Japanese art objects. Japanese art

With this article I begin a series of articles about the history of Japanese fine art. These posts will focus mainly on painting from the Heian period onwards, but this article is an introduction and describes the development of art up to the 8th century.

Jomon period
Japanese culture has very ancient roots - the earliest finds date back to the 10th millennium BC. e. but officially the beginning of the Jomon period is considered to be 4500 BC. e. About this period nekokit I wrote a very good post.
The uniqueness of Jomon pottery is that usually the appearance of pottery, along with the development of agriculture, indicates the onset of the Neolithic era. However, even in the Mesolithic era, several thousand years before the advent of agriculture, Jomon hunter-gatherers created quite complex pottery shapes.

Despite the very early appearance of pottery, the people of the Jomon era developed technology very slowly and remained at Stone Age levels.

During the Middle Jomon period (2500-1500 BC), ceramic figurines appeared. But both in the Middle and Late (1000-300 BC) periods they remain abstract and very stylized.

From Ebisuda, Tajiri-cho, Miyagi.H. 36.0.
Jomon Period, 1000-400B.C.
Tokyo National Museum

By the way, ufologists believe that these are images of aliens. In these figures they see spacesuits, glasses and oxygen masks on their faces, and the images of spirals on the “spacesuits” are considered maps of galaxies.

Yayoi period
Yayoi is a short period in Japanese history, lasting from 300 BC to 300 AD, which saw the most dramatic cultural changes in Japanese society. During this period, tribes who came from the mainland and displaced the indigenous population of the Japanese islands brought their culture and new technologies, such as rice cultivation and bronze processing. Once again, most of the arts and technology of the Yayoi period were imported from Korea and China.

Kofun period
Between 300 and 500 years, tribal leaders were buried in mounds called "Kofun". This period is named by this name.

Things that the dead might need were placed in the graves. These are food, tools and weapons, jewelry, pottery, mirrors and, most interestingly, clay figurines called “haniwa”.

From Kokai, Oizumi-machi, Gunma.H.68.5.
Kofun Period, 6th century.
Tokyo National Museum

The exact purpose of the figurines remains unknown, but they are found in all burial grounds of the Kofun era. From these small figures you can imagine how people lived at that time, since people are depicted with tools and weapons, and sometimes next to houses.

These sculptures, being influenced by Chinese traditions, have independent elements inherent only to local art.

Female dancer, Western Han dynasty (206 B.C.–A.D. 9), 2nd century B.C.
China
Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY

During the Kofun period, the figurines became more refined and more varied. These are images of soldiers, hunters, singers, dancers, and so on.

From Nohara, Konan-machi, Saitama.Present H. 64.2, 57.3.
Kofun Period, 6th century.
Tokyo National Museum

There is another feature of these sculptures. Haniwa represent not only the social function, but also the mood of the figure. A warrior, for example, has a stern expression on his face. and there are huge smiles on the faces of the peasants.

From Iizuka-cho, Ota-shi, Gunma.H. 130.5.
Kofun Period, 6th century.
Tokyo National Museum

Asuka period
Since the Yayoi period, Japanese fine art has been inseparable from Korean or Chinese art. This becomes most noticeable in the seventh and eighth centuries, when Japanese art began to rapidly evolve into a variety of visual genres.

In the 6th century, dramatic changes took place in Japanese society: the first Japanese state of Yamato finally took shape, and also, in 552, Buddhism came to Japan, bringing with it Buddhist sculpture and the concept of a temple, which was the reason for the appearance of temples in Japan - both Shinto, and Buddhist ones.
Shinto shrines imitated the architecture of granaries (The very first Shinto shrines were granaries where harvest celebrations were held. During ritual feasts, people believed that the gods feasted with them.)
Shinto gods are primarily natural forces, so the architecture of these shrines is integrated with natural nature, such as rivers and forests. This is important to understand. In Shinto architecture, man-made structures were meant to be an extension of the natural world.

The first Buddhist temple, Shitennoji, was built only in 593 in Osaka. These early temples were imitations of Korean Buddhist temples, consisting of a central pagoda surrounded by three buildings and a covered corridor.

The spread of Buddhism contributed to contacts between Japan and Korea with China and the integration of Chinese culture into Japanese culture.

The Japanese discovered the beauty hidden in things in the 9th-12th centuries, during the Heian era (794 -1185) and even designated it with the special concept of “mono no aware” (Japanese 物の哀れ (もののあわれ)), which means “sad the charm of things." “The charm of things” is one of the earliest definitions of beauty in Japanese literature; it is associated with the Shinto belief that every thing contains its own deity - kami - and its own unique charm. Avare is the inner essence of things, that which causes delight and excitement.

- Washi (wasi) or wagami (wagami).
Handmade paper making. Medieval Japanese valued washi not only for its practical qualities, but also for its beauty. It was famous for its thinness, almost transparency, which, however, did not deprive it of its strength. Washi is made from the bark of the kozo (mulberry) tree and some other trees.
Washi paper has been preserved for centuries, as evidenced by albums and volumes of ancient Japanese calligraphy, paintings, screens, and engravings that have survived through the centuries to the present day.
Washi paper is fibrous; if you look through a microscope, you will see gaps through which air and sunlight penetrate. This quality is used in the manufacture of screens and traditional Japanese lanterns.
Washi souvenirs are very popular among Europeans. Many small and useful items are made from this paper: wallets, envelopes, fans. They are quite durable and yet lightweight.

- Gohei.
Talisman made of paper strips. Gohei is a ritual staff of a Shinto priest, to which paper zigzag strips are attached. The same strips of paper are hung at the entrance to a Shinto shrine. The role of paper in Shintoism has traditionally been very great, and products made from it have always been given an esoteric meaning. And the belief that every thing, every phenomenon, even words, contains a kami - a deity - also explains the appearance of such a type of applied art as gohei. Shintoism is in some ways very similar to our paganism. For Shintoists, the kami especially willingly settles in everything that is unusual. For example, in paper. And even more so in the gohei twisted in a sophisticated zigzag, which hangs today in front of the entrance to Shinto shrines and indicates the presence of a deity in the temple. There are 20 folding options for the gohei, and those folded especially unusually attract the kami. Mostly gohei is white, but there are also golden, silver and many other shades. Since the 9th century, there has been a custom in Japan to attach gohei to the belts of sumo wrestlers before the start of a fight.

- Anesama.
This is making paper dolls. In the 19th century, samurai wives made paper dolls that children played with, dressing them in different clothes. In times when there were no toys, anesama was the only interlocutor for children, “playing” the role of mother, older sister, child and friend.
The doll is rolled from Japanese washi paper, the hair is made from crumpled paper, painted with ink and covered with glue, which gives it a glossy finish. A distinctive feature is a cute little nose on an elongated face. Today, this simple, traditionally shaped toy, requiring nothing more than skillful hands, continues to be made in the same way as before.

- Origami.
The ancient art of paper folding (折り紙, lit.: “folded paper”). The art of origami has its roots in ancient China, where paper was invented. Origami was originally used in religious rituals. For a long time, this type of art was available only to representatives of the upper classes, where mastery of paper folding techniques was a sign of good form. Only after the Second World War did origami go beyond the East and come to America and Europe, where it immediately found its fans. Classic origami is made from a square sheet of paper.
There is a certain set of symbols necessary to sketch the folding diagram of even the most complex product. Most of the conventional signs were introduced into practice in the mid-20th century by the famous Japanese master Akira Yoshizawa.
Classic origami requires the use of one square, evenly colored sheet of paper without glue or scissors. Contemporary art forms sometimes depart from this canon.

- Kirigami.
Kirigami is the art of cutting out various shapes from a sheet of paper folded several times using scissors. A type of origami that allows the use of scissors and cutting paper during the process of making the model. This is the main difference between kirigami and other paper folding techniques, which is emphasized in the name: 切る (kiru) - cut, 紙 (gami) - paper. As children, we all loved to cut out snowflakes - a version of kirigami; using this technique you can cut out not only snowflakes, but also various figures, flowers, garlands and other cute things from paper. These products can be used as stencils for prints, decorating albums, cards, photo frames, in clothing design, interior design and other various decorations.

- Ikebana.
Ikebana, (Japanese 生け花 or いけばな) translated from Japanese - ike” - life, “bana” - flowers, or “flowers that live”. The Japanese art of flower arranging is one of the most beautiful traditions of the Japanese people. When composing ikebana, along with flowers, cut branches, leaves and shoots are used. The fundamental principle is the principle of exquisite simplicity, to achieve which they try to emphasize the natural beauty of plants. Ikebana is the creation of a new natural form in which the beauty of a flower and the beauty of the soul of the master creating the composition are harmoniously combined.
Today in Japan there are 4 largest schools of ikebana: Ikenobo, Koryu, Ohara, Sogetsu. In addition to them, there are about a thousand different directions and trends that adhere to one of these schools.

