Conflict is a dispute, a clash between two people or social groups over the possession of something that is equally highly valued by both parties.

The participants in the conflict are calledsubjects of the conflict :

– witnesses – these are people observing the conflict from the outside;

– instigators – these are those who push other participants into conflict;

– accomplices – these are people who contribute to the development of the conflict with advice, technical assistance or other means;

– intermediaries – these are people who, through their actions, try to prevent, stop or resolve a conflict.

Not all parties to a conflict are necessarily in direct opposition to each other.

The issue or benefit that sparks the conflict, - This subject of conflict . The reason and reason for the conflict differ from its subject.

Cause of the conflict - objective circumstances that predetermine the emergence of conflict. The cause of the conflict is related to the needs of the conflicting parties.

Reason for conflict - a minor incident that contributes to conflict, but the conflict itself may not develop. The occasion can be either accidental or specially created.

For a correct and comprehensive understanding of the conflict, it is necessary to distinguish between it and contradiction. Contradiction – this is a fundamental incompatibility, disagreement of some important – political, economic, ethnic – interests.

Contradiction necessarily underlies any conflict and manifests itself in social tension - a feeling of dissatisfaction with the state of affairs and a readiness to change it. But a contradiction may remain a contradiction without reaching an open collision, that is, a conflict. Thus, contradiction expresses the hidden and static aspect of the phenomenon, and conflict is open and dynamic.

Social conflict – this is the highest stage of development of contradictions in the system of relations between people, social groups, social institutions, and society as a whole, which is characterized by the strengthening of opposing tendencies and interests of social communities and individuals.

In the history of sociology, there are various concepts that reveal the essence of social conflicts.

At the present stage of development of sociological science, there are two main paradigms in terms of the role of conflict in society. Scientists determine the following functions of social conflicts.

Conflicts arise from various reasons: external and internal, universal and individual, material and ideal, objective and subjective etc. The cause of the conflict is related to needs conflicting parties. The following causes of social conflicts can be identified:

– social heterogeneity of society, the presence of opposing orientations;

– differences in levels of income, power, culture, social prestige, access to education, information;

– religious differences;

– human behavior, his socio-psychological traits (temperament, intelligence, general culture, etc.).

Social conflict goes through three main stages:

1. Pre-conflict - conflict situation. The parties are aware of the existing emotional tension, strive to overcome it, understand the causes of the conflict, and evaluate their capabilities; choosing a method of influencing the enemy.

2. The conflict itself – distrust and lack of respect for the enemy; consent is impossible. The presence of an incident (or reason), i.e., social actions aimed at changing the behavior of rivals. Their overt and hidden actions.

3. Conflict resolution – completion of the incident, elimination of the causes of the conflict.

Types of social conflicts

By duration - long-term; short-term; one-time; protracted; repetitive.

By volume – global; national; local; regional; group; personal.

According to the source of occurrence - objective; subjective; false.

By means used - violent; non-violent.

According to the form - internal; external.

By influence on the course of development of society - progressive; regressive.

By the nature of development - deliberate; spontaneous.

In areas of public life - economic (production); political; ethnic; family and household.

By type of relationship - intra- and intersystem (individual-psychological) levels; intra- and intergroup (socio-psychological) levels; intranational and international (social) levels.

Experts identify the following ways to resolve social conflicts:

– compromise (lat. compromissum) – solving the problem through mutual concessions of the parties;

– negotiation – a peaceful conversation between both parties to resolve the problem;

– mediation – the use of a third party in solving the problem in absentia;

– arbitration (French arbitrage – arbitration court) – appealing to a government authority vested with special powers for help in solving the problem;

– use of force, authority, law - unilateral use of power or force by the party that considers itself stronger.

Possible ways out of conflicts are as follows:

– Restoration– return of society to the pre-conflict state: to previous forms of social life, social institutions that continue to exist taking into account the new situation.

