The need to improve the living organisms on which we feed has always been present, but only with the accumulation of theoretical knowledge and laboratory techniques did a real flurry of discoveries begin. Deciding who exactly was the author of the very first consciously designed genetically modified organism is difficult, if only because we are faced with the issue of defining what is “consciously” and what is “genetically modified” - should we not, generally speaking, start counting from domestication of the first plants and animals around 10 thousand years BC?
Or from the formalization of the principles of artificial selection in the 19th century? Or at least since radiation mutagenesis, already direct intervention in the genome, at the beginning of the 20th century? What about Frederick Griffith, who back in 1928 mixed a harmless but living strain of pneumococcus with a dangerous but killed one and discovered that bacteria are able to capture hereditary information from the environment and use it, turning into pathogens?
If we focus on experiments that better fit the current understanding of what genetic modification is, then the countdown is arbitrary! – dates back to 1970, when Morton Mandel and Akiko Higa figured out how to force bacteria to take up any DNA from the external environment, even if they don’t want to do it, through chemical stimulation, for example, using ordinary calcium chloride. This technique greatly simplified experiments, and in 1972, the first bacteria with the desired properties were obtained in the laboratory of Stanley Norman Cohen. E. Coli was deliberately given antibiotic resistance genes, and most of the tested colonies actually acquired the ability to live and reproduce on a nutrient medium to which these antibiotics were added.
In the same year, future Nobel laureate Paul Berg and his colleagues create the first recombinant DNA, that is, molecules that combine genetic information from different types– for example, the genes of the simian virus SV40, bacteriophage λ and the bacterium E. coli. But the year of birth of genetic engineering is still considered to be 1973, when recombinant circular DNA (plasmids) created in a test tube were introduced into E. coli cells and safely began to work there. From that moment on, it became clear in principle that it was possible to transfer any arbitrarily selected genes from one organism to another; the rest was a matter of technique. Over the next 10 years, the first genetically modified animals and plants were created in laboratories, and effective methods deciphering DNA and copying given sequences, mastering new techniques for introducing genes, the prospects that opened up were breathtaking.
However, people did not start using GMOs in medicine and agriculture right away (the first medicine was in 1982, and the first agricultural crop was in 1992). According to 2013 data, 174 million hectares are sown with genetically modified plants in the world (this is more than the area of Spain, France and Germany combined). At the same time, their diversity is small: the lion's share of plantings is made up of cotton, rapeseed, soybeans and corn, and in total only about 30 species of genetically modified plants are grown in the fields - I'm talking about species in the biological sense, for most of them there are several different ones modifications. The relatively slow pace of new crop emergence is due to the difficulties of developing and introducing them, which in turn are largely caused by public fear that GMOs contain genes.
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This was an excerpt from the book "Someone is Wrong on the Internet! Scientific Research on Controversial Issues," published in March. Another brilliant work by Asya Kazantseva for those who want to expand their horizons. A book that was included in the list of “most anticipated in 2016.”
Definition of GMO
Purposes of creating GMOs
Methods for creating GMOs
Application of GMOs
GMOs - arguments for and against
Laboratory research of GMOs
Consequences of consuming GM foods for human health
GMO safety studies
How is the production and sale of GMOs regulated in the world?
Conclusion
List of used literature
Definition of GMO
Genetically modified organisms- these are organisms in which the genetic material (DNA) has been changed in a way that is impossible in nature. GMOs can contain DNA fragments from any other living organisms.
The purpose of obtaining genetically modified organisms– improving the beneficial characteristics of the original donor organism (resistance to pests, frost resistance, yield, calorie content and others) to reduce the cost of products. As a result, there are now potatoes that contain the genes of an earthen bacterium that kills the Colorado potato beetle, drought-resistant wheat that has been implanted with a scorpion gene, tomatoes with flounder genes, and soybeans and strawberries with bacterial genes.
Those plant species can be called transgenic (genetically modified), in which a gene (or genes) transplanted from other plant or animal species functions successfully. This is done so that the recipient plant receives new properties convenient for humans, increased resistance to viruses, herbicides, pests and plant diseases. Food products obtained from such genetically modified crops may taste better, look better and last longer.
Also, such plants often produce a richer and more stable harvest than their natural counterparts.
Genetically modified product- this is when a gene from one organism isolated in the laboratory is transplanted into the cell of another. Here are examples from American practice: to make tomatoes and strawberries more frost-resistant, they are “implanted” with genes from northern fish; To prevent corn from being eaten by pests, it can be “injected” with a very active gene obtained from snake venom.
By the way, don't confuse the terms " modified" and "genetically modified" For example, modified starch, which is part of most yogurts, ketchups and mayonnaises, has nothing to do with GMO products. Modified starches are starches that humans have improved for their needs. This can be done either physically (exposure to temperature, pressure, humidity, radiation) or chemically. In the second case, chemicals are used that are approved by the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation as food additives.
Purposes of creating GMOs
The development of GMOs is considered by some scientists as a natural development of work on the selection of animals and plants. Others, on the contrary, consider genetic engineering a complete departure from classical selection, since GMO is not a product of artificial selection, that is, the gradual development of a new variety (breed) of organisms through natural reproduction, but in fact a new species artificially synthesized in the laboratory.
In many cases, the use of transgenic plants greatly increases yields. There is an opinion that with the current size of the planet's population, only GMOs can save the world from the threat of hunger, since with the help of genetic modification it is possible to increase the yield and quality of food.
Opponents of this opinions count that with the modern level of agricultural technology and mechanization of agricultural production, plant varieties and animal breeds that already exist today, obtained in the classical way, are capable of fully providing the planet's population with high-quality food (the problem of possible world hunger is caused exclusively by socio-political reasons, and therefore may not be solved geneticists, and political elites states
Types of GMOs
The origins of plant genetic engineering lie in the 1977 discovery that the soil microorganism Agrobacterium tumefaciens could be used as a tool to introduce potentially beneficial foreign genes into other plants.
The first field trials of genetically modified crop plants, which resulted in a tomato resistant to viral diseases, were carried out in 1987.
In 1992, China began to grow tobacco that was “not afraid” of harmful insects. In 1993, genetically modified products were allowed on store shelves around the world. But mass production of modified products began in 1994, when tomatoes appeared in the United States that did not spoil during transportation.
Today, GMO products occupy more than 80 million hectares of farmland and are grown in more than 20 countries around the world.
GMOs combine three groups of organisms:
genetically modified microorganisms (GMM);
genetically modified animals (GMFA);
Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are the most common group.
Today, there are several dozen lines of GM crops in the world: soybeans, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, rice, tomatoes, rapeseed, wheat, melon, chicory, papaya, zucchini, cotton, flax and alfalfa. GM soybeans are being grown en masse, which in the USA have already replaced conventional soybeans, corn, canola and cotton. Crops of transgenic plants are constantly increasing. In 1996, 1.7 million hectares were occupied in the world under crops of transgenic plant varieties, in 2002 this figure reached 52.6 million hectares (of which 35.7 million hectares were in the USA), in 2005 GMO- There were already 91.2 million hectares of crops, in 2006 - 102 million hectares.
In 2006, GM crops were grown in 22 countries, including Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, USA. The world's main producers of products containing GMOs are the USA (68%), Argentina (11.8%), Canada (6%), China (3%). More than 30% of the world's soybeans, more than 16% of cotton, 11% of canola (an oilseed plant) and 7% of corn are produced using genetic engineering.
There is not a single hectare on the territory of the Russian Federation that has been sown with transgenes.
Methods for creating GMOs
The main stages of creating GMOs:
1. Obtaining an isolated gene.
2. Introduction of the gene into a vector for transfer into the body.
3. Transfer of the vector with the gene into the modified organism.
4. Transformation of body cells.
5. Selection of genetically modified organisms and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.
The process of gene synthesis is now very well developed and even largely automated. There are special devices equipped with computers, in the memory of which programs for the synthesis of various nucleotide sequences are stored. This apparatus synthesizes DNA segments up to 100-120 nitrogen bases in length (oligonucleotides).
To insert the gene into the vector, enzymes are used - restriction enzymes and ligases. Using restriction enzymes, the gene and vector can be cut into pieces. With the help of ligases, such pieces can be “glued together”, combined in a different combination, constructing a new gene or enclosing it in a vector.
The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was developed after Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on a primitive sexual process, which in bacteria is accompanied by the exchange of small fragments of non-chromosomal DNA, plasmids. Plasmid technologies formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells. To introduce a finished gene into the hereditary apparatus of plant and animal cells, the process of transfection is used.