- Oribana.
In the mid-17th century, two schools emerged from Ikenobo: ohara (the main form of ikebana is oribana) and koryu (the main form is sseka). By the way, the ohara school still studies only oribana. As the Japanese say, it is very important that origami does not turn into origami. Gomi means trash in Japanese. After all, as it happens, you folded a piece of paper, and then what to do with it? Oribana offers a lot of bouquet ideas for interior decoration. ORIBANA = ORIGAMI + IKEBANA

- Wrong.
A type of fine art born from floristry. Floristry appeared in our country eight years ago, although it has existed in Japan for more than six hundred years. Once upon a time in the Middle Ages, samurai learned the way of the warrior. And oshibana was part of this path, just like writing hieroglyphs and wielding a sword. The meaning of the mistake was that in a state of total presence in the moment (satori), the master created a picture from dried flowers (pressed flowers). Then this picture could serve as a key, a guide for those who were ready to enter silence and experience that same satori.
The essence of the art of "oshibana" is that by collecting and drying flowers, herbs, leaves, bark under pressure and gluing them onto a base, the author creates a truly work of "painting" with the help of plants. In other words, oshibana is painting with plants.
The artistic creativity of florists is based on preserving the shape, color and texture of dried plant material. The Japanese have developed a technique for protecting oshibana paintings from fading and darkening. Its essence is that air is pumped out between the glass and the picture and a vacuum is created, which prevents the plants from deteriorating.
What attracts people is not only the unconventionality of this art, but also the opportunity to show imagination, taste, and knowledge of the properties of plants. Florists create ornaments, landscapes, still lifes, portraits and subject paintings.

- Bonsai.
Bonsai, as a phenomenon, appeared more than a thousand years ago in China, but this culture reached the peak of its development only in Japan. (bonsai - Japanese 盆栽 lit. "plant in a pot") - the art of growing an exact copy of a real tree in miniature. These plants were grown by Buddhist monks several centuries BC and subsequently became one of the occupations of the local nobility.
Bonsai decorated Japanese homes and gardens. During the Tokugawa era, park design received a new impetus: growing azaleas and maples became a pastime for wealthy people. Dwarf plant growing (hachi-no-ki - "tree in a pot") also developed, but the bonsai of that time were very large.
Nowadays, ordinary trees are used for bonsai; they become small thanks to constant pruning and various other methods. At the same time, the ratio of the sizes of the root system, limited by the volume of the bowl, and the ground part of the bonsai corresponds to the proportions of an adult tree in nature.

- Mizuhiki.
Similar to macrame. This is an ancient Japanese applied art of tying various knots from special cords and creating patterns from them. Such works of art had an extremely wide range of applications - from gift cards and letters to hairstyles and handbags. Nowadays, mizuhiki is extremely widely used in the gift industry - every event in life is accompanied by a gift, wrapped and tied in a very specific way. There are an extremely large number of knots and compositions in the art of mizuhiki, and not every Japanese knows them all by heart. Of course, there are the most common and simple knots that are used most often: for congratulations on the birth of a child, for a wedding or funeral, birthday or admission to university.

- Kumihimo.
Kumihimo is a Japanese braiding technique. When threads are intertwined, ribbons and laces are obtained. These laces are woven on special machines - Marudai and Takadai. The Marudai loom is used for weaving round laces, while the Takadai loom is used for flat laces. Kumihimo translated from Japanese means “weaving ropes” (kumi - weaving, folding together, himo - rope, lace). Despite the fact that historians stubbornly insist that similar weaving can be found among the Scandinavians and the inhabitants of the Andes, the Japanese art of kumihimo is truly one of the most ancient types of weaving. The first mention of it dates back to 550, when Buddhism spread throughout Japan and special ceremonies required special decorations. Later, kumihimo laces began to be used as a fastener for the obi belt on a woman's kimono, as ropes for “packing” the entire samurai arsenal of weapons (samurai used kumihimo for decorative and functional purposes, to tie their armor and the armor of their horses) and also for tying together heavy objects.
Various patterns of modern kumihimo are woven very easily on homemade cardboard looms.

- Komono.
What remains of a kimono after it has served its purpose? Do you think it's being thrown away? Nothing like this! The Japanese will never do that. Kimono is an expensive thing. It is unthinkable and impossible to simply throw it away... Along with other types of reuse of kimonos, craftswomen made small souvenirs from small scraps. These include small toys for children, dolls, brooches, garlands, women's jewelry and other products; old kimonos are used to make small cute things, which are collectively called “komono”. Little things that will take on a life of their own, continuing the path of the kimono. This is what the word "komono" means.

- Kanzashi.
The art of decorating hair pins (most often decorated with flowers (butterflies, etc.) made of fabric (mostly silk). Japanese kanzashi is a long hairpin for a traditional Japanese women's hairstyle. They were made of wood, lacquer, silver, tortoiseshell , used in traditional Chinese and Japanese hairstyles. About 400 years ago, the style of women's hairstyle changed in Japan: women stopped combing their hair in the traditional form - taregami (long straight hair) and began to style it in intricate and bizarre forms - nihongami. used various objects - hairpins, sticks, combs. It was then that even a simple kushi comb turns into an elegant accessory of extraordinary beauty, which becomes a real work of art. Japanese women's traditional costume did not allow wrist jewelry and necklaces, so hair decorations were the main beauty and field. for self-expression - as well as demonstrating the taste and thickness of the owner’s wallet. In the engravings you can see - if you look closely - how Japanese women easily hung up to twenty expensive kanzashi in their hairstyles.
Currently, there is a revival of the tradition of using kanzashi among young Japanese women who want to add sophistication and elegance to their hairstyles; modern hairpins can be decorated with just one or two elegant handmade flowers.

- Kinusayga.
An amazing type of handicraft from Japan. Kinusaiga (絹彩画) is a cross between batik and patchwork. The main idea is that old silk kimonos are pieced together into new paintings - true works of art.
First, the artist makes a sketch on paper. Then this drawing is transferred to a wooden board. The outline of the design is cut with grooves, or grooves, and then small pieces of matching color and tone are cut from an old silk kimono, and the edges of these pieces fill the grooves. When you look at such a picture, you get the feeling that you are looking at a photograph, or even just watching the landscape outside the window, they are so realistic.

- Temari.
These are traditional Japanese geometric embroidered balls made with simple stitches that were once a children's toy and have now become a form of applied art with many fans not only in Japan but throughout the world. It is believed that long ago these items were made by the wives of samurai for entertainment. At the very beginning they were actually used as a ball for playing ball, but step by step they began to acquire artistic elements, later turning into decorative ornaments. The delicate beauty of these balls is known throughout Japan. And today, colorful, carefully crafted products are one of the types of folk crafts in Japan.

- Yubinuki.
Japanese thimbles, when sewing or embroidering by hand, they are put on the middle phalanx of the middle finger of the working hand, with the help of the fingertips the needle is given the desired direction, and the ring on the middle finger pushes the needle through the work. Initially, Japanese yubinuki thimbles were made quite simply - a strip of thick fabric or leather about 1 cm wide in several layers was tightly wrapped around the finger and was fastened together with a few simple decorative stitches. Since yubinuks were a necessary item in every home, they began to be decorated with geometric embroidery using silk threads. Interlocking stitches created colorful and complex patterns. Yubinuki from a simple household item has also turned into an object for “admiration” and decoration of everyday life.
Yubinuki are still used for sewing and embroidery, but in addition they can also be found simply worn on the hands on any finger, like decorative rings. Embroidery in the yubinuki style is used to decorate various ring-shaped objects - napkin rings, bracelets, temari stands decorated with yubinuki embroidery, and there are also embroidered needle cases in the same style. Yubinuki patterns can be a great source of inspiration for temari obi embroidery.

- Suibokuga or sumie.
Japanese ink painting. This Chinese style of painting was borrowed by Japanese artists in the 14th century, and by the end of the 15th century. has become the main direction of painting in Japan. Suibokuga is monochrome. It is characterized by the use of black ink (sumi), a hard form of charcoal or soot-derived Chinese ink, which is ground in an ink pot, diluted with water and brushed onto paper or silk. Monochrome offers the master an endless choice of tonal options, which the Chinese have long recognized as the “colors” of ink. Suibokuga sometimes allows the use of real colors, but limits it to thin, transparent strokes, which always remain subordinate to the line executed in ink. Ink painting shares with the art of calligraphy such essential characteristics as tightly controlled expression and technical mastery of form. The quality of ink painting comes down, as in calligraphy, to the integrity and resistance to tearing of the line drawn with ink, which seems to hold the work of art on itself, just as bones hold tissue on themselves.