– Non-interference (waiting) – the hope that “everything will work itself out on its own.” This is the path of delaying and delaying reforms, marking time. In an open society, if the confrontation does not threaten general collapse, this path, under certain conditions, can be fruitful.

– Update– an active way out of the conflict by discarding, abandoning the old, developing the new.

Each social conflict is specific; it occurs in certain social conditions. Consequently, the ways out of it must correspond to the current specific situation.

The general strategy for exiting social conflict should be to combine these three paths. Renewal is necessary, this is the key to resolving any conflict, but it is impossible to update everything due to the inertia of human consciousness. A natural process of rollback (reaction) to some old values ​​and forms should be provided for.

Modern conflictology has formulated the conditions under which successful resolution of social conflicts is possible:

– timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict, i.e. identification of existing contradictions, interests, goals.

– mutual interest in overcoming contradictions based on recognition of the interests of the opposite side. This can be achieved based on a goal that is meaningful to both parties.

– joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Here it is possible to use a whole arsenal of means and methods: direct dialogue between the parties, negotiations through an intermediary, negotiations with the participation of a third party, etc.

During negotiations, priority should be given to discussing substantive issues.

The conflicting parties should strive to relieve psychological and social tension.

Participants in a conflict must demonstrate mutual respect for each other.

All conflicting parties must show a tendency to compromise.

Thus, conflict is the most important aspect of interaction between people in society, a kind of cell of social existence. This is a form of relationship between subjects of emotional action, the motivation of which is determined by opposing values ​​and norms, interests and needs.

Sample assignment

B2. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, are associated with the concept of “social conflict”. Compromise; negotiation; arbitration; rehabilitation; witnesses.

Find and indicate a term that is not related to the concept of “social conflict”.

Answer: Rehabilitation.

One of the conditions for the development of society is the confrontation between different groups. The more complex the structure of society, the more fragmented it is and the greater the risk of such a phenomenon as social conflict. Thanks to him, the development of all humanity as a whole occurs.

What is social conflict?

This is the highest stage at which confrontation develops in relations between individuals, groups, and the whole society as a whole. The concept of social conflict means a contradiction between two or more parties. In addition, there is also intrapersonal confrontation, when a person has needs and interests that contradict each other. This problem dates back more than one millennium, and it is based on the position that some should be “at the helm”, while others should obey.

What causes social conflicts?

The foundation is contradictions of a subjective-objective nature. Objective contradictions include the confrontation between “fathers” and “children,” bosses and subordinates, labor and capital. The subjective causes of social conflicts depend on the perception of the situation by each individual and his attitude towards it. Scientific conflictologists identify a variety of reasons for the emergence of confrontation, here are the main ones:

1. Aggression that can be shown by all animals, including humans.
2. Overpopulation and environmental factors.
3. Hostile attitude towards society.
4. Social and economic inequality.
5. Cultural contradictions.

Individuals and groups may conflict over material wealth, primary life attitudes and values, authority, etc. In any field of activity, disputes may arise due to incompatible needs and interests. However, not all contradictions develop into confrontation. They talk about it only under conditions of active confrontation and open struggle.

Participants in social conflict

First of all, these are people standing on both sides of the barricades. In the current situation, they can be both individuals and legal entities. The peculiarity of social conflict is that it is based on certain disagreements, because of which the interests of the participants collide. There is also an object that can have a material, spiritual or social form and which each of the participants strives to obtain. And their immediate environment is the micro- or macroenvironment.

Social conflict - pros and cons

On the one hand, open conflict allows society to evolve and achieve certain agreements and agreements. As a result, its individual members learn to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and take into account the desires of other individuals. On the other hand, modern social conflicts and their consequences cannot be predicted. In the worst case scenario, society could completely collapse.

Functions of social conflict

The first are constructive, and the second are destructive. Constructive ones are positive in nature - they defuse tension, bring about changes in society, etc. Destructive ones bring destruction and chaos, they destabilize relationships in a certain environment, destroy the social community. The positive function of social conflict is to strengthen society as a whole and the relationships between its members. Negative - destabilizes society.

