory of human capital into an independent section of economic analysis.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of human capital (Human Capital)

The growing importance of the human factor in production, the current conditions of the globalization of the world economy, the informatization of production processes in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution contributed to the emergence and expansion at the turn of the 60s of the twentieth century. theory of human capital. The theory of human capital is a theory that combines different views, ideas, provisions on the process of formation, use of knowledge, skills, abilities of a person as a source of future income and appropriation of economic benefits. The theory of human capital is based on the achievements of institutional theory, neoclassical theory, neo-Keynesianism and other particular economic theories.

The emergence of this theory in the late 1950s - early 1960s. was due to the need to provide an adequate understanding of the nature of the unusually high growth of the economies of the developed countries of the world, not explained by the quantitative increase in the factors of production used - labor and capital, as well as the inability to offer a universal interpretation of the phenomenon of income inequality, based on the use of the existing conceptual apparatus. An analysis of the real processes of development and growth in modern conditions has led to the establishment of human capital as the main productive and social factor in the development of the modern economy and society.

The very birth of the theory took place in October 1962, when the Journal of Political Economy published a supplementary issue called Investing in People.

The founders of the theory of human capital

The theory of human capital was developed by supporters of free competition and pricing in Western political economy by American economists Theodor Schultz and Gary Becker. For creating the foundations of the theory of human capital, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics - Theodor Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Among the researchers who made the greatest contribution to the development of the theory of human capital are also M. Blaug, M. Grossman, J. Mintzer, M. Pearlman, L. Thurow, F. Welch, B. Chiswick, J. Kendrick, R. Solow, R. Lucas, Z. Griliches, S. Fabrikant, I. Fisher, E. Denison and others. economists, sociologists and historians. A native of Russia, Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971, made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory. Kritsky, S.A. Kurgansky and others.

The concept of "human capital" is based on two independent theories:

1) The theory of "investment in people" was the first of the ideas of Western economists about the reproduction of human productive abilities. Its authors are F. Machlup (Princeton University), B. Weisbrod (University of Wisconsin), R. Wikstra (University of Colorado), S. Bowles (Harvard University), M. Blaug (University of London), B. Fleischer (Ohio State University ), R. Campbell and B. Siegel (University of Oregon) and others. Economists of this movement proceed from the Keynesian postulate of the omnipotence of investments. The subject of the study of the concept under consideration is both the internal structure of the “human capital” itself and the specific processes of its formation and development.

M. Blaug believed that human capital is the present value of past investments in people's skills, and not the value of people in themselves. From the point of view of W. Bowen, human capital consists of the acquired knowledge, skills, motivations and energy that human beings are endowed with and which can be used over a certain period of time in order to produce goods and services. F. Machlup wrote that unimproved labor may differ from improved, which has become more productive, thanks to investments that increase the physical and mental abilities of a person. Such improvements constitute human capital.

2)Authorstheories of "production of human capital" are Theodor Schultz and Jorem Ben-Poret (University of Chicago), Gary Becker and Jacob Mintzer (Columbia University), L. Thurow (MIT), Richard Pelman (University of Wisconsin), Zvi Griliches (Harvard University) and others. This theory considered fundamental to Western economic thought.

Schultz (Schultz) Theodore-William (1902-1998) - American economist, Nobel Prize winner (1979). Born near Arlington (South Dakota, USA). He studied at the college, graduate school of the University of Wisconsin, where in 1930. received a doctorate in agricultural economics. He began teaching at Iowa State College. Four years later he headed the Department of Economic Sociology. Since 1943 and for nearly forty years he has been a professor of economics at the University of Chicago. He connected the activities of the teacher with active research work. In 1945, he prepared a collection of materials from the conference "Food for the World", which paid special attention to the factors of food supply, the structure and migration of the agricultural labor force, the professional qualifications of farmers, agricultural production technology and the direction of investment in farming. In his work "Agriculture in an Unstable Economy" (1945), he spoke out against the illiterate use of land, as it leads to soil erosion and other negative consequences for the agricultural economy.

In 1949-1967. T.-V. Schultz is a member of the board of directors of the US National Bureau of Economic Research, then - an economic consultant for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), several government departments and organizations.