- Etagami.
Drawn postcards (e - picture, tags - letter). Making cards with your own hands is generally a very popular activity in Japan, and before the holiday its popularity increases even more. The Japanese love to send postcards to their friends, and they love to receive them too. This is a type of quick letter on special blank forms; it can be sent by mail without an envelope. There are no special rules or techniques in etegami; anyone can do it without special training. Stages helps to accurately express mood, impressions, this is a handmade postcard consisting of a picture and a short letter, conveying the sender’s emotions, such as warmth, passion, care, love, etc. These cards are sent on holidays and just like that, depicting seasons, actions, vegetables and fruits, people and animals. The simpler this picture is drawn, the more interesting it looks.

- Furoshiki.
Japanese packaging technique or the art of folding fabric. Furoshiki have been part of Japanese life for a long time. Ancient scrolls from the Kamakura-Muromachi periods (1185 - 1573) with images of women carrying bundles of clothes wrapped in cloth on their heads have been preserved. This interesting technique originated back in 710 - 794 AD in Japan. The word "furoshiki" literally translates to "bath mat" and is a square piece of cloth that was used to wrap and carry objects of all shapes and sizes.
In the old days, in Japanese baths (furo) it was customary to wear light cotton kimonos, which visitors brought with them from home. The bather also brought a special mat (shiki) on which he stood while undressing. Having changed into a “bath” kimono, the visitor wrapped his clothes in a rug, and after the bath he wrapped the wet kimono in the rug to carry it home. Thus, the bath mat turned into a multifunctional bag.
Furoshiki is very easy to use: the fabric takes the shape of the item you are wrapping, and the handles make it easy to carry the load. In addition, a gift wrapped not in hard paper, but in soft, multi-layered fabric, acquires special expressiveness. There are many patterns for folding furoshiki for any occasion, everyday or holiday.

- Amigurumi.
The Japanese art of knitting or crocheting small soft animals and humanoid creatures. Amigurumi (Japanese 編み包み, lit.: “knitted-wrapped”) are most often cute animals (such as bears, bunnies, cats, dogs, etc.), people, but they can also be inanimate objects endowed with human properties. For example, cupcakes, hats, handbags and others. Amigurumi is knitted or crocheted. Recently, crocheted amigurumi have become more popular and more common.
They are knitted from yarn using a simple knitting method - in a spiral and, unlike the European knitting method, the circles are usually not connected. They are also crocheted in a smaller size relative to the thickness of the yarn to create a very tight fabric without any gaps through which the stuffing material can escape. Amigurumi are often made from parts and then put together, with the exception of some amigurumi that do not have limbs, but only a head and torso that form one whole. The limbs are sometimes stuffed with plastic pieces to give them live weight, while the rest of the body is filled with fiber filler.
The spread of amigurumi aesthetics is facilitated by their cuteness (“kawaiiness”).

“The Great Wave off Kanagawa” by master Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) is one of the most famous prints and the first sheet of the “Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji” series. In the early 1830s, Katsushika Hokusai, commissioned by the Eijudo publishing house, began creating a series of 46 sheets (36 main and 10 additional), and “The Great Wave off Kanagawa” was an engraving that reveals the entire series.

Such collections of engravings served as a kind of “virtual travel” for the townspeople of that time, a convenient and inexpensive way to satisfy curiosity. Engravings like those of Mount Fuji cost about 20 mon, about the same as a double portion of noodles at a Japanese eatery at the time. However, the success was so great that by 1838 the cost of Hokusai’s sheets had risen to almost 50 mon, and after the master’s death, “The Wave” alone was reprinted from new boards more than 1000 times.

It is surprising that, despite the stated theme of the entire series, Fuji in “The Wave” plays like a secondary role. The main “character” in this engraving is the wave, and in the foreground there is a dramatic scene of a man’s struggle with the elements. The edges of the foamy ridge look like the twisted fingers of a fantastic angry demon, and the facelessness and inactivity of the human figures in the boats leave no doubt about who will be the winner in this fight. Nevertheless, it is not this confrontation that is the conflict that creates the plot of the engraving.
By freezing the moment before the boats crash, Hokusai allows the viewer to glimpse Mount Fuji against the backdrop of a gray sky that darkens towards the horizon. Although Japanese engravers were by that time already familiar with the principles of European linear and aerial perspective, they did not feel the need for this technique. The dark background, as well as the long journey of the eye from the foreground with the boats through the movement of the waves towards Fuji, convince the eye that the sacred mountain is separated from us by the expanse of the sea.

Fuji rises far on the shore as a symbol of stability and constancy in contrast to the stormy elements. The unity and interdependence of opposites underlay the idea of ​​cosmic order and absolute harmony in the worldview of the Far East, and it was they who became the main theme of the engraving “The Great Wave in Kanagawa”, which opens the series by Katsushika Hokusai.

“Beauty Naniwaya Okita” by Kitagawa Utamaro, 1795-1796

Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806) can rightfully be called the singer of female beauty in Japanese prints ukiyo-e: he created a number of canonical images of Japanese beauties ( bidzinga) - inhabitants of tea houses and the famous Yoshiwara entertainment district in the capital of Japan, Edo Edo — name of Tokyo until 1868..

In bidzinga engraving, everything is not quite what it seems to the modern viewer. Richly dressed noble ladies were, as a rule, engaged in a shameful craft and belonged to the lower class, and engravings with portraits of beauties had an openly advertising function. At the same time, the engraving did not give an idea of ​​​​the girl’s appearance, and although Okita from the Naniwaya tea house near the Asakusa temple was considered the first beauty of Edo, her face in the engraving is completely devoid of individuality.

Since the 10th century, female images in Japanese fine art have been subject to the canon of minimalism. “Line-eye, hook-nose” - technique hikime-kagihana allowed the artist only to indicate that a certain woman was depicted: in Japanese traditional culture the question of physical beauty was often omitted. In women of noble origin, “beauty of heart” and education were valued much more highly, and the inhabitants of cheerful neighborhoods strove to imitate the highest examples in everything. According to Utamaro, Okita was truly beautiful.

The sheet “Beauty Naniwaya Okita” was printed in 1795-1796 in the series “Illustrious Beauties Likened to Six Immortal Poets,” in which each beauty corresponded to one of the 9th-century writers. On the sheet with Okita's portrait, in the upper left corner there is an image of Ariwara no Narihira (825-880), one of Japan's most revered poets, to whom the novel Ise Monogatari is traditionally attributed. This noble nobleman and brilliant poet also became famous for his love affairs, some of which formed the basis of the novel.

This sheet is a unique use of the technique mitate(similarities) in Japanese prints. The qualities of an authoritative “prototype” are transferred to the depicted beauty, and the elegant courtesan, serving a cup of tea to the guest with a serene face, is already read by the viewer as a lady skilled in poetry and matters of love. Comparison with Ariwara no Narihira was truly recognition of her primacy among Edo beauties.

At the same time, Utamaro creates a surprisingly lyrical image. By balancing dark and light spots on the sheet and outlining the shape with melodious, elegant lines, it creates a truly ideal image of grace and harmony. The "advertising" recedes, and the beauty captured by Utamaro remains timeless.

Screen "Irises" by Ogata Korin, 1710s

A pair of six-leaf screens depicting irises - now a national treasure of Japan - were created by Ogata Korin (1658-1716) around 1710 for the Nishi-Honganji Temple in Kyoto.

Already from the 16th century, painting on wall panels and paper screens became one of the leading genres of decorative art in Japan, and Ogata Korin, the founder of the Rimpa art school, was one of its greatest masters.

Screens played an important role in Japanese interiors. The spacious palace premises were structurally no different from the home of an ordinary Japanese: they had almost no internal walls, and the space was zoned using folding screens. Just a little over one and a half meters high, the screens were designed to accommodate the common Japanese tradition of all classes of living on the floor. In Japan, until the 19th century, high chairs and tables were not used, and the height of the screen, as well as the composition of its painting, was designed for the gaze of a person sitting on his knees. It is from this point of view that an amazing effect occurs: the irises seem to surround the person sitting - and a person can feel like he is on the bank of a river, surrounded by flowers.