Stages of social conflict

The stages of conflict development are:

1. Hidden. Tension in communication between subjects increases due to the desire of each to improve their position and achieve superiority.
2. Voltage. The main stages of social conflict include tension. Moreover, the greater the power and superiority of the dominant side, the stronger it is. The intransigence of the parties leads to very strong confrontation.
3. Antagonism. This is a consequence of high tension.
4. Incompatibility. Actually, the confrontation itself.
5. Completion. Resolving the situation.

Types of social conflicts

They can be labor, economic, political, education, social security, etc. As already mentioned, they can arise between individuals and within each person. Here is a common classification:

1. In accordance with the source of origin – confrontation of values, interests and identification.
2. According to the consequences for society, the main types of social conflicts are divided into creative and destructive, successful and failed.
3. According to the degree of impact on the environment - short-term, medium-term, long-term, acute, large-scale, regional, local, etc.
4. In accordance with the location of the opponents - horizontal and vertical. In the first case, people at the same level argue, and in the second, a boss and a subordinate argue.
5. According to the method of struggle - peaceful and armed.
6. Depending on the degree of openness - hidden and open. In the first case, rivals influence each other by indirect methods, and in the second they move on to open quarrels and disputes.
7. In accordance with the composition of the participants - organizational, group, political.

Ways to resolve social conflicts

The most effective ways to resolve conflicts:

1. Avoiding Confrontation. That is, one of the participants leaves the “scene” physically or psychologically, but the conflict situation itself remains, since the reason that gave rise to it has not been eliminated.
2. Negotiation. Both sides are trying to find common ground and a path to cooperation.
3. Intermediaries. include the involvement of intermediaries. His role can be played by both an organization and an individual who, thanks to existing capabilities and experience, does what would be impossible to do without his participation.
4. Postponement. In fact, one of the opponents is only temporarily giving up their position, wanting to accumulate strength and re-enter the social conflict, trying to regain what was lost.
5. Applying to arbitration or arbitration tribunal. In this case, the confrontation is dealt with in accordance with the norms of law and justice.
6. Force method with the involvement of the military, equipment and weapons, that is, in essence, war.

What are the consequences of social conflicts?

Scientists view this phenomenon from a functionalist and sociological point of view. In the first case, confrontation is clearly negative in nature and leads to such consequences as:

1. Destabilization of society. Control levers no longer work, chaos and unpredictability reign in society.
2. The consequences of social conflict include participants with specific goals, which are to defeat the enemy. At the same time, all other problems fade into the background.
3. Loss of hope for further friendly relations with the opponent.
4. Participants in the confrontation withdraw from society, they feel dissatisfaction, etc.
5. Those who consider the confrontation from a sociological point of view believe that this phenomenon also has positive sides:
6. With an interest in a positive outcome of the case, there is a unity of people and strengthening of mutual understanding between them. Everyone feels involved in what is happening and does everything to ensure that the social conflict has a peaceful outcome.
7. Existing structures and institutions are being updated and new ones are being formed. In the newly emerged groups, a certain balance of interests is created, which guarantees relative stability.
8. Managed conflict further stimulates the participants. They develop new ideas and solutions, that is, they “grow” and develop.

Social heterogeneity of society, differences in income levels, power, prestige, etc. often lead to social conflicts.

They are an integral part of social life and are always associated with the subjective consciousness of people, the contradictory nature of their interests of certain social groups. Exacerbations of contradictions give rise to open or closed conflicts only when they are deeply experienced by people and recognized as incompatibility of goals and interests.

Conflict is a clash of opposing goals, opinions, interests, positions of opponents or subjects of interaction.

Social conflict is a confrontation between individuals or groups pursuing socially significant goals. It occurs when one party seeks to realize its goals or interests to the detriment of the other.

English sociologist E. Giddens gave the following definition of conflict: “by social conflict I understand a real struggle between acting people or groups, regardless of the sources of this struggle, its methods and means mobilized by each side.”