If unicellular organisms or multicellular cell cultures are subject to modification, then at this stage cloning begins, that is, the selection of those organisms and their descendants (clones) that have undergone modification. When the task is to obtain multicellular organisms, cells with an altered genotype are used for vegetative propagation of plants or introduced into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother when it comes to animals. As a result, cubs are born with a changed or unchanged genotype, among which only those that exhibit the expected changes are selected and crossed with each other.
Application of GMOs
Use of GMOs for scientific purposes.
Currently, genetically modified organisms are widely used in fundamental and applied scientific research. With the help of GMOs, the patterns of development of certain diseases (Alzheimer's disease, cancer), the processes of aging and regeneration are studied, the functioning of the nervous system is studied, and a number of other pressing problems of biology and medicine are solved.
Use of GMOs for medical purposes.
Genetically modified organisms have been used in applied medicine since 1982. This year, human insulin produced using genetically modified bacteria was registered as a medicine.
Work is underway to create genetically modified plants that produce components of vaccines and medicines against dangerous infections (plague, HIV). Proinsulin obtained from genetically modified safflower is in clinical trials. A drug against thrombosis based on protein from the milk of transgenic goats has been successfully tested and approved for use.
A new branch of medicine is rapidly developing - gene therapy. It is based on the principles of creating GMOs, but the object of modification is the genome of human somatic cells. Currently, gene therapy is one of the main methods of treating certain diseases. Thus, already in 1999, every fourth child suffering from SCID (severe combined immune deficiency) was treated with gene therapy. In addition to being used in treatment, gene therapy is also proposed to be used to slow down the aging process.
Use of GMOs in agriculture.
Genetic engineering is used to create new varieties of plants that are resistant to unfavorable environmental conditions and pests, and have better growth and taste qualities. The new breeds of animals being created are distinguished, in particular, by accelerated growth and productivity. Varieties and breeds have been created, the products of which have high nutritional value and contain increased amounts of essential amino acids and vitamins.
Genetically modified varieties of forest species with a significant cellulose content in wood and rapid growth are being tested.
Other areas of use.
GloFish, the first genetically modified pet
Genetically modified bacteria are being developed that can produce environmentally friendly fuel
In 2003, GloFish appeared on the market - the first genetically modified organism created for aesthetic purposes, and the first pet of its kind. Thanks to genetic engineering, the popular aquarium fish Danio rerio has received several bright fluorescent colors.
In 2009, a GM variety of roses, “Applause,” with blue flowers, went on sale. Thus, the centuries-old dream of breeders who unsuccessfully tried to breed “blue roses” came true (for more details, see en:Blue rose).
GMOs - arguments for and against
The advantages of genetically modified organisms
Defenders of genetically modified organisms claim that GMOs are the only salvation for humanity from hunger. According to scientists' forecasts, the world's population may reach 9-11 billion people by 2050; naturally, there is a need to double or even triple global agricultural production.
Genetically modified plant varieties are excellent for this purpose - they are resistant to diseases and weather, ripen faster and are stored longer, and are able to independently produce insecticides against pests. GMO plants are able to grow and produce good yields where older varieties simply could not survive due to certain weather conditions.
But an interesting fact: GMOs are positioned as a panacea for hunger to save African and Asian countries. But for some reason, African countries have not allowed the import of products with GM components into their territory for the last 5 years. Isn't it strange?
Genetic engineering can provide real help in solving food and health problems. Proper application of its methods will become a solid foundation for the future of humanity.
The harmful effects of transgenic products on the human body have not yet been identified. Doctors are seriously considering genetically modified foods as the basis of special diets. Nutrition is not the least important in the treatment and prevention of diseases. Scientists assure that genetically modified products will enable people with diabetes, osteoporosis, cardiovascular and oncological diseases, liver and intestinal diseases to expand their diet.
The production of drugs using genetic engineering methods is successfully practiced all over the world.
Eating curry not only does not increase the production of insulin in the blood, but also reduces the production of glucose in the body. If the curry gene is used for medical purposes, pharmacologists will receive additional medicine for the treatment of diabetes, and patients will be able to treat themselves to sweets.
Interferon and hormones are produced using synthesized genes. Interferon, a protein produced by the body in response to a viral infection, is now being studied as a possible treatment for cancer and AIDS. It would take thousands of liters of human blood to obtain the amount of interferon that is produced by just one liter of bacterial culture. The benefits from mass production of this protein are very large.
Microbiological synthesis produces insulin, which is necessary for the treatment of diabetes. Genetic engineering has been used to create a number of vaccines that are now being tested to test their effectiveness against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. Using recombinant DNA, human growth hormone is also obtained in sufficient quantities, the only cure for a rare childhood disease - pituitary dwarfism.
Gene therapy is in the experimental stage. To fight malignant tumors, a constructed copy of a gene encoding a powerful antitumor enzyme is introduced into the body. It is planned to treat hereditary disorders using gene therapy methods.
Will find important application interesting discovery American geneticists. A gene was discovered in the body of mice that is activated only when physical activity. Scientists have ensured its uninterrupted operation. Now rodents run twice as fast and longer than their relatives. Researchers claim that such a process is also possible in the human body. If they're right, there's a problem soon excess weight will be decided at the genetic level.
One of the most important areas of genetic engineering is to provide patients with organs for transplantation. A transgenic pig will become a profitable donor of liver, kidneys, heart, blood vessels and skin for humans. In terms of organ size and physiology, it is closest to humans. Previously, operations to transplant pig organs into humans were not successful - the body rejected foreign sugars produced by enzymes. Three years ago, five piglets were born in Virginia, with an “extra” gene removed from their genetic apparatus. The problem of transplanting pig organs into humans has now been solved.
Genetic engineering opens up enormous opportunities for us. Of course, there is always risk. If it falls into the hands of a power-hungry fanatic, it can become a formidable weapon against humanity. But it has always been like this: the hydrogen bomb, computer viruses, envelopes with anthrax spores, radioactive waste from space activities... Skillfully managing knowledge is an art. This is what needs to be mastered to perfection in order to avoid a fatal mistake.
The dangers of genetically modified organisms
Anti-GMO experts argue that they pose three main threats:
o Threat to the human body– allergic diseases, metabolic disorders, the appearance of gastric microflora resistant to antibiotics, carcinogenic and mutagenic effects.
o Threat to the environment– the appearance of vegetative weeds, pollution of research sites, chemical pollution, reduction of genetic plasma, etc.
o Global risks– activation of critical viruses, economic security.
Scientists note numerous dangers associated with genetic engineering products.
1. Food hazards
Weakening of the immune system, the occurrence of allergic reactions as a result of direct exposure to transgenic proteins. The impact of new proteins that produce integrated genes is unknown. Health problems associated with the accumulation of herbicides in the body, since GM plants tend to accumulate them. Possibility of long-term carcinogenic effects (development of cancer).
2. Environmental harm
The use of genetically modified plants has a negative impact on varietal diversity. For genetic modifications, one or two varieties are taken and worked with. There is a danger of extinction of many plant species.
Some radical ecologists warn that the impact of biotechnology may exceed the consequences of a nuclear explosion: the consumption of genetically modified foods leads to the weakening of the gene pool, resulting in the emergence of mutant genes and their mutant carriers.
Doctors believe that the effect of genetically modified foods on humans will become apparent only in half a century, when at least one generation of people fed with transgenic food will change.
Imaginary dangers
Some radical ecologists warn that many steps of biotechnology can exceed the consequences of a nuclear explosion in their possible impact: allegedly, the consumption of genetically modified products leads to a weakening of the gene pool, leading to the emergence of mutant genes and their mutant carriers.
However, from a genetic point of view, we are all mutants. In any highly organized organism, a certain percentage of genes are mutated. Moreover, most mutations are completely safe and do not in any way affect the vital functions of their carriers.
As for dangerous mutations that cause genetically determined diseases, they have been relatively well studied. These diseases have nothing to do with genetically modified products, and most of them have accompanied humanity since the dawn of its appearance.
Laboratory research of GMOs
The results of experiments on mice and rats that consumed GMOs are disastrous for the animals.
Almost all research into the safety of GMOs is financed by customers - foreign corporations Monsanto, Bayer, etc. Based on precisely such studies, GMO lobbyists claim that GM products are safe for humans.
However, according to experts, studies of the consequences of consuming GM products conducted on several dozen rats, mice or rabbits over several months cannot be considered sufficient. Although the results of even such tests are not always clear.
o The first pre-marketing study of GM plants for safety for humans, conducted in the USA in 1994 on a GM tomato, served as the basis for allowing not only its sale in stores, but also for “lighter” testing of subsequent GM crops. However, the “positive” results of this study are criticized by many independent experts. In addition to numerous complaints about the test methodology and the results obtained, it also has the following “flaw” - within two weeks after it was carried out, 7 of the 40 experimental rats died, and the cause of their death is unknown.
o According to an internal Monsanto report released amid the scandal in June 2005, experimental rats fed GM corn of the new variety MON 863 experienced changes in the circulatory and immune systems.