The irises are painted in a non-contour style - almost impressionistic, wide strokes of dark blue, lilac and violet tempera convey the lush splendor of this flower. The picturesque effect is enhanced by the dim shimmer of gold, against which the irises are depicted. The screens depict nothing but flowers, but the angular line of their growth suggests that the flowers skirt the winding course of a river or the zigzags of wooden walkways. It would be natural for the Japanese to see the missing bridge on the screen, a special “eight plank bridge” ( yatsuhashi), associated with irises in classical Japanese literature. The novel “Ise Monogatari” (9th century) describes the sad journey of a hero expelled from the capital. Having settled down with his retinue to relax on the river bank near the Yatsuhashi Bridge, the hero, seeing the irises, remembers his beloved and composes poetry:

My beloved in clothes
Graceful there, in the capital,
Love left...
And I think with sadness how
I'm far from her... Translation by N. I. Conrad.

“He folded it this way, and everyone shed tears on their dried rice, so that it swelled with moisture,” adds the author and lyrical hero of the story, Ariwara no Narihira.

For an educated Japanese, the connection between the irises by the bridge and Ise Monogatari, the irises and the theme of separated love was clear, and Ogata Korin avoids verbosity and illustrativeness. With the help of decorative painting, he only creates an ideal space filled with light, color and literary connotations.

Golden Pavilion of Kinkakuji, Kyoto, 1397

The Golden Temple is one of the symbols of Japan, which, ironically, was glorified more for its destruction than for its construction. In 1950, a mentally unstable monk of the Rokuonji Monastery, to which this building belongs, set fire to a pond standing on the surface of the
pavilion During the fire of 1950, the temple was practically destroyed. Restoration work at Kinkaku-ji began in 1955; by 1987, the reconstruction as a whole was completed, but the restoration of the completely lost interior decoration continued until 2003.. The true motives of his action remained unclear, but in the interpretation of the writer Yukio Mishima, the unattainable, almost mystical beauty of this temple was to blame. Indeed, for several centuries, Kinkakuji was considered the epitome of Japanese beauty.

In 1394, shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), who had subjugated almost all of Japan to his will, formally retired and settled in a specially built villa in the north of Kyoto. The three-tiered structure on the artificial lake Kyokoti (“mirror lake”) played the role of a kind of hermitage, a secluded pavilion for relaxation, reading and prayer. It housed the shogun's painting collection, a library and a collection of Buddhist relics. Located on the water near the shore, Kinkakuji had only a boat connection with the shore and was the same island as the artificial islands with stones and pine trees scattered around Kyokochi. The idea of ​​the “island of the celestials” was borrowed from Chinese mythology, in which the image of the heavenly abode was the island of Penglai, the island of immortals. The reflection of the pavilion in the water already evokes Buddhist associations with ideas about the illusory nature of the mortal world, which is only a pale reflection of the splendor of the world of Buddhist truth.

Although all these mythological implications are speculative, the location of the pavilion gives it amazing harmony and harmony. The reflection hides the squatness of the building, making it taller and slimmer; at the same time, it is the height of the pavilion that allows it to be seen from any shore of the pond, always against a dark background of greenery.

It remains, however, not entirely clear how golden this pavilion was in its original form. Probably, under Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, it was indeed covered with gold leaf and a protective layer of varnish. But if you believe the photographs of the 19th - early 20th centuries and Yukio Mishima, then by the middle of the 20th century the gilding had almost peeled off and its remains were visible only on the upper tier of the building. At this time, he rather touched the soul with the charm of abandonment, the traces of time, inexorable to even the most beautiful things. This melancholy charm corresponded to the aesthetic principle sabi, highly revered in Japanese culture.

One way or another, the splendor of this building did not lie in the gold. The exquisite severity of Kinkakuji's forms and its impeccable harmony with the landscape make it one of the masterpieces of Japanese architecture.

Bowl "Iris" in the karatsu style, XVI-XVII centuries

An analogue of the Western concept of “masterpiece” in Japanese traditional ceramics can be considered the word meibutsu- a thing with a name. This bowl really only has its name, since neither the exact time and place of its creation, nor the name of the master have been preserved. Nevertheless, it is considered one of the national treasures of Japan and is one of the striking examples of ceramics in the national style.

At the end of the 16th century, the tea ceremony cha-no-yu abandoned fine Chinese porcelain and ceramics with glazes that resembled precious materials. Their spectacular beauty seemed too artificial and overt to the tea masters. Perfect and expensive objects - bowls, water vessels and teapots - did not correspond to the almost ascetic spiritual canons of Zen Buddhism, in the spirit of which the tea ceremony developed. A real revolution in tea making was the turn to Japanese ceramics, which was much simpler and more artless at a time when Japanese workshops had just begun to master the technologies of continental pottery.

The shape of the Iris bowl is simple and irregular. The slight curvature of the walls and the dents made by the potter’s hands visible throughout the body impart an almost naive ease to the bowl. The clay shard is covered with a light glaze with a network of cracks - craquelure. On the front side, which addresses the guest during the tea ceremony, there is an image of an iris under the glaze: the design is naive, but executed with an energetic brush, precisely, as if in one movement, in the spirit of Zen calligraphy. It seems that both the form and the decoration could have been made spontaneously and without the application of special forces.

This spontaneity reflects the ideal wabi- simplicity and artlessness, giving rise to a feeling of spiritual freedom and harmony. In the ideas of Japanese followers of Zen Buddhism, any person or even an inanimate object has the enlightened nature of Buddha, and the efforts of the adept are aimed at discovering this nature in himself and the world around him. The things used in the tea ceremony, with all their unpretentiousness, were supposed to evoke a deep experience of truth, the relevance of each moment, force one to peer into the most ordinary forms and see true beauty in them.

A contrast to the rough texture of the bowl and its simplicity is the restoration of a small chip with gold varnish (this technique is called kintsugi). The restoration was carried out in the 18th century and demonstrates the respect with which Japanese tea masters treated utensils for the tea ceremony. Thus, the tea ceremony provides participants with a “path” to discover the true beauty of things such as the Iris bowl. Implicitness and intimacy became the basis of the aesthetic concept of wabi and an important part of the Japanese worldview.

Portrait of the monk Ganjin, Nara, 763

In the 8th century, sculpture became the main form of artistic expression of the era, the Nara era (710-794), associated with the formation of Japanese statehood and the strengthening of Buddhism. Japanese masters have already passed the stage of apprenticeship and blind imitation of continental techniques and images and began to freely and vividly express the spirit of their time in sculpture. The spread and growth of the authority of Buddhism gave rise to the appearance of Buddhist sculptural portraiture.

One of the masterpieces of this genre is the portrait of Ganjin, created in 763. Made using the dry varnish technique (building layers of varnish onto a wooden frame covered with fabric), the almost life-size sculpture was realistically painted, and in the twilight of the temple Ganjin sat in a pose of meditation “as if alive.” This life-likeness was the main cult function of such portraits: the teacher had to always be within the walls of the Todaiji Monastery in the city of Nara and be present at the most important services.

Later, in the 11th-13th centuries, sculptural portraits reached an almost merciless illusionism, depicting the senile infirmity of venerable teachers, their sunken mouths, sagging cheeks and deep wrinkles. These portraits look at the adherents of Buddhism with living eyes, inlaid with rock crystal and wood. But Ganjin’s face seems blurry, there are no clear contours or clear shapes. The eyelids of half-closed and unencrusted eyes appear swollen; a tense mouth and deep nasolabial folds express habitual caution rather than the concentration of meditation.

All these features reveal the dramatic biography of this monk, the story of amazing asceticism and tragedies. Ganjin, a Chinese Buddhist monk, was invited to Japan for the consecration ceremony of Nara's largest monastery, Todaiji. The ship was captured by pirates, priceless scrolls and Buddhist sculptures that were destined for a distant Japanese temple were destroyed in the fire, Ganjin burned his face and lost his sight. But he did not give up the desire to preach on the distant outskirts of civilization - and this is exactly how Japan was perceived by the continent at that time.

Several more attempts to cross the sea ended in the same unsuccessful way, and only on the fifth attempt the already middle-aged, blind and sickly Ganjin reaches the Japanese capital of Nara.

In Japan, Ganjin taught Buddhist law for a short time: the dramatic events of his life undermined his health. But his authority was so high that, probably, even before his death, a decision was made to create his sculpture. Undoubtedly, the monastic artists sought to give the sculpture as much resemblance as possible to the model. But this was done not to preserve the external appearance of a person, but to capture his individual spiritual experience, the difficult path that Ganjin went through and to which Buddhist teaching called.