Conflict– this is a ubiquitous phenomenon. Every society, every social group, social community is susceptible to conflict to one degree or another.

In science, there is a special branch of sociological knowledge that directly studies this social phenomenon - conflictology.

The main subjects of conflicts are social groups, since their needs, claims, and goals can only be realized through the use of power. That is why such political forces as the state apparatus, political parties, parliamentary groups, factions, “influence groups”, etc. take part in conflicts. They are the representatives of the will of large social groups and the main bearers of social interests.

In conflictology, much attention is paid to the concept of strength of participants in a social conflict.

Force- this is the opponent’s ability to realize his goal against the will of the interaction partner. It includes a number of different components:

1) physical force, including technical means used as an instrument of violence;

2) an information-civilizational form of using social force, requiring the collection of facts, statistical data, analysis of documents, study of examination materials in order to ensure complete knowledge about the essence of the conflict, about one’s opponent in order to develop strategies and tactics of behavior, the use of materials discrediting the opponent, etc. .d.;

3) social status, expressed in publicly recognized indicators (income, level of power, prestige, etc.);

4) other resources - money, territory, time limit, psychological resource, etc.

The stage of conflict behavior is characterized by the maximum use of force by the parties to the conflict, the use of all means at their disposal. The development of the conflict is significantly influenced by the surrounding social environment, which determines the conditions in which the social conflict occurs.

It can act either as a source of external support for the parties to the conflict, or as a deterrent, or as a neutral factor.

Social conflict, as a rule, goes through main stages.

In conflictology, it is customary to distinguish the following stages of conflict:

1) the hidden stage, at which the contradictions between the parties to the conflict are not yet recognized and manifest themselves only in explicit or implicit dissatisfaction with the situation;

2) the formation of a conflict - a clear awareness of the claims that, as a rule, are expressed to the opposite side in the form of demands;

3) incident - an event that moves the conflict into the stage of active action;

4) active actions of the parties that contribute to reaching the highest point of the conflict, after which it subsides;

5) ending the conflict, and this is not always accomplished by satisfying the claims of the parties.

It is also necessary to remember that at any of these stages the conflict can end either independently, or by agreement of the parties, or with the participation of a third party.

In modern sociological literature there are many classifications of types of conflicts for various reasons.

From the point of view of the subjects entering into conflict, four types of conflicts can be distinguished:

1) intrapersonal (can have the following forms: role - occurs when conflicting demands are placed on one person regarding what the result of his work should be; intrapersonal - can also arise as a result of the fact that production requirements are not consistent with personal needs or values );

2) interpersonal (can manifest itself as clashes of personalities with different character traits, views, values ​​and is the most common);

3) between the individual and the group (occurs if the individual takes a position different from the position of the group);

4) intergroup.

Conflicts can be classified according to spheres of life into political, socio-economic, national-ethnic and others.

Political– these are conflicts over the distribution of power, dominance, influence, authority. They arise from the collision of various interests, rivalry and struggle in the process of acquisition, redistribution and implementation of political and state power.

Political conflicts are associated with consciously formulated goals aimed at gaining leading positions in institutions in the structures of political power. The main political conflicts include:

1) between branches of government;

2) inside parliament;

3) between political parties and movements;

4) between various levels of the management apparatus.

Socio-economic– these are conflicts over means of life support, the level of wages, the use of professional and intellectual potential, the level of prices for goods and services, access to the distribution of material and spiritual goods.

National-ethnic- these are conflicts that arise during the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups.

According to classification D. Katz there are conflicts:

1) between indirectly competing subgroups;

2) between directly competing subgroups;

3) within the hierarchy and regarding remuneration.

Conflict Researcher K. Boulding identifies the following types of conflicts:

1) real (existing objectively in a certain social subsystem;

2) random (depending on minor points in relation to the fundamental contradictions that cause the conflict);

3) substitutive (being a visible manifestation of hidden conflicts);

4) based on poor knowledge (the result of inept management);

5) hidden, latent (participants for various reasons cannot fight openly);

6) fake (creating only appearance).