Among his best known works are "Agricultural Production and Welfare, Transforming Traditional Agriculture (1964), Investing in People: The Economics of Population Quality (1981) and etc.

The American Economic Association awarded T.-V. Schultz medal named after F. Volker. He is an honorary professor at the University of Chicago; he has received honorary degrees from the Universities of Illinois, Wisconsin, Dijon, Michigan, North Carolina and the Catholic University of Chile.

According to the theory of human capital, two factors interact in production - physical capital (means of production) and human capital (acquired knowledge, skills, energy that can be used in the production of goods and services). People spend money not only on fleeting pleasures, but also on monetary and non-monetary income in the future. Investments are made in human capital. These are the costs of maintaining health, getting an education, the costs associated with finding a job, obtaining the necessary information, migration, and vocational training at work. The value of human capital is estimated by the potential income that it is able to provide.

T.-V. Schulz claimed thathuman capital It is a form of capital because it is a source of future earnings or future satisfactions, or both. And he becomes human because he is an integral part of man.

According to the scientist, human resources are similar, on the one hand, to natural resources, and on the other hand, to material capital. Immediately after birth, a person, like natural resources, does not bring any effect. Only after appropriate "processing" does a person acquire the qualities of capital. That is, with the growth of costs for improving the quality of the labor force, labor as a primary factor is gradually transformed into human capital. T.-V. Schultz is convinced that, given the contribution of labor to output, human productive capacity is superior to all other forms of wealth combined. The peculiarity of this capital, according to the scientist, is that, regardless of the sources of formation (own, public or private), its use is controlled by the owners themselves.

The microeconomic foundation of the theory of human capital was laid by G.-S. Becker.

Becker (Becker) Harry-Stanley (born 1930) - American economist, Nobel Prize winner (1992). Born in Potsville (Pennsylvania, USA). In 1948 he studied at the J. Madison High School in New York. In 1951 he graduated from Princeton University. His scientific career is associated with Columbia (1957-1969) and Chicago Universities. In 1957 he defended his doctoral dissertation and became a professor.

Since 1970 G.-S. Becker served as chair of the social sciences and sociology department at the University of Chicago. He taught at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. Collaborated with the weekly "Business Week".

He is an active supporter of the market economy. His legacy includes many works: "The Economic Theory of Discrimination" (1957), "Treatise on the Family" (1985), "The Theory of Rational Expectations" (1988), "Human Capital" (1990), "Rational Expectations and the Effect of the Price of Consumption" ( 1991), Fertility and Economics (1992), Training, Labor, Labor Quality and Economics (1992), etc.

The cross-cutting idea of ​​the scientist's works is that, when making decisions in his daily life, a person is guided by economic reasoning, although he is not always aware of this. He argues that the market of ideas and motives operates according to the same patterns as the market for goods: supply and demand, competition. This also applies to issues such as marriage, family, education, choice of profession. In his opinion, many psychological phenomena are also amenable to economic evaluation and measurement, such as, for example, satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the financial situation, the manifestation of envy, altruism, egoism, etc.

Opponents G.-S. Becker argue that by focusing on economic calculations, he downplays the importance of moral factors. However, the scientist has an answer to this: moral values ​​are different for different people, and it will take a long time until they become the same, if this is ever possible. A person with any morality and intellectual level seeks to receive personal economic benefits.

In 1987 G.-S. Becker was elected president of the American Economic Association. He is a member of the American Academy of Sciences and Arts, the US National Academy of Sciences, the US National Academy of Education, national and international societies, editor of economic journals, and honorary doctorates from Stanford, Chicago, Illinois, Hebrew Universities.

The starting point for G.-S. Becker had the idea that when investing in training and education, students and their parents act rationally, taking into account all the benefits and costs. Like "ordinary" entrepreneurs, they compare the expected marginal rate of return on such investments with the return on alternative investments (interest on bank deposits, dividends from securities). Depending on what is more economically feasible, they decide whether to continue education or stop it. Rates of return regulate the distribution of investment between different types and levels of education, as well as between the education system and the rest of the economy. High rates of return indicate underinvestment, low rates indicate overinvestment.