There has been a particularly active talk about the unsafety of transgenic crops since the end of 1998. British immunologist Armand Putztai in a television interview announced a decrease in immunity in rats fed modified potatoes. Also, “thanks to” a menu consisting of GM products, experimental rats were found to have a decrease in brain volume, liver destruction and immune suppression.
According to a 1998 report from the Institute of Nutrition of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, in rats receiving transgenic potatoes from Monsanto, both after a month and after six months of the experiment, the following were observed: a statistically significant decrease in body weight, anemia and dystrophic changes in liver cells.
But do not forget that testing on animals is only the first step, and not an alternative to human research. If manufacturers of GM foods claim they are safe, this must be confirmed by studies on human volunteers using a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial design, similar to drug trials.
Judging by the lack of publications in the peer-reviewed scientific literature, clinical trials of GM food products have never been conducted on humans. Most attempts to establish the safety of GM foods are indirect, but they are also thought-provoking.
In 2002, a comparative analysis of the incidence of diseases associated with food quality was conducted in the United States and Scandinavian countries. The population of the compared countries has enough high level life, a similar food basket, comparable medical services. It turned out that in the few years following the widespread introduction of GMOs to the market, 3–5 times more food-borne illnesses were recorded in the United States than, in particular, in Sweden .
The only significant difference in food quality is active use consumption of GM products by the US population and their virtual absence in the diet of Swedes.
In 1998, the International Society of Physicians and Scientists for Responsible Application of Science and Technology (PSRAST) adopted a Declaration calling for a worldwide moratorium on the release of GMOs and products into the environment. feeding from them until sufficient knowledge has been accumulated to determine whether the operation of this technology is justified and how harmless it is to health and the environment.
As of July 2005, the document was signed by 800 scientists from 82 countries. In March 2005, the Declaration was widely circulated in the form of an open letter calling on world governments to stop the use of GMOs as they "pose a threat and do not contribute to the sustainable use of resources."
Consequences of consuming GM foods for human health
Scientists identify the following main risks of consuming genetically modified foods:
1. Immune suppression, allergic reactions and metabolic disorders resulting from the direct action of transgenic proteins.
The impact of the new proteins that the GMO-integrated genes produce is unknown. The person has never consumed them before and therefore it is not clear whether they are allergens.
An illustrative example is the attempt to cross the genes of Brazil nuts with the genes of soybeans - with the goal of increasing the nutritional value of the latter, their protein content was increased. However, as it turned out later, the combination turned out to be a strong allergen, and it had to be withdrawn from further production.
In Sweden, where transgenes are banned, 7% of the population suffers from allergies, and in the USA, where they are sold even without labeling, the figure is 70.5%.
Also, according to one version, the epidemic of meningitis among English children was caused by weakened immunity as a result of eating GM-containing milk chocolate and wafer biscuits.
2. Various health problems as a result of the appearance in GMOs of new, unplanned proteins or metabolic products toxic to humans.
There is already convincing evidence that the stability of a plant genome is disrupted when a foreign gene is inserted into it. All this can cause a change in the chemical composition of GMOs and the emergence of unexpected, including toxic, properties.
For example, for the production of the dietary supplement tryptophan in the USA in the late 80s. In the 20th century, a GMH bacterium was created. However, along with regular tryptophan, for a reason that is not fully understood, it began to produce ethylene bis-tryptophan. As a result of its use, 5 thousand people fell ill, 37 of them died, 1,500 became disabled.
Independent experts claim that genetically modified plant crops produce 1020 times more toxins than conventional organisms.
3. The emergence of resistance of human pathogenic microflora to antibiotics.
When obtaining GMOs, marker genes for antibiotic resistance are still used, which can pass into the intestinal microflora, as has been shown in relevant experiments, and this, in turn, can lead to medical problems - the inability to cure many diseases.
Since December 2004, the EU has banned the sale of GMOs containing antibiotic resistance genes. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that manufacturers refrain from using these genes, but corporations have not completely abandoned them. The risk of such GMOs, as noted in the Oxford Great Encyclopedic Reference, is quite large and “we have to admit that genetic engineering is not as harmless as it might seem at first glance.”
4. Health disorders associated with the accumulation of herbicides in the human body.
Most known transgenic plants do not die due to the massive use of agricultural chemicals and can accumulate them. There is evidence that sugar beets that are resistant to the herbicide glyphosate accumulate its toxic metabolites.
5. Reducing the intake of necessary substances into the body.
According to independent experts, it is still impossible to say for sure, for example, whether the composition of conventional soybeans and GM analogues is equivalent or not. When comparing various published scientific data, it turns out that some indicators, in particular the content of phytoestrogens, vary significantly.
6. Long-term carcinogenic and mutagenic effects.
Each insertion of a foreign gene into the body is a mutation; it can cause undesirable consequences in the genome, and no one knows what this will lead to, and no one can know today.
According to research by British scientists within the framework of the government project “Assessing the risk associated with the use of GMOs in human food”, published in 2002, transgenes tend to linger in the human body and, as a result of the so-called “horizontal transfer”, become integrated into the genetic apparatus of microorganisms human intestines. Previously, such a possibility was denied.
GMO safety studies
Recombinant DNA technology, which appeared in the early 1970s, opened up the possibility of producing organisms containing foreign genes (genetically modified organisms). This caused public concern and started a debate about the safety of such manipulations.
In 1974, a commission of leading researchers in the field of molecular biology was created in the United States to study this issue. The three most famous scientific journals (Science, Nature, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) published the so-called “Bregg letter”, which called on scientists to temporarily refrain from experiments in this area.
In 1975, the Asilomar Conference was held, at which biologists discussed the possible risks associated with the creation of GMOs.
In 1976, the National Institutes of Health developed a system of rules that strictly regulated work with recombinant DNA. By the early 1980s, the rules were revised towards easing.
In the early 1980s, the first GMO lines intended for commercial use were produced in the United States. Government organizations such as the NIH ( National Institute health, en:National Institutes of Health) and the FDA (Food and Drug Administration, en:Food and Drug Administration, extensive testing of these lines was carried out. Once the safety of their use was proven, these lines organisms have been granted access to the market.
Currently, the prevailing opinion among experts is that there is no increased danger of products from genetically modified organisms in comparison with products obtained from organisms bred by traditional methods (see discussion in the journal Nature Biotechnology).
In the Russian Federation National Association for Genetic Safety and the Office of the President of the Russian Federation advocated “conducting a public experiment in order to obtain evidence of the harmfulness or harmlessness of genetically modified organisms for mammals.
The public experiment will take place under the supervision of a specially created Scientific Council, which will include representatives of various scientific institutes in Russia and other countries. Based on the results of the specialists’ reports, a General Conclusion will be prepared with all test reports attached.”
Government commissions and non-governmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, are participating in discussions about the safety of using transgenic plants and animals in agriculture.
How is the production and sale of GMOs regulated in the world?
Today in the world there is no accurate data either on the safety of products containing GMOs or on the dangers of their consumption, since the duration of observation of the consequences of human consumption of genetically modified products is scanty - mass production of GMOs began quite recently - in 1994. However, more and more scientists are talking about the significant risks of consuming GM foods.
Therefore, responsibility for the consequences of decisions regarding the regulation of the production and marketing of genetically modified products lies solely with the governments of individual countries. This issue is approached differently around the world. But, regardless of geography, an interesting pattern is observed: the fewer producers of GM products in a country, the better the rights of consumers in this matter are protected.
Two-thirds of all GM crops in the world are grown in the United States, so it is not surprising that this country has the most liberal laws regarding GMOs. Transgenes in the USA are recognized as safe, equal to conventional products, and labeling of products containing GMOs is optional. The situation is similar in Canada, which is the third largest producer of GM products in the world. In Japan, products containing GMOs are subject to mandatory labeling. In China, GMO products are produced illegally and sold to other countries. But for the last 5 years, African countries have not allowed the import of products with GM components into their territory. In the countries of the European Union, which we so strive for, the production and import into the territory of baby food containing GMOs and the sale of products with genes resistant to antibiotics are prohibited. In 2004, the moratorium on the cultivation of GM crops was lifted, but at the same time, permission to grow was issued only for one variety of transgenic plants. At the same time, each EU country today still has the right to introduce a ban on one or another type of transgene. Some EU countries have a moratorium on the import of genetically modified products.
Any product containing GMOs, before entering the EU market, must undergo a uniform admission procedure for the entire EU. It consists essentially of two stages: a scientific safety assessment by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and its independent expert bodies.