The current view is that some conflicts are not only possible, but may even be desirable.

In accordance with this, two types of conflicts are distinguished:

1) conflict is considered functional if it leads to increased efficiency of the organization;

2) Conflict can also be dysfunctional and lead to decreased personal satisfaction, group cooperation, and organizational effectiveness.

An external sign of conflict resolution can be the end of the incident.

Resolving the incident is necessary, but it is not a sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. Complete resolution of a conflict situation is possible only when the conflict situation changes.

This change can take many forms, but the most radical change is one that eliminates the causes of conflict.

It is also possible to resolve a social conflict by changing the demands of one side: the opponent makes concessions and changes the goals of his behavior in the conflict.

In modern conflictology, two types of successful conflict resolution can be distinguished: compromise and consensus.

Compromise is a method of resolving a conflict when the conflicting parties realize their interests and goals through either mutual concessions, or concessions to the weaker party, or to the party that was able to prove the validity of its demands to someone who voluntarily renounced part of its claims.

Consensus- the presence between two or more individuals of similar orientations in some respect, a certain degree of agreement and consistency in actions. It is not difficult to see that it is precisely at the stage of conflict resolution that such a situation is possible under certain conditions.

M. Weber considers consensus as an integral characteristic of any human community, as long as it exists and does not fall apart.

He contrasts consensus with solidarity, arguing that behavior based on consensus does not presuppose it as a condition.

It must be remembered that consensus does not completely exclude the struggle of interests between the parties. Also, the consensus does not completely exclude the possibility of a new conflict flaring up.

According to M. Weber, consensus is an objectively existing probability that, despite the absence of a preliminary agreement, participants in one or another form of interaction will regard each other’s expectations as significant for themselves. Thus, consensus is not always associated with conflict behavior.

It is easy to see that Weber's interpretation considers this social phenomenon in a broad sense.

From this we can conclude that consensus is not always generated by conflict, just as conflict does not always end in consensus.

With this understanding of consensus, behavior based on agreement is different from behavior based on agreement. In this case, consensus is the primary form - it arises in the minds of people.

The agreement is secondary, since it is a normative consolidation of consensus.

Achieving consensus in society presupposes achieving political consensus.

It is usually understood as a state of agreement regarding a particular political course as a whole or its individual aspects.

However, such agreement is not identical to joint actions and does not necessarily imply cooperation in the implementation of relevant goals and objectives. The very degree of agreement in a consensus may vary, although it is understood that it must be supported, if not by an overwhelming majority, then at least by a significant majority.

Varying from issue to issue, the degree of consensus is usually higher in views on provisions of a more general, abstract nature.

That is why, for more successful negotiations, the conflicting parties need to start them with precisely such topics, as this will give them a better chance of finding a general consensus.

To maintain consensus in society, three circumstances must be taken into account.

Firstly, the natural willingness of the majority to follow existing laws, regulations, and norms.

Secondly, a positive perception of the institutions designed to implement these laws and regulations.

Thirdly, a feeling of belonging to a certain community, which contributes to a certain leveling of the role of differences.

Social conflict - this is a confrontation between individuals or groups pursuing socially significant goals (distribution of values, resources, power, etc.). It occurs when one party seeks to achieve its interests and goals to the detriment of the interests of others.

Social conflicts can have both positive and negative impacts on the development of society. On the one hand, they are a source of socio-political changes, preventing the stagnation of social systems, stimulating the modification of social relations, structures and institutions. In this sense, conflicts act as a form of regulation of the conflicting interests of various groups of society and help defuse tension in their relations. On the other hand, social conflicts carry the threat of destabilizing society and can lead to catastrophic consequences - revolutions, wars, anarchy.

Social conflicts are caused by a variety of reasons. These are economic and social inequality, shortage of life goods (material, spiritual, prestigious, etc.), unequal position in relation to power, divergence of interests and goals of various social groups, ideological and political disagreements, religious contradictions, incompatibility of individual and social values etc.