G.-S. Becker carried out a practical calculation of the economic efficiency of education. For example, income from higher education is defined as the difference in lifetime earnings between those who graduated from college and those who did not go beyond high school. Among the costs of education, the main element was recognized as "lost earnings", that is, earnings that students did not receive during the years of study. (Essentially, lost earnings measure the value of students' time spent building their human capital.) Comparing the benefits and costs of education made it possible to determine the return on investment in a person.

G.-S. Becker believed that a low-skilled worker does not become a capitalist due to the diffusion (dispersal) of ownership of corporate shares (although this point of view is popular). This happens through the acquisition of knowledge and skills that have economic value. The scientist was convinced thatlack of education is the most serious factor holding back economic growth.

The scientist insists on the difference between special and general investments in a person (and, more broadly, between general and specific resources in general). Special training gives the employee knowledge and skills that increase the future productivity of its recipient only in the firm that trains him (various forms of rotation programs, familiarizing newcomers with the structure and internal routine of the enterprise). In the process of general training, the employee acquires knowledge and skills that increase the productivity of its recipient, regardless of the company in which he works (learning to work on a personal computer).

According to G.-S. Becker, investments in the education of citizens, in medical care, in particular in children's, in social programs aimed at maintaining, supporting, replenishing personnel, are tantamount to investing in the creation or acquisition of new equipment or technologies, which in the future returns with the same profits. So, according to his theory, the support of schools and universities by entrepreneurs is not charity, but concern for the future of the state.

According to G.-S. Becker, general training is paid in a certain way by the workers themselves. In an effort to improve their qualifications, they accept lower wages during the training period, and later have income from general training. After all, if firms financed training, then every time such workers were fired, they would get rid of their investments in them. Conversely, special training is paid for by firms, and they also receive income from it. In case of dismissal at the initiative of the company, the costs would be borne by employees. As a result, the general human capital, as a rule, is developed by special “firms” (schools, colleges), and the special one is formed directly at the workplace.

The term “special human capital” has helped explain why long-serving workers change jobs less often, and why firms tend to fill vacancies through internal job travel rather than through external recruitment.

Having studied the problems of human capital, G.-S. Becker became one of the founders of new sections of economic theory - the economics of discrimination, the economics of foreign economics, the economics of crime, etc. He threw a "bridge" from economics to sociology, demography, criminalistics; he was the first to introduce the principle of rational and optimal behavior in those industries where, as researchers previously believed, habits and irrationality dominated.

Criticism of human capital theory

The Ukrainian scientist S. Mocherny considers the main shortcomings of the theory of human capital to be an amorphous interpretation of the essence of capital, which includes not only everything that surrounds a person, but also individual features of the person himself; ignoring the fact that the costs of developing education, acquiring qualifications form only the ability to work, a labor force of appropriate quality, and not capital itself; the fallacy of the opinion that such capital is inseparable from man himself; a number of provisions of the theory on the structure of human capital are not weighed, in particular, the assignment to the elements of this category of the search for the necessary information on the value of prices and incomes is not correct, since such a search is not always successful, as evidenced by significant unemployment in most countries; the position that in order to transform the acquired knowledge, experience, creative abilities and other elements of a human worker into future income and the appropriation of economic benefits, an employee must constantly work, which means that the source of such income is not the level of education, qualifications in itself, but human labor. The biggest shortcoming of the theory of human capital, according to opponents, is its ideological orientation.

Although the theory is better suited to analyze some aspects of the labor market than neoclassical economics, both are initially based on the assumption that there is “ideal” information about investment opportunities in human capital both at a given moment and in the future. The theory assumes that the individual correctly estimates the investment costs and the expected return in the form of future earnings. This assumption does not take into account the many economic and even political factors that can affect the possibility of earning money with certain skills and professions.

Another question is related to the empirical significance of the theory of human capital. Some studies have shown that investments in human capital, such as education, account for only a small part of the fluctuations in people's earnings. If factors such as background and motivation are not taken into account, this can lead to an overestimation of future self-sufficiency when investing in human capital.

A relevant question is whether such forms of investment, such as education and training in particular, can really increase productivity. In this regard, Michael Spence's remark that training does not increase a person's productivity is of interest, it only reveals his innate abilities and indicates his potential performance to a potential employer.