If a product contains GM DNA or protein, EU citizens must be informed of this by a special designation on the label. The inscriptions “this product contains GMOs” or “such and such a GM product” must be on the label of products sold in packaging, and for unpackaged products in close proximity to it on the store window. The rules require that information about the presence of transgenes be indicated even on restaurant menus. A product is not labeled only if its GMO content is no more than 0.9% and the corresponding manufacturer can explain that these are accidental, technically unavoidable GMO impurities.
In Russia, it is prohibited to grow GM plants on an industrial scale, but some imported GMOs have passed state registration in the Russian Federation and are officially approved for consumption - these are several lines of soybeans, corn, potatoes, a line of rice and a line of sugar beets. All other GMOs existing in the world (about 100 lines) are prohibited in Russia. GMOs permitted in Russia can be used in any product (including baby food) without restrictions. But if the manufacturer adds GMO components to the product.
List of international producers found to be using GMOs
Greenpeace has published a list of companies that use GMOs in their products. Interestingly, these companies behave differently in different countries, depending on the legislation of a particular country. For example, in the USA, where the production and sale of products with GM components are not limited in any way, these companies use GMOs in their products, but, for example, in Austria, which is a member of the European Union, where there are rather harsh laws in relation to GMOs - No.
List of foreign companies found to be using GMOs:
Kellogg's (Kelloggs) - production of ready-made breakfasts, including corn flakes.
Nestle (Nestlé) - production of chocolate, coffee, coffee drinks, baby food.
Unilever (Unilever) - production of baby food, mayonnaise, sauces, etc.
Heinz Foods (Heinz Foods) - production of ketchups and sauces.
Hershey's (Hershey's) - production of chocolate and soft drinks.
Coca-Cola (Coca-Cola) - production of Coca-Cola, Sprite, Fanta, Kinley tonic drinks.
McDonald's (McDonald's) are fast food "restaurants".
Danon (Danone) - production of yoghurt, kefir, cottage cheese, baby food.
Similac (Similac) - production of baby food.
Cadbury (Cadbury) - production of chocolate, cocoa.
Mars (Mars) - production of chocolate Mars, Snickers, Twix.
PepsiCo (Pepsi-Cola) - drinks Pepsi, Mirinda, Seven-Up.
Products containing GMOs
Genetically modified plants The range of applications of GMOs in food products is quite extensive. These can be meat and confectionery products, which contain soy texture and soy lecithin, as well as fruits and vegetables, such as canned corn. The main flow of genetically modified crops consists of soybeans, corn, potatoes, and rapeseed imported from abroad. They come to our table either in pure form or as additives in meat, fish, bakery and confectionery products, as well as in baby food.
For example, if the product contains vegetable protein, then it is most likely soy, and there is a high probability that it is genetically modified.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to determine the presence of GM ingredients by taste and smell; GMOs in food products can only be detected modern methods laboratory diagnostics.
The most common GM crops:
Soybeans, corn, rapeseed (canola), tomatoes, potatoes, sugar beets, strawberries, zucchini, papaya, chicory, wheat.
Accordingly, there is a high probability of encountering GMOs in products produced using these plants.
Black list of products in which GMOs are most often used
GM soy can be included in bread, cookies, baby food, margarine, soups, pizza, fast food, meat products (for example, cooked sausage, hot dogs, pates), flour, candy, ice cream, chips, chocolate, sauces, soy milk etc. GM corn (maize) can be in such products as fast food, soups, sauces, seasonings, chips, chewing gum, cake mixes.
GM starch can be found in a very wide range of foods, including those that children love, such as yoghurt.
70% of popular brands of baby food contain GMOs.
About 30% of coffee is genetically modified. The same situation is with tea.
Genetically modified food additives and flavors
E101 and E101A (B2, riboflavin) – added to cereals, soft drinks, baby food, weight loss products; E150 (caramel); E153 (carbonate); E160a (beta-carotene, provitamin A, retinol); E160b (annatto); E160d (lycopene); E234 (lowland); E235 (natamycin); E270 (lactic acid); E300 (vitamin C – ascorbic acid); E301 to E304 (ascorbates); E306 to E309 (tocopherol/vitamin E); E320 (VNA); E321 (BNT); E322 (lecithin); from E325 to E327 (lactates); E330 (citric acid); E415 (xanthine); E459 (beta-cyclodextrin); from E460 to E469 (cellulose); E470 and E570 (salts and fatty acids); fatty acid esters (E471, E472a&b, E473, E475, E476, E479b); E481 (sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate); from E620 to E633 (glutamic acid and glutomates); E626 to E629 (guanylic acid and guanylates); from E630 to E633 (inosinic acid and inosinates); E951 (aspartame); E953 (isomaltite); E957 (thaumatin); E965 (maltinol).
application genetics modification organism
Conclusion
When it comes to genetically modified products, the imagination immediately draws formidable mutants. Legends about aggressive transgenic plants that displace their relatives from nature, which America throws into gullible Russia, are ineradicable. But maybe we just don't have enough information?
Firstly, many simply do not know which products are genetically modified, or, in other words, transgenic. Secondly, they are confused with food additives, vitamins and hybrids obtained as a result of selection. Why does the consumption of transgenic foods cause such disgusting horror among many people?
Transgenic products are produced from plants in which one or more genes have been artificially replaced in the DNA molecule. DNA, the carrier of genetic information, is accurately reproduced during cell division, which ensures the transmission of hereditary characteristics and specific forms of metabolism in a series of generations of cells and organisms.
Genetically modified foods - big and promising business. In the world, 60 million hectares are already occupied by transgenic crops. They are grown in the USA, Canada, France, China, South Africa, Argentina (they are not yet in Russia, only in experimental plots). However, products from the above countries are imported to us - the same soybeans, soybean flour, corn, potatoes and others.
For objective reasons. The world's population is growing year by year. Some scientists believe that in 20 years we will have to feed two billion more people than we do now. And today 750 million are chronically hungry.
Proponents of consuming genetically modified foods believe that they are harmless to humans and even have benefits. The main argument put forward by scientific experts around the world is: “DNA from genetically modified organisms is as safe as any DNA present in food. Every day, along with food, we consume foreign DNA, and so far the mechanisms for protecting our genetic material do not allow us to be significantly influenced.”
According to the director of the Bioengineering Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Academician K. Scriabin, for specialists involved in the problem of genetic engineering of plants, the issue of the safety of genetically modified products does not exist. And he personally prefers transgenic products over any other, if only because they are more thoroughly tested. The possibility of unpredictable consequences of the insertion of a single gene is theoretically assumed. To exclude it, such products undergo strict control, and, according to supporters, the results of such testing are quite reliable. Finally, there is not a single proven fact of harm to transgenic products. No one got sick or died from this.
All kinds of environmental organizations (for example, Greenpeace), the association “Doctors and Scientists Against Genetically Modified Food Sources” believe that sooner or later they will have to “reap the benefits”. And perhaps not for us, but for our children and even grandchildren. How will “alien” genes not typical of traditional cultures affect human health and development? In 1983, the United States received the first transgenic tobacco, and they began to widely and actively use genetically modified raw materials in the food industry just some five or six years ago. Today no one can predict what will happen in 50 years. It is unlikely that we will turn into, for example, “pig people.” But there are also more logical arguments. For example, new medical and biological drugs are approved for use in humans only after many years of testing on animals. Transgenic products are available for free sale and already cover several hundred items, although they were created only a few years ago. Opponents of transgenes also question the methods used to evaluate the safety of such products. In general, there are more questions than answers.
Currently, 90 percent of transgenic food exports are corn and soybeans. What does this mean in relation to Russia? The fact that popcorn, which is sold everywhere on the streets, is 100% made from genetically modified corn, and there has still been no labeling on it. If you buy soy products from North America or Argentina, then 80 percent of it is genetically modified products. Will the mass consumption of such products affect people in decades, on the next generation? So far there are no ironclad arguments either for or against. But science does not stand still, and the future lies with genetic engineering. If genetically modified products increase crop yields and solve the problem of food shortages, then why not use them? But in any experiments, extreme caution must be observed. Genetically modified products have a right to exist. It is absurd to think that Russian doctors and scientists would allow products that are harmful to health to be widely sold. But the consumer also has the right to choose: whether to buy genetically modified tomatoes from Holland or wait until local tomatoes appear on the market. After long discussions between supporters and opponents of transgenic foods, a Solomon decision was made: any person must choose for himself whether he agrees to eat genetically modified food or not. In Russia, research on genetic engineering of plants has been ongoing for a long time. Several research institutes are involved in the problems of biotechnology, including the Institute of General Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In the Moscow region, transgenic potatoes and wheat are grown at experimental sites. However, although the issue of indicating genetically modified organisms is being discussed in the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (this is being handled by the department of the Chief Sanitary Doctor of Russia Gennady Onishchenko), it is still far from being legally formalized.