In modern conditions, each sphere of social life gives rise to its own specific conflicts. Here we can distinguish political, socio-economic and national-ethnic conflicts.

• 1. Political conflicts - these are conflicts over the distribution of power, dominance, influence, authority. They arise from differences of interests, rivalry and struggle in the process of acquisition, redistribution and implementation of political-state power. Political conflicts are associated with consciously formed goals of gaining leading positions in institutions and structures of political power. The main political conflicts include:
  • - conflicts between branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial);
  • - conflicts within parliament;
  • - conflicts between political parties and movements; - conflicts between various parts of the management apparatus, etc.

In the modern history of Russia, one of the forms of political conflict was the long-term confrontation between the executive and legislative powers, which led to the dramatic events of October 1993. A partial resolution of this conflict was the elections of the Federal Assembly and the adoption of the new Constitution of Russia. However, the causes of the conflict were not completely eliminated, and it moved to a new stage of its development, taking the form of confrontation between the President and the Federal Assembly. It is only now that constructive interaction has emerged between the executive and legislative powers.

2. Socio-economic conflicts - these are conflicts over means of life support, wage levels, the use of professional and intellectual potential, the level of prices for goods and services, access to the distribution of material and spiritual goods.

Socio-economic conflicts arise based on dissatisfaction, first of all, with the economic situation, which is considered either as a deterioration in comparison with the usual level of consumption (a real conflict of needs), or as a worse situation in comparison with other social groups (a conflict of interests). In the second case, a conflict may arise even with some improvement in living conditions, if it is perceived as insufficient or inadequate.

In modern Russian society, many socio-economic conflicts develop along the line “work collectives - state administration”. Along with the demands for increasing wages, living standards, eliminating wage arrears and paying pensions, the demands of collectives to defend their rights to the property of enterprises are increasingly being put forward. Such demands are addressed primarily to government bodies, which are the main subjects of property redistribution.

Massive conflicts in the economic sphere are often associated with the fact that the country still lacks a clearly developed legal framework for resolving labor disputes. Conciliation commissions and their arbitrations do not fully implement their functions, and administrative bodies in a number of cases do not implement the agreements reached. All this poses the task of creating a more effective legislative system for regulating labor conflicts.

3. National-ethnic conflicts - these are conflicts that arise during the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups. Most often these conflicts are related to status or territorial claims. In modern Russia, the dominant factor in conflicts was the idea of ​​sovereignty of territories, people or ethnic groups. Until the adoption of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation in 1993, almost all regions fought for increased status: autonomous regions sought to turn into republics, republics declared their sovereignty and independence. In extreme cases, the question of secession from Russia and gaining full state independence was raised (the most striking example is the Chechen conflict).

Territorial conflicts that arise between closely living ethnic groups (Ossetian-Ingush, Dagestan-Chechen conflicts) have become quite widespread in our country. It should be noted that such conflicts are deliberately provoked by various forces of a nationalist, separatist, fanatical religious nature.

Thus, conflicts arising in the political and socio-economic spheres, in the field of interethnic relations, pose the greatest danger to society. In modern Russia, which is going through a difficult transition period, conflicts have become an everyday reality. It is important to learn how to manage them and achieve agreement between the conflicting parties.

Modern conflictology has formulated the conditions under which successful resolution of social conflicts is possible. One of the important conditions is a timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict, i.e. identification of existing contradictions, interests, goals. Another, no less important condition is mutual interest in overcoming contradictions based on recognition of the interests of the opposite side. This can be achieved based on a goal that is meaningful to both parties. The third indispensable condition is a joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Here it is possible to use a whole arsenal of means and methods: direct dialogue between the parties, negotiations through an intermediary, negotiations with the participation of a third party, etc.

Conflictology has also developed a number of recommendations, following which speeds up the process of conflict resolution: I) during negotiations, priority should be given to discussing substantive issues; 2) the parties should strive to relieve psychological and social tension; 3) the parties must demonstrate mutual respect for each other; 4) all participants must show a tendency to compromise.