Significance of Human Capital Theory

Despite the fact that for a long time many scientists and even supporters of the theory of human capital considered it unsuitable for practical use, in recent years scientists and managers in many countries have made attempts to implement its provisions. Several aspects contribute to this:

1.G.-S. Becker obtained quantitative estimates of the return on investment in people and compared them with the actual profitability of most US firms, which helped to concretize and expand the understanding of the economic efficiency of investment in human capital. The emergence of a large number of private educational institutions, the revitalization of consulting firms conducting short-term seminars and specialized courses, indicate that profitability in the private sector of educational activities is not at all lower than in other areas of entrepreneurship. For example, in the USA in the 60s of the XX century. the profitability of educational activities was 10-15% higher than the profitability of other types of commercial activities.

2. The theory of human capital explained the structure of the distribution of personal income, the age-old dynamics of earnings, and the inequality in pay for male and female labor. Thanks to her, the attitude of politicians to the costs of education has also changed. Educational investment has come to be seen as a source of economic growth, as important as "ordinary" capital investment.

The concept of national wealth acquires a broader interpretation. Today, it embraces, together with the material elements of capital (valuation of land, buildings, structures, equipment, inventory items), financial assets and materialized knowledge and people's ability to work productively. The accumulated scientific knowledge, in particular, materialized in new technologies, investments in human health began to be taken into account in macroeconomic statistics as elements of national wealth that have an intangible form.

A new interpretation of "human" investment in ensuring socio-economic development and social progress has been recognized by international organizations. The situation in the spheres of education, healthcare and other factors characterizing the level of development of human resources and the quality of life of the population have become the main objects of attention of international statistics. As integral indicators of the social development of society and the state of human resources, in particular, the human development index (social development index) is used; index of intellectual potential of the society; an indicator of the value of human capital per capita; coefficient of vitality of the population, etc.

Since 1995, human development reports have been prepared in Ukraine. Thus, the reports for 1995-1999 published by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) became the basis for substantiating human development as a means and goal of national development. Based on these reports, the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine reviewed and adopted the Human Development Index developed by UNDP. Today, this index has become an important indicator of human development, which is monitored by the State Statistics Committee on a regular basis.

3.Theory G.-S. Becker substantiated the economic need for large investments (public and private) in the "human factor". This approach is implemented in practice. In particular, the per capita human capital index (expresses the level of per capita spending by the state, firms and citizens on education, health care and other sectors of the social sphere), used by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, increased in the postwar years by 0.25% in year. In the 60s, growth stopped, which was primarily due to the demographic characteristics of the period, and in the 80s it accelerated - by almost 0.5% annually.

4. The theory of human capital has offered a single analytical framework to explain such seemingly diverse phenomena as the contribution of education to economic growth, the demand for educational and medical services, the age dynamics of earnings, differences in pay for male and female labor, the transmission of economic inequality from generation to generation and more.

5. The ideas embodied in the theory of human capital have had a serious impact on the economic policy of the state. Thanks to it, the attitude of society towards investments in a person has changed. They learned to see investments that provide a production, and long-term in nature, effect. This provided a theoretical basis for the accelerated development of the education and training system in many countries of the world.

6. Under the influence of the theory of human capital, in which education is assigned the role of the “great equalizer”, there has been a certain reorientation of social policy. In particular, training programs have come to be seen as an effective anti-poverty tool, perhaps preferable to direct income redistribution.

7. The theory of human capital has created a unified analytical framework for studying the funds invested in education and training, and also explained the differences between countries in the structure of those employed in the economy. After all, the differences in the supply of human capital in different countries are more significant than the differences in the supply of real capital. Among the problems in the solution of which the theory of human capital by T.-V. Schultz called the phenomenon when countries rich in capital, in particular created material funds, export mainly labor-intensive, rather than capital-intensive products.

The main social conclusion of the theory of human capital is that in modern conditions, improving the quality of the labor force is more important than the growth of the capital provision of labor. Control over production passes from the hands of the owners of monopolies on material capital to those who own knowledge. This theory opens up the possibility of assessing the contribution to the economic growth of the educational fund (by analogy with the assessment of the contribution of fixed property funds), as well as the possibility of managing investment processes based on a comparison of the return on investment in property funds and the educational fund.

Figure - the impact of human capital on economic development