List of used literature
1. Kleshchenko E. “GM products: the battle of myth and reality” - journal “Chemistry and Life”
2.http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_safety_of_genetically_modified_foods_and_organisms
3. http://www.tovary.biz/ne_est/
5. Economic risk of using GMOs
The list of economic risks arising from the use of GMOs in food production and agriculture for Russia will grow as it integrates into the global economic space.
The main blow may be dealt to the image of Russia as a producer of natural products. It is known that the world demand for environmentally friendly products is steadily growing. In particular, in 2002, a delegation from the German Ministry of Agriculture and Consumer Protection visited Russia. At meetings with producers, it was stated more than once that Germany plans to import a number of agricultural products from Russia in the future, provided they do not contain GMOs and contain minimal chemicals. Russia has great potential in this area, but the mass cultivation of GMOs will forever exclude such a prospect.
GM plants are touted as a panacea for agricultural pests and diseases, but in reality this turns out not to be the case. GM crops have already ruined generations of Indian farmers. Over the past few years, thousands of farmers in India have committed suicide, while others are selling their organs to try to pay off debt.
The reason is colossal losses due to the cultivation of GM cotton. Contrary to Monsanto's promises, the plants were susceptible to a wide range of diseases and produced virtually no yield, while the price that farmers paid for the seeds to the companies was on average 4 times higher than the cost of conventional cotton. However, Monsanto representatives believe that the troubles that befell farmers are not associated with the poor quality of transgenic cotton, but with a violation of the technology of its cultivation.
There is another problem related to economic features growing GMOs. All gene inserts inserted into the plant genome to produce GMOs are subject to intellectual property, therefore, their use is paid. But in addition to the regular payments that farmers must pay to companies for the use of transgenic GM seeds, farmers and even ordinary summer residents who do not specifically grow GM plants can suffer significant financial losses.
In 2004, Monsanto exposed 500 farmers for illegally using company-patented seeds. Not all of them were prosecuted, but it is unknown whether the farmers actually planted the seeds without paying, or whether the seeds were blown onto the fields by the wind, or whether cross-pollination occurred, as happened in the case of Canadian farmer Percy Schmeiser. His high-profile case made the rounds of the world's newspapers: suspecting that GM rapeseed was being grown in a neighboring field, he checked his crops and discovered transgenic plants. However, Schmeizer did not have time to demand compensation for his harm as a producer of organic rapeseed, since Monsanto itself sued him and turned the case in its favor, and the farmer was forced to pay a multi-thousand-dollar fine.
Farmers who deliberately grow GMOs are also unhappy. Some farmers think that growing GM soybeans is profitable because the herbicide Roundup protects fields well from weeds and is not very expensive, but others consider it just another corporate ploy. Farmer Vernon Gansebom from Nebraska, USA, told the Omaha World Herald in 2004: “They are lowering the price of Roundup, but raising the price of seed. Yes, patents are not cheap, but prices are rising exponentially. I’m not the only one concerned about this.”
The question arises, why are American farmers actively growing GMOs? In addition to government subsidies and other assistance from the state, there is another very simple explanation for this. Over the past 10 years, US farmers have faced declining profits. In particular, the price of a metric ton of soybeans in 1998 fell 62% from 1990, and landowners had to increase their acreage to stay in business. In such a situation, any technology that involves the use of large areas, and GM crops are aimed specifically at use in large farms and return in the form of a homogeneous mass product, is in great demand. Moreover, in conditions of constant encouragement from the state for the cultivation of GM plants.
Growing transgenic crops is beneficial in all respects only to companies that create them for specific marketing purposes. All commercially already used or planned for use transgenic plants (gene inserts in them) belong to the developer corporations. The same corporations benefit from selling herbicides, so most of the GM plants they produce have a gene for resistance to such herbicides. If this ultimately turns out to be unprofitable and the negative consequences are too great, companies will simply switch to other production. What will happen to countries and farms that have switched to transgenic crops and are completely dependent on biotechnology companies? In the US, bankrupt farmers will most likely receive new subsidies, but what will happen to the rest?
The thesis that GM crops will solve the problem of hunger is very popular. Today, 800 million people in the world suffer from lack of food every day, 320 million of whom live in India. However, in 2002, the country destroyed about 60 million tons of grain (it rotted or was burned), since the purchasing power of intermediaries and the population is so low that there was simply no one to purchase these seeds. Indian experts doubt that GMOs will somehow change this situation, since the root of the problem lies not in the lack of food, but in the lack of access to material goods and resources.
Zambian farmers, whose government has also repeatedly refused even humanitarian aid containing GM grain, are also unsure about the need for transgenes for starving countries in Africa. GM corn, which is persistently imposed on Africa by international organizations and the United States, is not needed by the local population, if only because corn has never been a traditional crop for the continent; it is not adapted to the African climate and soil. Zambia, for example, is characterized by the cultivation of cassava, sorghum and millet. This is one of the poorest countries in Africa, but tons of unclaimed grain rot there every year. According to the National Association of Peasants and Smallholder Farmers of Zambia, in 2003 in the northern and northwestern regions of the country, 300 thousand tons of cassava were lost in warehouses because no one could buy them.
6. Biosecurity and bioterrorism
Biological hazard (biohazard) is a new term that cannot be found in the medical dictionary. Most often, biohazard is defined as a danger to human health and life associated with exposure to agents (pathogens) of a biological nature. You can also find a broader interpretation of this concept.The dictionary of terms and concepts on biohazards includes not only “pathogenic biological agents (PBA)” and “pathogens”, but also “valuable biological materials” - i.e. materials requiring administrative management, control, protective and surveillance measures in laboratories and biological centers. This is a fairly broad concept, including not only pathogens and toxins, but also materials that represent great importance scientifically, historically and economically. In the list of the least controllable and most dangerous threats to humanity, the overwhelming number of experts name bioterrorism and “ecological wars” (climate change, etc.).
Biological terrorism is officially recognized as one of the main potential threats international security as a result of terrorist acts already committed and analysis of the development of biological science and biotechnology.
In the 20th century, there were more than 100 confirmed cases of illegal use of biological agents, of which 19 were acts of terrorism. In the second half of the century, there were 66 crimes involving biological agents. However, none of the attempts to use them for the purpose of mass destruction, fortunately, was successful. A total of 8 crimes involving the use of biological weapons resulted in civilian casualties (29 deaths and 31 injuries).
In 1984, religious cultists used salmonella microbes ( Salmonella typhimurium) in restaurants in Dales County (Oregon), which caused food poisoning in 751 people, but did not lead to deaths. However, the number of such incidents has increased sharply in recent years. According to the FBI, 267 criminal cases were initiated before 2000 (in 187 cases biological agents were used in one form or another), in 2000 - 257 cases were initiated (in 115 cases attempts to use biological weapons were established).
In 2001, the United States was subjected to a biological attack using the anthrax agent, which led to a number of deaths. Until now, the basic questions “who, how, why?” there is no exact answer. Although American government focused on investigating the activities of an American virologist who worked at the American Institute of Military Medicine for the Study of Infectious Diseases (Fort Detrick, Maryland), it is still unclear whether these events were related to the attacks of September 11, 2001. The virologist worked privately as a biodefense contract manager. Through his work, he was closely associated with one of the remaining professionals who played a significant role in the biological weapons program until 1969. The suspected virologist's active work and relationship with the professional provided him with access to classified information regarding drug production technology. He also had access to a government facility that worked with the AMES strain of anthrax and produced dry anthrax spore powder.
According to facts collected by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 18 letters containing anthrax spores left a mailbox located in Princeton (New Jersey). Another 4 cases occurred over the next eight weeks. The quality of the pathogenic spores prepared and distributed varied. Some samples were crudely prepared, but those that reached Senators Daschle and Leahy were highly dispersed and therefore easily spread by airborne droplets. It was in these bags that the spores had the highest concentration and microbiological purity. Preliminary investigations showed that all the envelopes contained a variant of the known AMES strain. This strain was used in the US biological defense program in the early 1980s. Due to its biological activity, it became the standard for use in model experiments in animal husbandry to obtain new vaccines against anthrax. It is known that 15-20 laboratories in the UK, USA, Canada and, possibly, Israel worked with this strain. The challenge now facing microbiological geneticists is to identify subtle differences in the genomes of crops obtained in these laboratories and to identify a crop that is even remotely similar to the one used by terrorists.
The range of organizations and individuals capable of using biological agents as an instrument of terror, varying in group composition, sources of funding, ideology, motivations and methods used, is very diverse. It includes large, well-funded organizations, opposition rebel groups, religious and cult sects promoting the ideology of the “end of the world,” various nationalist groups, individual splintered political movements and groups, as well as lone terrorists.