An external sign of conflict resolution can be the end of the incident. Eliminating the incident is a necessary but not sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. Often, having stopped active conflict interaction, people continue to experience a tense state and look for its cause. And then the conflict that had died out flares up again. Complete resolution of a social conflict is possible only when the conflict situation changes. This change can take many forms, but the most radical change is one that eliminates the causes of conflict. It is also possible to resolve a social conflict by changing the demands of one of the parties: the opponent makes concessions and changes the goals of his behavior in the conflict.

The final, post-conflict stage is of great importance. At this stage, contradictions at the level of interests and goals must be finally eliminated, and measures must be taken to relieve socio-psychological tension and stop any struggle.

In modern Russia, it is important to make social conflicts (primarily shadow, implicit, latent) public, as open as possible. This will allow them to be brought under control and to respond in a timely manner to the processes occurring during the confrontation between the parties. And here the media, public opinion and other civil society institutions can play a big role.

In sociology, modernization primarily refers to the transition from a traditional society to a continuously changing modern industrial society. According to the definition of the famous American sociologist N. Smelser, modernization is a complex set of economic, social, cultural, and political changes occurring in society in connection with the process of industrialization and the development of scientific and technical achievements.

Modernization theory was developed mainly in relation to developing countries. Nevertheless, it largely explains the process of reforming any society, its transformation according to the model of the advanced countries of the world. Modernization covers almost all aspects of social life - the economy, social relations, spiritual life, and the political sphere.

In the field of economics modernization involves the use of scientific knowledge and modern technologies; deepening professional specialization; formation of markets for goods, capital, labor; development of entrepreneurship and market relations; increasing the independence of the economy from politics; separation of production and the workplace from the family economy; increasing rural labor productivity, developing farming, etc. Structural changes in the economy are accompanied by increased social mobility, mass migration from rural areas to large cities, transformation of traditional social structures, an increase in the material standard of living of the population, etc.

In the socio-political sphere The main manifestations of modernization are the formation of the rule of law, the democratization of the political system, party pluralism, the growth of social activity of the population and its participation in political life, the formation of civil society institutions, the improvement of the political culture of citizens, the development of the media and communications.

In the spiritual and cultural sphere modernization presupposes the spread of the values ​​of individualism, the progress of science and education, the rationalization of consciousness, the formation of moral prerequisites for new forms of economic activity, secularization and the growing diversity of spiritual life. The essence of changes in this area is conveyed by the concept of “modernity” as a complex characteristic of the culture of modern Western society.

The culture of "modernity" means a commitment to rationalism and scientism, an orientation towards the growth of material production and technical progress, and an attitude towards nature as an object for the application of one's strength and knowledge. It is also the idea of ​​equality of opportunity and personal freedom, individualism, the mindset of achieving success, a person’s readiness for constant change and the desire to initiate such changes.

Depending on the nature and time of implementation, two types of modernization are distinguished: primary (organic) And secondary (inorganic). Primary modernization dates back to the period of the industrial revolution, which began in Great Britain in the 60s. XVIII century... and several decades later it spread to the USA, France, Germany and other Western countries. This modernization occurred naturally, on the basis of its own socio-economic, political and socio-cultural prerequisites, and met the internal needs of social development. It flowed organically from the entire previous evolution of society and its historical preparedness for comprehensive, profound changes.

Secondary modernization, associated mainly with the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, is not an organic result of the natural course of social evolution. It is largely dictated from the outside: the desire to enter the world community, adapt to the new geopolitical reality, and respond to the “challenge” from other countries. This is a kind of “catch-up development” method, when the authorities carry out reforms in order to overcome the historical backwardness of the country.