Daibutsu - Big Buddha of Todaiji Temple, Nara, mid-8th century

In the middle of the 8th century, Japan suffered from natural disasters and epidemics, and the intrigues of the influential Fujiwara family and the rebellion they raised forced Emperor Shoma to flee the capital, the city of Nara. In exile, he vowed to follow the path of Buddhist teachings and in 743 he ordered the construction of the main temple of the country to begin and the casting of a colossal bronze statue of Buddha Vairocana (Buddha the Great Sun or All-Illuminating Light). This deity was considered the universal incarnation of Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of Buddhist teachings, and was supposed to become the guarantor of the protection of the emperor and the entire country during periods of unrest and rebellion.

Work began in 745 and the giant Buddha statue in the Longmen cave temples near the Chinese capital Luoyang was taken as a model. The statue at Nara, like any image of the Buddha, was supposed to demonstrate the “great and small attributes of the Buddha.” This iconographic canon included elongated earlobes, reminiscent of the fact that Buddha Shakyamuni came from a princely family and from childhood wore heavy earrings, a prominence on the top of the head (ushnisha), and a point on the forehead (urna).

The height of the statue was 16 meters, the width of the face was 5 meters, the length of the outstretched palm was 3.7 meters, and the urn was larger than a human head. The construction took 444 tons of copper, 82 tons of tin and a huge amount of gold, the search for which was specially undertaken in the north of the country. A hall was erected around the statue - Daibutsuden, designed to protect the shrine. In its small space, a slightly bowed seated figure of Buddha fills the entire space, illustrating one of the main tenets of Buddhism - the idea that the deity is omnipresent and all-pervading, it embraces and fills everything. The transcendental calmness of the face and the gesture of the deity’s hand (mudra, the gesture of bestowing protection) complement the feeling of the calm greatness and power of the Buddha.

However, only a few fragments of the original statue remain today: fires and wars caused enormous damage to the statue in the 12th and 16th centuries, and the modern statue is mainly an 18th-century casting. During the restoration of the 18th century, the bronze figure was no longer covered with gold. The Buddhist zeal of Emperor Shomu in the 8th century practically emptied the treasury and bled the already shaken country, and later rulers could no longer afford such extravagant spending.

Nevertheless, the significance of the Daibutsu lies not in gold or even in reliable authenticity - the very idea of ​​​​such a grandiose embodiment of Buddhist teachings is a monument to an era when Japanese monumental art experienced a true heyday, freed itself from blind copying of continental models and achieved the integrity and expressiveness that it later lost.

Japan? How did it develop? We will answer these and other questions in the article. Japanese culture was formed as a result of a historical movement that began when the Japanese moved from the mainland to the archipelago and the civilization of the Jomon period was born.

The current enlightenment of this people has been greatly influenced by Europe, Asia (especially Korea and China) and North America. One of the signs of Japanese culture is its long development in the era of complete isolation of the state (sakoku policy) from all other countries during the reign of the Tokugawa Shogunate, which lasted until the mid-19th century - the beginning of the Meiji era.

Influence

How did Japanese artistic culture develop? Civilization was significantly influenced by the isolated regional location of the country, climatic and geographical features, as well as natural phenomena (typhoons and frequent earthquakes). This was expressed in the extraordinary attitude of the population towards nature as a living being. A feature of the Japanese national character is the ability to admire the flowing beauty of the Universe, which is expressed in many types of art in a small country.

The artistic culture of Japan was created under the influence of Buddhism, Shintoism and Confucianism. These same directions influenced its further development.

Old times

Agree, Japan's artistic culture is magnificent. Shintoism has its roots in ancient times. Buddhism, although it appeared before our era, began to spread only from the fifth century. The Heian period (8th-12th centuries) is considered the golden era of Japanese statehood. During the same period, the pictorial culture of this country reached its highest point.

Confucianism appeared in the 13th century. At this stage, the separation of the philosophy of Confucius and Buddhism occurred.

Hieroglyphs

The image of Japanese artistic culture is embodied in a unique verse called. In this country, the art of calligraphy is also highly developed, which, according to legend, arose from heavenly divine images. It was they who breathed life into writing, so the population is sensitive to every sign in spelling.

There are rumors that Japanese culture was given by hieroglyphs, since from them the images surrounding the inscription emerged. A little later, a strong combination of elements of painting and poetry in one work began to be observed.

If you study a Japanese scroll, you will find that the work contains two types of symbols. These are signs of writing - seals, poems, colophenes, as well as paintings. At the same time, Kabuki theater gained great popularity. A different type of theater - No - is preferred mainly by military personnel. their severity and cruelty had a strong influence on Noh.

Painting

Artistic culture has been studied by many specialists. Kaiga painting, which in Japanese means drawing or painting, played a huge role in its development. This art is regarded as the oldest type of painting in the state, which is determined by a huge number of solutions and forms.

In it, nature occupies a special place, which defines the sacred principle. The division of painting into sumi-e and yamato-e has existed since the tenth century. The first style developed closer to the fourteenth century. It is a kind of monochrome watercolor. Yamato-e are horizontally folded scrolls that were commonly used in the design of works of literature.

A little later, in the 17th century, printing on tablets - ukiyo-e - appeared in the country. Masters depicted landscapes, geishas, ​​and famous Kabuki actors. This type of painting had a strong influence on the art of Europe in the 18th century. The emerging trend was called “Japanism”. In the Middle Ages, Japanese culture went beyond the country's borders - it began to be used in the design of stylish and fashionable interiors around the world.

Calligraphy

Oh, how beautiful the artistic culture of Japan is! The achievement of harmony with nature can be seen in every segment of it. What is modern Japanese calligraphy? It is called shodo (“the path of notification”). Calligraphy, like writing, is a compulsory discipline. Scientists have found that this art came there at the same time as Chinese writing.

By the way, in ancient times a person’s culture was judged by his level of calligraphy. Today there are a large number of writing styles, and they are developed by Buddhist monks.

Sculpture

How did Japanese culture emerge? We will study the development and types of this area of ​​human activity in as much detail as possible. Sculpture is the oldest type of art in Japan. In ancient times, the people of this country made figurines of idols and dishes from ceramics. Then people began to install haniwa sculptures made from baked clay on the graves.

The development of sculptural craft in modern Japanese culture is associated with the spread of Buddhism in the state. One of the most ancient representatives of Japanese monuments is considered to be the statue of Buddha Amitabha, made of wood, located in the Zenko-ji Temple.

The sculptures were very often made from beams, but they looked very rich: the craftsmen covered them with varnish, gold and bright colors.

Origami

Do you like Japanese artistic culture? Understanding harmony with nature will bring unforgettable impressions. Amazing origami (“folded paper”) products have become a characteristic feature of Japanese culture. This skill owes its origin to China, where, in fact, parchment was invented.

At first, “folded paper” was used in religious rituals. This art could only be studied by the upper class. But after World War II, origami left the homes of nobles and found its admirers all over the Earth.

Ikebana

Every person should know what the artistic culture of the Eastern countries is. Japan has put a lot of work into its development. Another component of the culture of this amazing country is ikebana (“fresh flowers”, “new life of flowers”). The Japanese are fans of aesthetics and simplicity. These two qualities are put into the works. The sophistication of the images is achieved through the beneficial use of the natural beauty of vegetation. Ikebana, like origami, also served as part of a religious ceremony.

Miniatures

Many people have probably already realized that the artistic cultures of Ancient China and Japan are closely intertwined. What is bonsai? This is a unique Japanese ability to cultivate an almost exact miniature copy of a real tree.

In Japan, it is also common to make netsuke - small sculptures that are a kind of keychain. Often such figures were attached in this capacity to Japanese clothes, which did not have pockets. They not only decorated it, but also served as a unique counterweight. Key rings were made in the form of a key, pouch, or wicker basket.