According to data presented in the collection “The New Terror: Facing the Threat of the Use of Biological and Chemical Weapons,” in 17% of cases when terrorists used such weapons, they were spread by air, in 11% - through water, in 15% - through food or drinks, in 13% - through injections or other contact, 16% - through medications. Unfortunately, in 28% of cases the method of distribution could not be determined. The United States today includes Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Iran, China, Libya, North Korea and Taiwan among the countries “possibly spreading chemical and biological weapons.”
The idea of using biological agents as weapons is hardly new. For a long historical time, cases of using biological agents to cause damage to the enemy have been known. However, the possibility of their use depended on the level of scientific awareness of society about infectious diseases. Before the advent of the theory of the microbial nature of infectious diseases, it was believed that diseases were caused by polluted odors, infection occurring through the spread of “miasma,” i.e., “bad fumes.” In ancient civilizations (Hellenic, Roman, Persian) there are known cases of contamination of the drinking water supplies of their opponents with the help of half-decomposed dead animals. A similar method was used in Italy in the 12th century by Barbarossa. Poisoning drinking supplies with animal corpses was also used in the 19th century in the United States during the Civil War.
The concept of using various objects (things, books) to spread infectious diseases among the enemy was also developed in the 18th century. In 1763, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, commander of British forces in North America, became concerned about the activity of unsympathetic natives along the western frontier from Pennsylvania to Detroit. When he learned that smallpox had emerged among the British troops at Fort Pitt, he decided to use the infection as a biological weapon against the Native Americans. According to his plan, blankets and handkerchiefs from smallpox patients were given to hostile tribes. A smallpox epidemic originated among Native American tribes, but it is difficult to determine for sure whether this outbreak was the result of British military biological activity. Native Americans did not have immunological defenses against many of the infections introduced from the Old World, and so there could have been many different ways of contracting the infection from other European settlers.
With the development of the theory of the microbial nature of many infections in the 19th century, new stage in the creation of biological weapons. Now pathogenic microorganisms could be isolated and grown in sufficient quantities in pure culture in the laboratory. Therefore, the results of scientific microbiological research and new technological equipment could simultaneously be used for military purposes.
The idea of biological weapons received particular development in the twentieth century. During the First World War, Germany intended to use the pathogens of cholera and plague against humans, and the pathogens of anthrax and glanders against farm animals. However, the use of biological weapons during the First World War did not go beyond the intentions. At that time, attention was focused on the effects of chemical weapons. The reaction to the use of these weapons led to the appearance in June 1925 of the Geneva Protocol (Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Similar Gases and Bacteriological Agents). 133 countries have signed this protocol, one country (El Salvador) has signed but not ratified. The protocol contains a statement that the parties agree to consider themselves bound to each other by the prohibition of the use of these weapons in war. The treaty prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons, but could not limit or regulate their development and production.
During the period between the First and Second World Wars, a number of countries accelerated their research programs to develop biological weapons. The efforts of Japanese researchers and the military in this were the most successful. Until the end of the Second World War, work on the creation of biological weapons was carried out in many military units. The most famous was Detachment 731, led from 1937 to 1941. military physicist-microbiologist Ishii Shiro. The detachment was stationed in the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan. At its peak, the unit's personnel numbered approximately 3,000 people and was located in 150 buildings. At least five support operations were carried out, each involving between 300 and 500 men. Such military scientific groups were responsible for the extensive development and research of biological warfare, using prisoners (usually prisoners of war, criminals or political dissidents) and animals.
According to some estimates, about 10,000 people died during 13 years of biological warfare research in Manchuria and China. The result of this activity was the creation by the early forties of a menu of infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses and rickettsia. The Japanese also conducted dozens of field experiments in Manchuria and China, which included contamination of water and food supplies, aerial spraying, and the use of small bombs containing fleas with plague pathogens. Local outbreaks of plague, cholera and typhoid infections occurred due to ongoing research.
The military biological activity of other countries during this period was minimal compared to Japan. German efforts were focused primarily on the development of protective microbiological agents, vaccines and antimicrobials. In this work, concentration camp prisoners were used as experimental material. At the same time, anthrax bombs were created and tested on an island in the North Sea off the coast of Scotland. The island was heavily contaminated with pathogens until the 1980s, when it was successfully decontaminated using seawater and formaldehyde.
The danger of bioterrorism is determined by a number of prerequisites:
The use of various types of biological weapons by terrorists can quickly cause an epidemic, leading to the death of a huge number of people, animals and crops. It is estimated that spraying 100 kg of anthrax spores is many times greater than the effects of a megaton nuclear bomb.
There are a significant number of potential sources of biological weapons in the world. The development of medicine in general and the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases in particular requires the isolation and then storage of bacterial strains used to create various vaccines and inoculations. However, these strains also potentially remain sources of all the diseases they are intended to treat. According to rough estimates, 453 collections of various bacterial strains belonging to various organizations are concentrated in 67 countries, 54 medical centers have the causative agent of anthrax, 18 - plague. The number of sources of deadly bacteria and not always adequate protection of their storage sites can make medical and biological centers a voluntary or unwitting source of supplying terrorists with biological weapons. According to American data, at least 10 countries have biological weapons or are researching them. The example of Russia clearly demonstrates that the very legal definition of what is a biological weapon and what is not reflects the danger of using biological material both for the benefit of humanity and for its destruction.
The production of some types of biological weapons does not require any special equipment and is relatively simple. Nature already contains a large number of microorganisms that are potentially dangerous to humans, and the starting materials for their production are often products economic activity person.
Biological weapons are easily transported and are quite difficult to detect during inspections.
Almost every infection, and the list of microorganisms that can potentially be used by terrorists includes 48 organisms (25 viruses, 13 bacteria, 10 toxins), requires its own methods of treatment and prevention, which greatly complicates the ability to prepare to repel a potential attack.
Because of the uncertainty of when and where bioterrorism might be attempted, and what biological agents might be used as an instrument of terror, the threat or attempted use of biological weapons always remains. Infectious diseases that can develop as a result of a biological attack have nonspecific clinical symptoms, such as fever, especially in the first hours and days after their development. Therefore, it is necessary to know certain differential diagnostic signs so that even before use special methods identification to suggest the range of most likely pathogens. There are some difficulties in rapid microbiological diagnosis, especially of pulmonary forms of infectious diseases. Because of this, all individuals with a clinical picture of a suspected infection should be started immediately on appropriate antibiotic therapy.
Genetic engineering experiments with various organisms, including pathogenic bacteria and viruses, create an additional powerful biological threat. Today it is especially necessary to pay attention to experiments in the field of genetic engineering. This is the so-called vector technology, which is used to transfer genes from one organism to another, and highly infectious material to insert a foreign gene into a completely different organism. The risk of using vectors to create genetically engineered organisms has not been assessed. In addition, genetically modified organisms themselves, as completely new organisms for the biosphere, can affect it in the most unexpected way. The very uncertainty of such an impact is for some reason perceived as proof of safety. It appears that the time has come to consider more stringent controls on biological material and to develop a more stringent biosafety framework. Biological threats can only be countered by a strong biological control and health system.
The attractiveness of biological weapons for terrorists is due to the following reasons:
biological weapons are easily accessible, pathogens of dangerous diseases can be found in nature (with the exception of smallpox);
biological weapons are easy to manufacture;
all countries have medical microbiological laboratories and microbiological enterprises that can be converted for the production of biological weapons;
Biological weapons are easier to store and transport than chemical or radiological weapons.
high infectiousness and contagiousness;
required destructive effectiveness (predictable clinical manifestations of the disease, a certain level of morbidity and mortality);
significant sustainability in the environment;
ability for wide epidemic spread;
accessibility and ease of production of prescription forms;
ease of application and spread of the pathogen;
difficulty in indicating and identifying the agent in environmental objects after application;
absence or insufficient effectiveness of currently available means of immuno- and emergency prevention, means of treating the disease.
According to leading experts in the field of biological hazards, the greatest threat is seen in the possibility of creating a new generation of biological weapons - the third, that is, “post-genomic”, so-called molecular weapons. In international literature it is designated as ABW - Advanced Biological Warfare. These are completely new, already discovered and yet undiscovered regulators of biochemical processes, often consisting of only a few dozen nucleotide bases and therefore easily penetrating cell membranes and actively influencing various biochemical processes. They pose a much greater danger than traditional pathogens - plague, smallpox, anthrax, etc.
7. Control over the use and distribution of GMOs.
GMOs are receiving the most attention now. In Europe and Russia, special labeling has been developed for products, which shows that they do not contain transgenic additives. The European Union is even creating ecological zones free of transgenic organisms and introducing a moratorium on their use in baby food products.Before entering the market, all transgenic organisms are thoroughly tested for safety for humans and the environment as a whole.