Such modernization, as a rule, is carried out by attracting foreign investment, borrowing advanced technology, purchasing foreign equipment, inviting foreign specialists, training abroad, etc. Corresponding changes are taking place in the political and social spheres: the management system is radically changing, new structures and institutions of power are being created, the country's constitution is being rebuilt according to Western models, a new legislative system is being formulated, and the relationship between the state and society is being revised. An important socio-psychological factor in this case is the so-called demonstration effect, the desire to imitate the richest, most developed countries in style and lifestyle.

Secondary modernization is, as it were, artificially introduced “from above”; it is inorganic for the socio-economic and spiritual system of society, violating its unity and historical continuity of development. Therefore, the majority of the population is often not ready for it and does not provide the necessary social support. All this determines the complex and sometimes contradictory nature of modernization processes in certain countries.

However, in a number of cases, secondary modernization can be crowned with success when countries eventually begin to develop on their own basis. This happened in Japan, which took only two decades to catch up and, in some respects, even surpass the United States, from where it originally borrowed advanced technology.

As for Russia, modernization has not yet brought the expected results. The country has not established an effective mechanism of a market economy, there is no civilized free enterprise, a high standard of living and social protection of the population is not ensured, there is no support for small businesses, and a large middle class has not developed, which determines the stability and well-being of society. At the same time, the high scientific and intellectual potential of Russian society nourishes a certain hope for prosperous prospects for the development of modernization processes in our country.

It should be noted that modernization theorists are currently revising their conceptual guidelines in many ways. This is due to a new look at the role of traditional institutions and cultures, identifying their ability to organically join the processes of modernization, ensuring the integrity and spiritual unity of society. Thus, the opposition between traditional and industrial societies is no longer considered as a rigid antithesis, but as a moving relationship determined by the dynamism of the traditional principle, its ability to change and adapt to modern conditions.

For the first time, Adam Smith pointed out conflict as a social problem. He believed that the causes of social conflicts were related to the conflicting interests of classes and economic struggle.

There are several ways to resolve conflicts. They are characterized by the behavior of the participants.

The parties can choose one of the following tactics:

1. Evasion. The participant does not want to conflict and is eliminated.
2. Device. The parties are ready to cooperate, but respect their own interests.
3. Confrontation. Each participant strives to achieve their goals without taking into account the interests of the other party.
4. Cooperation. Participants are ready to find a solution as a team.
5. Compromise. Implies concessions by the parties to each other.

The outcome of the conflict is a complete or partial solution. In the first case, the causes are completely eliminated, in the second, some of the problems may appear later.

Social conflict: types and causes

There are different types of disputes and types of causes of social conflicts. Let's look at which classifiers are the most common.

Types of social conflicts

There are many types of social conflicts, which are determined by:

• duration and nature of occurrence - temporary, long-term, random and specially organized;
• scale - global (worldwide), local (in a specific part of the world), regional (between neighboring countries), group, personal (for example, family disputes);
• goals and methods of resolution - a fight, a scandal with obscene language, a cultural conversation;
• number of participants - personal (for mentally ill people), interpersonal, intergroup;
• direction - arise between people of the same social level or different.

This is not an exhaustive list. There are other classifications. The first three types of social conflicts are key.

Causes of social conflicts

In general, the cause of social conflict is always objective circumstances. They can be explicit or hidden. Most often, the prerequisites lie in social inequality and differences in value orientations.

The main reasons for disputes:

1. Ideological. Differences in the system of ideas and values ​​that determine subordination and dominance.
2. Differences in value orientations. The set of values ​​may be opposite to that of another participant.
3. Social and economic reasons. Associated with issues of distribution of wealth and power.

The third group of reasons is the most common. In addition, differences in assigned tasks, rivalry, innovations, etc. may be the basis for the development of conflict.

Examples

The most striking and famous example of global social conflict is The Second World War. Many countries took part in this conflict, and the events of those years left their mark on the lives of most of the population.

As an example of a conflict that arose due to a discrepancy between value systems, one can cite student strike in France in 1968. This marked the beginning of a series of uprisings involving workers, engineers and office workers. The conflict was resolved partially thanks to the activities of the president. Thus, society reformed and progressed.