History of painting

The artistic culture of Ancient Japan interests many people. Painting in this country originated during the Japanese Paleolithic period and developed as follows:

• Yamato period. During the time of Asuka and Kofun (IV-VII centuries), simultaneously with the introduction of hieroglyphs, the creation of a state regime based on the Chinese model and the popularization of Buddhism, many works of art were brought to Japan from the Celestial Empire. After this, Chinese-style paintings began to be reproduced in the Land of the Rising Sun.
• Nara time. In the VI and VII centuries. Buddhism continued to develop in Japan. In this regard, religious painting began to flourish, used to decorate numerous temples built by the aristocracy. In general, the Nara era contributed more to the development of sculpture and art than to painting. Early paintings in this cycle include paintings on the interior walls of Horyu-ji Temple in Nara Prefecture, depicting the life of Shakyamuni Buddha.
• Heian era. In Japanese painting, starting from the 10th century, the Yamato-e trend has been distinguished, as we wrote about above. Such paintings are horizontal scrolls that were used to illustrate books.
• Muromachi era. In the 14th century, the supi-e style (monochrome watercolor) appeared, and in the first half of the 17th century. artists began to print engravings on tablets - ukiyo-e.
• The painting of the Azuchi-Momoyama period stands in sharp contrast to the painting of the Muromachi period. It is characterized by a polychrome style with extensive use of silver and During this period, the Kano educational institution enjoyed great prestige and fame. Its founder was Kano Eitoku, who painted ceilings and sliding doors to separate rooms. Such drawings decorated the castles and palaces of the military nobility.
• Maiji era. From the second half of the 19th century, art divided into competing traditional and European styles. During the Maiji era, Japan underwent great social and political changes through the process of modernization and Europeanization orchestrated by the authorities. Promising young artists were sent abroad to study, and foreign painters came to Japan to create school art programs. However, after an initial surge of curiosity about Western artistic styles, the pendulum swung back and Japanese traditional style was revived. In 1880, Western art practices were banned from official exhibitions and were heavily criticized.

Poetry

The artistic culture of Ancient Japan is still being studied. Its peculiarity is its versatility, some syntheticity, since it was formed under the influence of different religions. It is known that Japanese classical poetry emerged from everyday life, acted within it, and this down-to-earthness was to some extent preserved in the traditional forms of modern poetry - the three-line haiku and the five-line tanka, which are distinguished by a pronounced mass character. By the way, it is precisely this quality that distinguishes them from the “free verse” that tends towards elitism, which appeared at the beginning of the 20th century in Japan under the influence of European poetry.

Have you noticed that the stages of development of Japanese artistic culture are multifaceted? Poetry played a special role in the society of this country. One of the most famous genres is haiku; you can understand it only by familiarizing yourself with its history.

First appearing in the Heian era, it was similar to the renga style, which was a kind of outlet for poets who wanted to take a break from the thoughtful waha poems. Haikai developed into its own genre in the 16th century as renga became too serious and haiku relied on spoken language and was still humorous.

Of course, the artistic culture of Japan is briefly described in many works, but we will try to talk about it in more detail. It is known that in the Middle Ages one of the most famous Japanese literary genres was tanka (“laconic song”). In most cases, this is a pentaverse, consisting of a pair of stanzas with a fixed number of syllables: 5-7-5 syllables in three lines of the first stanza, and 7-7 in two lines of the second. As for the content, the tank uses the following scheme: the first stanza represents a specific natural image, and the second reflects the human feeling that echoes this image:

• In the distant remote mountains
  Long-tailed pheasant dozing -
  This long, long night
  Should I really sleep alone? ( Kakinomoto no Hitowaro, early 8th century, translation by Sanovich.)

Japanese drama

Many people claim that the artistic culture of China and Japan is fascinating. Do you like performing arts? The traditional dramaturgy of the Land of the Rising Sun is divided into joruri (puppet theater), Noh theater dramaturgy (kyogen and yokyouku), Kabuki theater and Shingeki. The customs of this art include five basic theatrical genres: kyogen, no, bugaku, kabuki and bunraku. All five of these traditions are still present today. Despite their enormous differences, they are connected by common aesthetic principles that underlie Japanese art. By the way, Japanese drama originated on the stage of Noh.

Kabuki theater appeared in the 17th century and reached its zenith towards the end of the 18th. The form of performances that developed during this period is preserved on the modern stage of Kabuki. The productions of this theatre, unlike the Noh stages, which are aimed at a narrow circle of fans of ancient art, are designed for mass audiences. The roots of Kabuki skills originate from the performances of comedians - performers of small farces, skits that consisted of dancing and singing. The theatrical skill of Kabuki absorbed elements of Joruri and Noh.

The appearance of Kabuki theater is associated with the name of a worker at the Buddhist sanctuary O-Kuni in Kyoto (1603). O-Kuni performed on the stage with religious dances, which included the movements of the Nembutsu-odori folk dances. Her performances were interspersed with comic plays. At this stage, productions were called yujo-kabuki (Kabuki of courtesans), O-Kuni-kabuki or onna-kabuki (ladies' Kabuki).

Engravings

In the last century, Europeans, and then Russians, encountered the phenomenon of Japanese art through engraving. Meanwhile, in the Land of the Rising Sun, drawing on wood was not at first considered a skill at all, although it had all the properties of mass culture - cheapness, accessibility, circulation. Ukiyo-e experts knew how to achieve the highest clarity and simplicity both in the embodiment of plots and in their choice.

Ukiyo-e was a special art school, so it was able to produce a number of outstanding artists. Thus, the initial phase of the development of plot engraving is associated with the name of Hishikawa Moronobu (1618-1694). In the middle of the 18th century, the first expert in multicolor engraving, Suzuki Harunobu, worked. The main motives of his work were lyrical scenes, in which attention was paid not to action, but to the transfer of moods and feelings: love, tenderness, sadness. Like the exquisite ancient art of the Heian era, the virtuosos of ukiyo-e revived the extraordinary cult of the refined beauty of women in a renewed urban environment.

The only difference was that instead of the proud Heian aristocrats, the engravings depicted graceful geishas from the entertainment districts of Edo. The artist Utamaro (1753-1806) is perhaps a unique example in the history of painting of a professional who completely devoted his creation to depicting ladies in various poses and outfits, in various life circumstances. One of his best works is the engraving “Geisha Osama,” which is kept in Moscow, in the A. S. Pushkin Museum of Painting. The artist incredibly subtly conveyed the unity of gesture and mood, facial expression.

Manga and anime

Many artists are trying to study Japanese painting. What is anime (Japanese animation)? It differs from other animation genres in its greater focus on the adult viewer. Here there is a duplicative division into styles for a unique target audience. The measure of fragmentation is the gender, age or psychological portrait of the movie viewer. Very often, anime is a film adaptation of a Japanese manga comic, which has also gained great fame.

The basic part of the manga is intended for an adult viewer. As of 2002, about 20% of the total Japanese book market was occupied by manga comics.

Japan is close to us geographically, but despite this, for a long time it remained incomprehensible and inaccessible to the whole world. Today we know a lot about this country. Long voluntary isolation has led to the fact that its culture is completely different from the cultures of other states.

Since ancient times, Japanese art has been characterized by active creativity. Despite their dependence on China, where new artistic and aesthetic trends constantly emerged, Japanese artists always introduced new features and changed the art of their teachers, giving it a Japanese look.

The history of Japan as such begins to take on certain forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few objects dating back to previous centuries (the Archaic period) have been discovered, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work indicate remarkable artistic talent.

Archaic period.

The oldest works of Japanese art are clay pots of the jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of cord wrapped around the sticks that the craftsman used to make the vessel. Perhaps at first the craftsmen accidentally discovered the braided prints, but then they began to use them deliberately. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck onto the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost a relief. The first Japanese sculpture arose in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some religious significance. The images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.

Radiocarbon dating suggests that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6-5 thousand BC, but dating so early is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made over a long period of time, and although exact dating cannot yet be established, three periods can be distinguished. The oldest examples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for traces of a potter's tool. The vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements, creating the impression of volume. The shapes of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decor again flattens and becomes more restrained.

Around the 2nd century. BC. Jomon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by graceful forms, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The sherd of the vessel became thinner, the ornament less fanciful. This type prevailed until the 3rd century. AD

From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are the haniwa, clay cylinders dating from the 3rd to 5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very large in size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395-427 AD) took 40 years. The most notable feature of these mounds was the clay cylinders, haniwa, surrounding them like a fence. Usually these cylinders were completely simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figures of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of land and to supply the deceased with the necessities that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were produced in large quantities at once. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master’s improvisation. Despite the fact that they are the works of artisans rather than painters and sculptors, they are of great importance as a Japanese art form proper. The buildings, blanketed horses, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that the prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various objects were placed directly into burials, but the execution and method of using haniwa belong to local tradition.

The Archaic period is often seen as a time devoid of works of high artistic level, a time of dominance of things of mainly archaeological and ethnological value. It must be remembered, however, that the works of this early culture as a whole had great vitality, since their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.

Asuka period

(552-710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became an impetus for the development of art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China via Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, with opposition from the national religion Shinto, but just a few decades later the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its introduction to Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities that needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.
During this period, temples were founded, which served not only the purposes of propagating the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyuji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Bussi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image similar to similar groups in the great cave temples of China. The pose of the seated Shaky (Japanese transcription of the word "Shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and the two figures standing on either side of him is strictly frontal. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in the smooth elongated faces one can feel dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years earlier; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.

Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are those of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the Kannon figures also have a schematic and symmetrical arrangement of folds of clothing, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the prayers of the suffering. The sculptor paid some attention to the contours of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both figure and fabric is directed into depth. In profile, Kudara Kannon has a graceful S-shaped outline.

The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of ​​the style of the early 7th century is the painting of Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged shrine”. This miniature shrine takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters made with colored varnish. Like the sculpture of this period, some images show great freedom of design.

Nara period

(710-784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, a new city modeled after the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, and numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the entire Chinese cultural and political life was perceived as a model to follow. No other country has perhaps felt more inadequate in its own culture or been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and government and palace life were modeled after Tang Dynasty China. However, we must remember that, despite imitating the examples of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.

In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of use of material allowed artists to create more intimate and accessible cult images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and varnish are known. Stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry varnish was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more impressive than wooden ones and were stronger than clay products that were easier to make. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire reinforcement; they were light and durable. Despite the fact that this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, great freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partially contributed to the development of what can be called portrait sculpture proper. The depiction of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict requirements of Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait likeness. This similarity can be seen in the sculpture made of dry varnish of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji Temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully captured by the unknown sculptor. This realistic tendency was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kuya, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th and 14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, gong and mallet, and small Buddha figures emerge from his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor made an attempt to express the innermost meaning of his words.
The images of Buddha from the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and are addressed with greater favor to the people who worship them.

Very few paintings from this time have survived. The multi-colored design on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls slowly unwound from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy that part of the picture that was located between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were placed directly above the text, unlike later scrolls where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against a barely outlined landscape, with the central character, in this case Shaka, appearing in various scenes.

Early Heian

(784-897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China and from there were brought to Japan by two scientists who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon (“True Words”) sect was especially popular at court and quickly assumed a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became repositories of huge collections of art.

9th century sculpture was mostly wooden. The images of deities were distinguished by their severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut out according to standard patterns, and scarves lay in waves. The standing figure of Shaki from the Muroji Temple is an example of this style. For this and similar images from the 9th century. characterized by rigid carvings with deeper, crisp folds and other details.

The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (geometric designs with magical meanings), the deities were arranged in a hierarchy around the central Buddha, who was himself only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were located asymmetrically and were depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely defending faith from possible dangers.

Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period

(898-1185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was a dominant force, and its most representative representatives were the Fujiwara family. Period 10-12 centuries. often associated with this name. A period of special power began when real emperors were “strongly advised” to leave aside the affairs of the state for the more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until he came of age, the emperor was led by a strict regent - usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; There was a languor and emotionality throughout, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. Ideas about the compassion and saving grace of Amida Buddha were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the 9th century statues. in the 10th-11th centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.
The artists' works also acquired softer features, resembling drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities - defenders of the faith - became less frightening. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep blue paper, the beautiful calligraphy of the text was often preceded by a small illustration. The most popular strands of Buddhism and their associated deities reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and a gradual shift away from the austere ideals of early Buddhism.

The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the cessation of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at this time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this severance encouraged the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th-12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese - both in technique and in composition and subjects. A distinctive feature of these Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, was the predominance of engi (origin, history) subjects. While Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast, amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on Japanese narrative scrolls the main thing in the drawing and text was the person. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinate to the main character or persons. Many scrolls were hand-drawn chronicles of the lives of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told about romantic episodes from the lives of nobles and courtiers.

The apparently distinctive style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skillful drawings that caricature human behavior through animal images: a monkey in monastic robes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls served as the basis for the more complex narrative scrolls of the developed style of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Kamakura period

(1185-1392). Late 12th century brought major changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of "special" rule, "received an addition" in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule - the Kamakura shogunate. Although the capital remained nominally Kyoto, shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was little understood by ordinary lay people, also underwent major changes that did not promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo (Pure Land) sect, a form of veneration of Amida Buddha, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (1133-1212), reformed the hierarchy of Buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (1173-1262), founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that Amida's condescension was so great that there was no need to perform religious acts, simply repeating the incantation "Namu Amida Butsu" (the first word means “to obey”; the second two are “Buddha Amida”). This simple method of saving the soul was extremely attractive, and is now used by millions. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222-1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new military class in Kamakura. Finally, Zen philosophy, which emerged as early as the 8th century, began to play an increasingly important role in Buddhist thought during this period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and disdain for any images that might hinder man in his quest to unite with God.

So, this was a time when religious thought limited the number of works of painting and sculpture previously necessary for the cult. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The incentive was the inherent Japanese love of art, but the key to the solution lies in the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not in dogmas as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy might consider ordinary religious objects to be an obstacle to enlightenment, the tradition of honoring teachers was quite acceptable. A portrait in itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was characteristic not only of Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, a new architectural form even appeared - mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was completely in the spirit of the times.
Although the picturesque portraits of the priests were obviously indeed images of specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were depicted preaching, their mouths open, their hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.

One of the most popular subjects was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted Buddha Amida with his companions descending on a cloud to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to heaven. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and the wavy lines, flowing capes, and swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.

Unkei, active in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that facilitated wood carving, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the log or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were applied separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted together to form a hollow pyramid, from which apprentices could then roughly carve out a shape. The sculptor had at his disposal a more pliable material and the ability to create more complex forms. The muscular temple guards and deities in flowing capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and less likely to crack as the wood dried. The aforementioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, by Kosho, Unkei's son, demonstrates the highest achievement of Kamakura-era realism in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at this time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.

Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the times. Narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, with restrained colors and graceful lines, told about the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive court ladies. Now, with bright colors and energetic brushstrokes, artists of the Kamakura era depicted battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even as religious history unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as it was a historical record of the travels of holy men and the miracles they performed. In the design of these scenes one can detect a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.

Muromachi or Ashikaga period

(1392-1568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi or Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples - repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures located there. The country was brutally ruined, and even peace did not bring much relief, since the warring clans, achieving success, distributed favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in reality the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, when painting flourished.

The most significant artistic phenomenon of this time was the monochrome poetic ink paintings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by Chinese examples of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), contacts with China were renewed, and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of the arts, encouraged the collecting and study of Chinese paintings. It became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of clergy and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the Zen philosophy, which certainly inspired their authors. Although this belief achieved considerable influence under the military rule of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of ​​"self-salvation", it did not link salvation to the Buddha, but relied more on a person's severe self-discipline to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that unites him with the absolute. The economical but bold use of ink and asymmetrical composition, in which unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depictions of idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were consistent with this philosophy.

One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420-1506), a Zen priest whose long and fruitful life earned him long-lasting veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.
The same period marks the activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but in terms of expressive means it remained Japanese. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.

The naive tradition of Yamato-e continued to live on in the works of the Tosa school, the second important movement of Japanese painting. In fact, at this time both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely connected, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476-1559), one of the outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.

In the 15-16th centuries. Only a few noteworthy works of sculpture appeared. It should be noted, however, that the development of noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama, performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some masks were so beautifully carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in the expression of feelings. Remarkable examples of these masks were kept for years in the families for whose members they were made.

Momoyama period

(1568-1615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, “Peach Hill,” and by this name the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo, period in 1615 was generally accepted. This was the time of the dominance of an entirely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of art. Impressive castles with vast audience halls and long corridors came into fashion in the late 16th century. and demanded decorations appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of stern and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the previous aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists was quite consistent with their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on a gold or silver background, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were quite rightly called “the great decorators.” Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the lush style did not develop into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.

Eitoku Kano (1543-1590), one of the first great artists of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the ideas of drawing of the former and combining them with the richness of colors of the latter. Although only a few works survive that can be confidently attributed to Eitoku, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.

Edo or Tokugawa period

(1615-1867). The long period of peace that followed the newly united Japan is called either the time of Tokugawa, after the surname of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the short Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542-1616), who completed the activities begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position; the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the house of Hideyoshi and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The peaceful reign of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. This was largely a period of “closed door” policy. Decree 1640 prohibited foreigners from entering Japan, and Japanese were unable to travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was a rise in national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. the so-called school of genre painting and engraving.
The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center not only of the political and business life of the island empire, but also a center of arts and crafts. The requirement that the daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year gave rise to the need for new buildings, including palaces, and therefore for artists to decorate them. At the same time, the emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.

The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, strengthening its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychrome inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (1688-1703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallel in the extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, varnish, and artistic details - attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.