In Russia, as in the countries of the European Union (EU) and in many other countries, the use of GM technology, the subsequent release of GMOs into the environment, and their use in agriculture, production and sale of food products are strictly regulated. The relevant legislation is developing most dynamically in the EU and is revised by the European Parliament almost every year. Currently, the use of GMOs in the EU is mainly regulated by Directive 65/2004/EC and Regulations 1829/2003 and 1830/2003.
EU legislation defines the rules for the use of GMOs in agriculture and food production differently. If a minimum limit for the permissible content of genetically modified sources (GMI) in food products is determined for food products, it is not provided for seeds/planting material. This standard allows, in cases where the GMI content in a product does not reach the threshold value (relative concentration 0.9% for the EU), not to label this product as containing GMI. At the same time, the standard for the maximum permissible GMI content operates at the ingredient level, and a threshold of 0.9% is set for each ingredient included in the food product. Thus, if, as a result of qualitative screening diagnostics, GMIs are found in a food product, the relevant ingredients must be examined and the GMI content in each of them must be determined.
In accordance with the sanitary standards in force in Russia, the threshold value was initially set at 5%, and in this case the absolute concentration of GMI in the food product is meant. Currently this level in the Russian Federation is set at 0.9%. Experience shows that most diagnostic methods make it possible to reliably estimate the relative concentration of GMI, while determining the absolute content of a plant ingredient in a complex processed food product in highest degree difficult. Thus, the imperfection of the regulatory framework in Russia to date largely limits the scope of application of quantitative diagnostics of GMI to raw materials and makes it meaningless to measure the quantitative content of GMI in food products.
Detection and identification of DNA and/or proteins can be significantly more difficult when examining highly processed or purified ingredients such as starch, sugar or vegetable oils. Moreover, a number of treatments may result in the inability to detect or identify GMIs in the product. The previous EU directive approved a special list of products (including sugar and vegetable oils) that could not be labeled even if they were made from GM raw materials. This EU legislation obliges the manufacturer to carry out labeling even in cases where modern diagnostic methods do not allow the origin of the food to be determined. For this purpose, a special procedure has been introduced for recording the use of GMOs at each stage - cultivation, harvesting, storage, transportation, processing, etc. EU requirements oblige organizations involved in the production or use of GMOs to keep relevant documentation for 5 years, which will allow, if necessary, to trace the distribution of GMOs and identify potential sources of contamination.
The need for monitoring, qualitative and quantitative research of the presence of GMOs in agricultural crops and food products produced from them has led to the need for analytical methods capable of detecting, identifying GMOs and determining their quantitative content in the test sample. As a rule, these methods are based on the analysis of DNA or protein as the basic components of GMOs. In some cases, for certain types of food products produced from GMI, such as vegetable oils, characterized by an altered fatty acid profile and low content DNA and proteins, chromatography or near-infrared spectroscopy can be used as complementary or alternative methods.
Diagnosis of GMOs must also take into account the design features of specific GMOs and biological variability. Methods are needed to distinguish between GMOs that were created using the same genetic engineering constructs, as well as GMOs that carry one, two or more constructs or their copies.
Certified methods used to label GMO-containing products are usually based on the detection of specific DNA fragments using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or protein detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
The process of diagnosing GMI in food products in general outline fits into the following scheme:
1. Screening quality diagnostics. At this stage, the presence of GMI in the composition of a food product or agricultural raw material is investigated. It is necessary to use highly sensitive and reliable analytical methods that provide accurate and reliable diagnostics in all control laboratories, which can only be achieved through interlaboratory verification and intercalibration.
2. Identification. At this stage, it is identified which GMI are present in the product being tested, as well as whether they are approved for use.
3. Quantitative diagnostics. The results of quantitative measurements carried out using PCR or ELISA can determine the content of GMI and determine whether a given product is subject to mandatory labeling notifying the presence of GMI. To accurately conduct quantitative studies, it is desirable to have information about the types of treatments to which the test material was subjected, in order to take into account the DNA/protein degradation that has occurred and to assess the accuracy of the measurements.
Currently, the most developed and most widely used methods at all stages of diagnosis are those based on the use of different types of PCR. However, other analytical technologies - in particular, DNA chips and mass spectrometry - can be successfully used for the purposes of diagnosing GMI.
Bibliography
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Definition of GMO
Purposes of creating GMOs
Methods for creating GMOs
Application of GMOs
GMOs - arguments for and against
The advantages of genetically modified organisms
The dangers of genetically modified organisms
Laboratory research of GMOs
Consequences of consuming GM foods for human health
GMO safety studies
How is the production and sale of GMOs regulated in the world?
List of international producers found to be using GMOs
Genetically modified food additives and flavors
Conclusion
List of used literature
Definition of GMO
Genetically modified organisms- these are organisms in which the genetic material (DNA) has been changed in a way that is impossible in nature. GMOs can contain DNA fragments from any other living organisms.
The purpose of obtaining genetically modified organisms– improving the beneficial characteristics of the original donor organism (resistance to pests, frost resistance, yield, calorie content and others) to reduce the cost of products. As a result, there are now potatoes that contain the genes of an earthen bacterium that kills the Colorado potato beetle, drought-resistant wheat that has been implanted with a scorpion gene, tomatoes with flounder genes, and soybeans and strawberries with bacterial genes.
Those plant species can be called transgenic (genetically modified), in which a gene (or genes) transplanted from other plant or animal species functions successfully. This is done so that the recipient plant receives new properties convenient for humans, increased resistance to viruses, herbicides, pests and plant diseases. Food products obtained from such genetically modified crops may taste better, look better and last longer.
Also, such plants often produce a richer and more stable harvest than their natural counterparts.
Genetically modified product- this is when a gene from one organism isolated in the laboratory is transplanted into the cell of another. Here are examples from American practice: to make tomatoes and strawberries more frost-resistant, they are “implanted” with genes from northern fish; To prevent corn from being eaten by pests, it can be “injected” with a very active gene obtained from snake venom.
By the way, don't confuse the terms " modified" and "genetically modified" For example, modified starch, which is part of most yogurts, ketchups and mayonnaises, has nothing to do with GMO products. Modified starches are starches that humans have improved for their needs. This can be done either physically (exposure to temperature, pressure, humidity, radiation) or chemically. In the second case, chemicals are used that are approved by the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation as food additives.
Purposes of creating GMOs
The development of GMOs is considered by some scientists as a natural development of work on the selection of animals and plants. Others, on the contrary, consider genetic engineering a complete departure from classical selection, since GMO is not a product of artificial selection, that is, the gradual development of a new variety (breed) of organisms through natural reproduction, but in fact a new species artificially synthesized in the laboratory.
In many cases, the use of transgenic plants greatly increases yields. There is an opinion that with the current size of the planet's population, only GMOs can save the world from the threat of hunger, since with the help of genetic modification it is possible to increase the yield and quality of food.
Opponents of this opinion believe that with the modern level of agricultural technology and mechanization of agricultural production, plant varieties and animal breeds that already exist now, obtained in the classical way, are capable of fully providing the planet's population with high-quality food (the problem of possible world hunger is caused exclusively by socio-political reasons, and therefore can be solved not by geneticists, but by the political elites of states.
Types of GMOs
The origins of plant genetic engineering lie in the 1977 discovery that the soil microorganism Agrobacterium tumefaciens could be used as a tool to introduce potentially beneficial foreign genes into other plants.
The first field trials of genetically modified crop plants, which resulted in a tomato resistant to viral diseases, were carried out in 1987.
In 1992, China began to grow tobacco that was “not afraid” of harmful insects. In 1993, genetically modified products were allowed on store shelves around the world. But mass production of modified products began in 1994, when tomatoes appeared in the United States that did not spoil during transportation.
Today, GMO products occupy more than 80 million hectares of farmland and are grown in more than 20 countries around the world.
GMOs combine three groups of organisms:
genetically modified microorganisms (GMM);
genetically modified animals (GMFA);
Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are the most common group.
Today, there are several dozen lines of GM crops in the world: soybeans, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, rice, tomatoes, rapeseed, wheat, melon, chicory, papaya, zucchini, cotton, flax and alfalfa. GM soybeans are being grown en masse, which in the USA have already replaced conventional soybeans, corn, canola and cotton. Crops of transgenic plants are constantly increasing. In 1996, 1.7 million hectares were occupied in the world under crops of transgenic plant varieties, in 2002 this figure reached 52.6 million hectares (of which 35.7 million hectares were in the USA), in 2005 GMO- There were already 91.2 million hectares of crops, in 2006 - 102 million hectares.