Since we are talking about a relatively late period of history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; Here it is possible to name only a few of the most outstanding. Representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods include Honnami Koetsu (1558-1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of design, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramicist and lacquer artist, was renowned for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created poems on scrolls, which were fashionable at that time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not simple illustrations: they created or suggested a mood corresponding to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (1658-1716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (1663-1743), brought its technique to perfection. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels with designs of his famous older brother on them. The revival of this school at the beginning of the 19th century. poet and artist Sakai Hoitsu (1761-1828) was the last surge of decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of design with the interest in nature inherent in the naturalism of the Maruyama school, expressed in the richness of color and decorative motifs characteristic of the earlier period, which was tempered by the splendor and grace of brushwork.

Along with the polychrome decorative style, the traditional ink drawing of the Kano school continued to be popular. In 1622, Kanō Tan'yu (1602-1674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and summoned to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Kano school of painting in Edo, in Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the Kano family to a position of prominence and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors created by the “great decorators” and rivals, Tanyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to make the painting of the revived Kano school popular among the nobility. To the traditional features of the Kano school, Tanyu added power and simplicity based on a rigid broken line and a thoughtful arrangement of compositional elements on a large free surface.

A new direction, in which the main feature was an interest in nature, began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795), the head of the new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman and finally an artist. The first two studies did not bring him either happiness or success, but as an artist he reached great heights and is considered the founder of the realistic school of Maruyama. He studied with the Kano school master Ishida Yutei (d. c. 1785); Based on imported Dutch engravings, he learned the Western technique of perspective depiction, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235-1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Ōkyo made many works from life, and his scientific observations served as the basis for the perception of nature on which the Maruyama school was based.

In addition to the interest in naturalism in the 18th century. the influence of the Chinese artistic tradition was renewed. Representatives of this movement gravitated towards the pictorial school of artist-scientists of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) eras, although, probably, their ideas about the modern state of art in China were limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential artists who worked in the bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723-1776), a famous artist and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes of light tones and ink; He also painted with wide, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bent in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an engraving-like effect in his depiction of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.
17th century gave birth to another remarkable movement of art of the Edo period. These are the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of a changing world) - genre scenes created by and for ordinary people. Early ukiyo-e appeared in the old capital of Kyoto and were mainly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the craftsmen focused on wood engraving. The close association of woodblock prints with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodblock prints were a discovery of this period; in fact, it originated back in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the mid-17th to the 19th century.

The subjects of ukiyo-e prints were beautiful courtesans of cheerful neighborhoods, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called Primitive engravings were executed in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were characterized by simple designs. They were sometimes hand-painted in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with markings of mustard yellow and green. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e (lacquer painting), in which dark areas were enhanced and brightened by the addition of glue. An early multi-color print, appearing in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (raspberry print) and usually used three colors - rose-red, green and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color prints, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.

In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by producing erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of the draftsman, whose name the print bore, the carver and the printer.

Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625-1694) is considered the founder of the tradition of creating ukiyo-e prints. Other "primitive" artists of this movement are Kiyomasu (1694-1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange community of artists whose existence remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764).

The transitional artists who created benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711-1785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 1751-1760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (1735-1785).

The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770) ushered in the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu's prints were a great success. Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792), Torii Kienaga (1752-1815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806) worked with him around the same time. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters brought engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. Over the course of a few months in 1794-1795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly powerful and frankly brutal portraits of actors of the day.

In the first decades of the 19th century. the genre had reached maturity and was beginning to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters who recorded the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the techniques of carvers and printers made it possible to convey in engraving whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or the fog rising at dawn.

Meiji Restoration and modern period.

It often happens that the ancient art of a particular people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can be made only with great caution and conditionality. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some tentative preliminary conclusions.

In the second half of the 19th century. Japanese ports were reopened for trade, and major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the rule of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (the eastern capital).

As had happened in the past, the end of national isolation generated great interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in the field of science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms that combined a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.

Notable artists included Kano Hogai (1828-1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873-1916), Takeuchi Seiho (1864-1924) and Tomioka Tessai (1836-1942). The first three adhered to traditional Japanese style and subject matter, although they strived to be original in mood and technique. Seiho, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works were created in the naturalistic Maruyama style, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers in Europe also left a mark on his work. Of all the outstanding artists of this time, only one Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. His energetic and powerful works combine rough, twisted, jagged lines and smears of black ink with finely rendered areas of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created in which the characteristic Japanese sense of color and poise shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as an initial motif, create energetic abstract works in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.

As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. the sculpture was not popular. But even in this area, representatives of the modern generation, who studied in America and Europe, experimented very successfully. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and with strange names, show the Japanese sense of line and color, evident in the use of soft green or warm brown patinas; Wood carving testifies to the Japanese love for the texture of the material.

Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art movement it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern woodblock print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodblock print; they differ in style, subjects and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, recognized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found in wood a suitable material for expressing their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only draw, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although the highest achievements in this art form are associated with woodwork, all modern Western engraving techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, string, and “found objects” can sometimes create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this movement were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with the illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi, and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish it as a worthy branch of the fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group, and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have earned them their rightful position among Japan's leading artists. Many of their peers and other younger hanga artists also produced wonderful prints; The fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.

DECORATIVE ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS

The previous sections dealt primarily with painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of fine art. It may be unfair to include at the end of the article decorative arts and folk crafts, garden art and architecture - forms that formed an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, with the possible exception of architecture, they require special consideration outside of the general periodization of Japanese art and changes in style.

Ceramics and porcelain.

The most important arts and crafts in Japan include ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome porcelain of Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making true porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are prized both at home and in the West.

Unlike porcelain, in coarse dishes made of clay or stone mass of low quality, characteristic of Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, the seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. Many cups, teapots and teapots, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, embodied the very essence of Zen Buddhism: strict self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in the decoration of ceramic products. It should be remembered that Kenzan's fame is associated more with his talent as a ceramist rather than as a painter. Some of the simplest vessel types and techniques come from folk craft traditions. Modern workshops, continuing old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.

Lacquer products.

Already in the 7-8 centuries. varnish was famous in Japan. From this time, the lids of the boxes have been preserved, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs applied with thin gold lines. We have already talked about the importance of the dry varnish technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as boxes for letters or boxes for incense were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most luxurious decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for lunch, cakes, incense and medicine, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, separately or in combination with inlays with shells, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with lacquered red, black or brown surfaces. Sometimes drawings for varnishes were made by artists, for example Korin and Koetsu, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.

Swords.

The Japanese, as has already been said, were for a considerable period of their history a people of warriors; weapons and armor were considered necessities for a large part of the population. The sword was a man's pride; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated using various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with inlays of gold and silver, covered with carvings, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or human figures, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.

Fabrics.

The richly patterned silks and other fabrics favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as the simple fabrics with the almost primitive designs characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the opulent Genroku era, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It successfully combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.

Gardens.

In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's increased exposure to these art forms. Gardens have a special place in Japan; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the obvious beauty of the gardens, attract the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were the main reason for the creation of gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the artist-planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to think about various philosophical truths. Here the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel combined with turf, or plants arranged so that a stream behind them disappears and then reappears - all this encourages the viewer to complete the construction plans themselves. garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over clear explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. A continuation of these ideas are dwarf bonsai trees and tiny gardens in pots, now popular in the West.

Architecture.

The main architectural monuments of Japan are temples, monastery complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and largely determines the design features. The most ancient religious buildings are the shrines of the national Japanese religion Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple structures with a thatched roof, like ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture varied over time, and the decoration and arrangement of buildings varied among different sects. Japanese buildings are distinguished by vast halls with high roofs and complex systems of consoles, and their decor reflected the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyuji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of Hoodo, the “Phoenix Hall” at Uji, reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate buildings of the Edo period acquired additional decoration in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.

The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely connected that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity, and careful relationship with landscape and perspective have a major influence on modern Western architecture.

THE INFLUENCE OF JAPANESE ART ON THE WEST

Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant influence on it. There were earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of ​​Western taste.

The first time Western painting was directly influenced by Japanese art in Europe was in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. When presented at the Paris Exhibition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints again aroused great interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately emerged. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others perceived Japanese color prints as a revelation; The slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese prints on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and bright color spots of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.

The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a craze for all things Western and caused the Japanese to turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these objects introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in travel to the Far East. Of course, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up greater opportunities than before for exploring and learning more about Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in attendance at American museums. Interest in the East in general aroused the organization of exhibitions of works of Japanese art, selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.

Scientific research in recent decades has done much to refute the notion that Japanese art is merely a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications in English have introduced the West to the ideals of the East.