In 2006, GM crops were grown in 22 countries, including Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, and the USA. The world's main producers of products containing GMOs are the USA (68%), Argentina (11.8%), Canada (6%), China (3%). More than 30% of the world's soybeans, more than 16% of cotton, 11% of canola (an oilseed plant) and 7% of corn are produced using genetic engineering.
There is not a single hectare on the territory of the Russian Federation that has been sown with transgenes.
Methods for creating GMOs
The main stages of creating GMOs:
1. Obtaining an isolated gene.
2. Introduction of the gene into a vector for transfer into the body.
3. Transfer of the vector with the gene into the modified organism.
4. Transformation of body cells.
5. Selection of genetically modified organisms and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.
The process of gene synthesis is now very well developed and even largely automated. There are special devices equipped with computers, in the memory of which programs for the synthesis of various nucleotide sequences are stored. This apparatus synthesizes DNA segments up to 100-120 nitrogen bases in length (oligonucleotides).
To insert the gene into the vector, enzymes are used - restriction enzymes and ligases. Using restriction enzymes, the gene and vector can be cut into pieces. With the help of ligases, such pieces can be “glued together”, combined in a different combination, constructing a new gene or enclosing it in a vector.
The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was developed after Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on a primitive sexual process, which in bacteria is accompanied by the exchange of small fragments of non-chromosomal DNA, plasmids. Plasmid technologies formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells. To introduce a finished gene into the hereditary apparatus of plant and animal cells, the process of transfection is used.
If unicellular organisms or multicellular cell cultures are subject to modification, then at this stage cloning begins, that is, the selection of those organisms and their descendants (clones) that have undergone modification. When the task is to obtain multicellular organisms, cells with an altered genotype are used for vegetative propagation of plants or introduced into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother when it comes to animals. As a result, cubs are born with a changed or unchanged genotype, among which only those that exhibit the expected changes are selected and crossed with each other.
Application of GMOs
Use of GMOs for scientific purposes.
Currently, genetically modified organisms are widely used in fundamental and applied scientific research. With the help of GMOs, the patterns of development of certain diseases (Alzheimer's disease, cancer), the processes of aging and regeneration are studied, the functioning of the nervous system is studied, and a number of other pressing problems of biology and medicine are solved.
Use of GMOs for medical purposes.
Genetically modified organisms have been used in applied medicine since 1982. This year, human insulin produced using genetically modified bacteria was registered as a medicine.
Work is underway to create genetically modified plants that produce components of vaccines and medicines against dangerous infections (plague, HIV). Proinsulin obtained from genetically modified safflower is in clinical trials. A drug against thrombosis based on protein from the milk of transgenic goats has been successfully tested and approved for use.
A new branch of medicine is rapidly developing - gene therapy. It is based on the principles of creating GMOs, but the object of modification is the genome of human somatic cells. Currently, gene therapy is one of the main methods of treating certain diseases. Thus, already in 1999, every fourth child suffering from SCID (severe combined immune deficiency) was treated with gene therapy. In addition to being used in treatment, gene therapy is also proposed to be used to slow down the aging process.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)- grains, vegetables and other food products that are harmful to a normal person and are not known to have been processed by geneticists. According to the general population, they cause irreversible changes in the human body that absorbs them, have a bad effect on potency, and are the cause of early baldness and the formation of malignant tumors. Usually tastier, more nutritious and, according to research, healthier than unmodified ones. Official science does not have reliable data on the dangers of GMOs.
Genetically modified organism (GMO)) is a living organism whose genotype has been artificially changed using genetic engineering methods. Such changes are usually made for scientific or economic purposes. Genetic modification is distinguished by a targeted change in the genotype of an organism, in contrast to the random one characteristic of natural and artificial mutagenesis.
GMO - these are living organisms containing a new combination of products do not pose any danger to humans
Purposes of creating GMOs
The development of GMOs is considered by some scientists as a natural development of work on the selection of animals and plants. Others, on the contrary, consider genetic engineering a complete departure from classical selection, since GMO is not a product of artificial selection, that is, the gradual development of a new variety (breed) of organisms through natural reproduction, but in fact a new species artificially synthesized in the laboratory.
In many cases, the use of transgenic plants greatly increases yields. There is an opinion that with the current size of the planet's population, only GMOs can save the world from the threat of hunger, since with the help of genetic modification it is possible to increase the yield and quality of food. Opponents of this opinion believe that with the modern level of agricultural technology and mechanization of agricultural production, plant varieties and animal breeds that already exist now, obtained in the classical way, are capable of fully providing the planet's population with high-quality food (the problem of possible world hunger is caused exclusively by socio-political reasons, and therefore can be solved not by geneticists, but by the political elites of states.)
Methods for creating GMOs
The main stages of creating GMOs:
1. Obtaining an isolated gene.
2. Introduction of the gene into a vector for transfer into the body.
3. Transfer of the vector with the gene into the modified organism.
4. Transformation of body cells.
5. Selection of genetically modified organisms and elimination of those that have not been successfully modified.
The process of gene synthesis is now very well developed and even largely automated. There are special devices equipped with computers, in the memory of which programs for the synthesis of various nucleotide sequences are stored. This apparatus synthesizes DNA segments up to 100-120 nitrogen bases in length (oligonucleotides).
To insert the gene into the vector, enzymes are used - restriction enzymes and ligases. Using restriction enzymes, the gene and vector can be cut into pieces. With the help of ligases, such pieces can be “glued together”, combined in a different combination, constructing a new gene or enclosing it in a vector.
The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was developed after Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on a primitive sexual process, which in bacteria is accompanied by the exchange of small fragments of non-chromosomal DNA, plasmids. Plasmid technologies formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells. To introduce a finished gene into the hereditary apparatus of plant and animal cells, the process of transfection is used.
If unicellular organisms or multicellular cell cultures are subject to modification, then at this stage cloning begins, that is, the selection of those organisms and their descendants (clones) that have undergone modification. When the task is to obtain multicellular organisms, cells with an altered genotype are used for vegetative propagation of plants or introduced into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother when it comes to animals. As a result, cubs are born with a changed or unchanged genotype, among which only those that exhibit the expected changes are selected and crossed with each other.
Application of GMOs
Use of GMOs for scientific purposes
Currently, genetically modified organisms are widely used in fundamental and applied scientific research. With the help of GMOs, the patterns of development of certain diseases (Alzheimer's disease, cancer), the processes of aging and regeneration are studied, the functioning of the nervous system is studied, and a number of other pressing problems of biology and medicine are solved.
Use of GMOs for medical purposes
Genetically modified organisms have been used in applied medicine since 1982. This year, human insulin produced using genetically modified bacteria was registered as a medicine.
Work is underway to create genetically modified plants that produce components of vaccines and medicines against dangerous infections (plague, HIV). Proinsulin obtained from genetically modified safflower is in clinical trials. A drug against thrombosis based on protein from the milk of transgenic goats has been successfully tested and approved for use.
A new branch of medicine is rapidly developing - gene therapy. It is based on the principles of creating GMOs, but the object of modification is the genome of human somatic cells. Currently, gene therapy is one of the main methods of treating certain diseases. Thus, already in 1999, every fourth child suffering from SCID (severe combined immune deficiency) was treated with gene therapy. In addition to being used in treatment, gene therapy is also proposed to be used to slow down the aging process.
Use of GMOs in agriculture
Genetic engineering is used to create new varieties of plants that are resistant to unfavorable environmental conditions and pests, and have better growth and taste qualities. The new breeds of animals being created are distinguished, in particular, by accelerated growth and productivity. Varieties and breeds have been created, the products of which have high nutritional value and contain increased amounts of essential amino acids and vitamins.
Genetically modified varieties of forest species with a significant cellulose content in wood and rapid growth are being tested.
Other uses
GloFish, the first genetically modified pet
Genetically modified bacteria are being developed that can produce environmentally friendly fuel.
In 2003, GloFish appeared on the market - the first genetically modified organism created for aesthetic purposes, and the first pet of its kind. Thanks to genetic engineering, the popular aquarium fish Danio rerio has received several bright fluorescent colors.
In 2009, a GM rose variety “Applause” with blue flowers was released. Thus, the centuries-old dream of breeders who unsuccessfully tried to breed “blue roses” came true (for more details, see en:Blue rose).
The impact of GMO foods on health
1) Immune suppression, allergic reactions and metabolic disorders resulting from the direct action of transgenic proteins.
2) Various health disorders as a result of the appearance in GMOs of new, unplanned proteins or metabolic products toxic to humans
3) Emergence of resistance of human pathogenic microflora to antibiotics
4) Health problems associated with the accumulation of herbicides in the human body.
5) Reducing the intake of necessary substances into the body.
6) Long-term carcinogenic and mutagenic effects.
