Topic 2.7. Personality and its socialization.
Plan
1. The concept of personality. Basic theories of personality.
2. Personality structure. Personal self-awareness. Personality formation.
3. Socialization and its main characteristics.
4. The concept of social behavior. Prosocial and antisocial behavior. Aggression and regulation of social behavior
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The concept of personality. Basic theories of personality.
A person as a subject of social relations, a bearer of socially significant qualities is personality.
Personality is a systemic social quality of an individual, formed in joint activities and communication.
Along with the concept of personality, we also use such terms as person, individual and individuality. All these concepts have specifics, but they are interconnected:
Man is the most general, integrative concept. Means a being who embodies highest degree development of life, a product of social and labor processes, the indissoluble unity of the natural and social. But, carrying within himself a social-tribal essence, each person is a single natural being, an individual;
An individual is a specific person as a representative of the genus Homo sapiens, the bearer of the prerequisites (inclinations) of human development;
Individuality is the unique identity of a particular person, his natural and socially acquired properties.
In the concept of personality, the system of socially significant qualities of a person comes to the fore.
Personality has a multi-level organization. The highest and leading level of psychological organization of the individual - its need-motivational sphere - is - focus personalities, her attitude towards society, individuals, herself and her social responsibilities.
A person is not born with ready-made abilities, character, etc. These properties are formed during life, but on a certain natural basis. The hereditary basis of the human body (genotype) determines its anatomical and physiological characteristics and basic qualities nervous system, dynamics of nervous processes. The natural, biological organization of man contains the possibilities of his mental development.
A human being becomes human only through mastering the experience of previous generations, enshrined in knowledge, traditions, and objects of material and spiritual culture.
In the formation of an individual as a personality, processes are essential personal identification (the formation of an individual’s identification with other people and human society as a whole) and personalization (an individual’s awareness of the need for a certain representation of his personality in the life activities of other people, personal self-realization in a given social community).
A person interacts with other people on the basis of " Self-concepts ", personal reflection - your ideas about yourself, your capabilities, your significance.
A person is born with certain hereditary inclinations. Most of them are multi-valued: on their basis, various personality traits can be formed. In this case, the educational process plays a decisive role.
However, the possibilities of education are also related to the hereditary characteristics of the individual. Hereditary basis The human body determines its anatomical and physiological characteristics, the basic qualities of the nervous system, and the dynamics of nervous processes. The biological organization of man, his nature, contains the possibilities of his future mental development.
Modern scientific data indicate that certain biological factors can act as conditions that complicate or facilitate the formation of certain mental qualities of a person.
In the second half. In the 20th century, many approaches and theories of personality emerged.
Structural theories of personality are aimed at identifying the structure of personality, its typology, constituent elements, and personality traits. The most prominent representatives of structural theories of personality are G. Allport, K. Rogers, D. Cattell, G. Eysenck.
Gordon Willard Allport(1897 - 1967), an American psychologist, one of the founders of the modern systematic approach to the study of personality psychology, believed that any personality has a stable set of traits. (His theory is called the “theory of personality traits.”) Allport studied the hierarchy of value orientations of the individual and typologized personalities on this basis (“Personality: A Psychological Interpretation,” 1938).
Another American psychologist Carl Ransom Rogers (1902 - 1987), one of the leaders of the so-called humanistic psychology, believed that the core of personality is its self-concept. Formed in the social environment, it is the main integrative mechanism of self-regulation of the individual. The self-concept is constantly compared with the ideal self, causing attempts to protect the self-concept from disintegration: the individual constantly strives for self-justification of his behavior, uses a variety of mechanisms psychological protection(up to perceptual distortions - distortions of perception, and ignoring objects he does not like). Rogers developed a special (interactive) system of psychotherapy based on a trusting relationship with the patient (“Client-Centered Therapy”, 1954).
In the 20th century, experimental and mathematical methods began to be widely used in the study of personality psychology. American psychologist James McKeen Cattell (1860 - 1944) was the founder of the testological movement in psychology. He first used it in psychological research personality, a complex method of modern statistics - factor analysis, which minimizes many different indicators and personality assessments and allows one to identify 16 basic personality traits (Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire).
The Cattell questionnaire reveals such basic personality qualities as rationality, secrecy, emotional stability, dominance, seriousness (frivolity), conscientiousness, caution, sensitivity, gullibility (suspiciousness), conservatism, conformity, controllability, tension.
The Cattell questionnaire contains more than 100 questions, the answers to which (affirmative or negative) are grouped in accordance with the “key” - a certain way of processing the results, after which the severity of a particular factor is determined.
Methods for mathematical analysis of the results of observations and surveys, and documentary data were also developed G. Eysenck . His concept of personality traits is associated with its two interrelated basic qualities: 1) extraversion-introversion; 2) stability-instability (neuroticism, anxiety).
cognitive psychology
The disadvantage of structural theories of personality was that based on knowledge of personality traits it is impossible to predict human behavior, because it also depends on the situation itself.
As an alternative to this theory, arose social learning theory. Main psychological characteristics personality in this theory is an action, or a series of actions. A person’s behavior is influenced by other people, their support or condemnation of actions. A person acts one way or another based on his life experience, which is acquired through interaction with other people. Forms of behavior are acquired through imitation (vicarious learning). A person’s behavior and his personal characteristics depend on the frequency of occurrence of the same “stimulus situations” and on assessments of behavior in these situations received from other people.
One of the main directions of modern foreign psychology is becoming cognitive psychology(from Latin cognitio - knowledge), which, in contrast to behaviorism, postulates knowledge as the basis of behavior. Within the framework of cognitive psychology, the laws of cognitive activity are studied (J. Bruner), the psychology of individual differences (M. Eysenck), and personality psychology (J. Kelly). In connection with the development of cybernetics and the actualization of the problem of management complex systems There is an increased interest in the structure of the human.
Proponents also proposed their own approach to personality psychology humanistic psychology(Maslow, Rogers). The main attention of representatives of this direction was paid to the description inner world personality. The basic human need, according to this theory, is self-actualization, the desire for self-improvement and self-expression.
When they want to characterize a person, they often talk about him either as a person, or as an individual, or as an individual. In psychology, these concepts are different.
Individual– a person individually (about an animal – an individual). The concept of an individual characterizes the bodily existence of a person when he appears in his natural, biological characteristics, as human body. The concept of an individual contains an indication of a person’s similarity to all other people, of his commonality with the human race.
Individuality- a person as a unique, original personality who realizes himself in creative activity. This is the isolation of the individual from the community, the formalization of his uniqueness and originality. Individuality presupposes certainty own position in life. If individuality fixes isolation from social relations, then personality, on the contrary, fixes social significant qualities person, involvement in public relations. Individuality arises when a person meets himself, personality - when a person meets other people.
A person who develops in society, who enters into communication with other people through language, becomes a person. The main thing in characterizing a person is his social essence. Based on this, a person can be considered as a subject and object of social relations.
Personality in psychology, it denotes a systemic (social) quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in the individual.
Psychologists argue whether every person is an individual. There are two points of view:
1) Each person is a person, but a person can have social significant character, or maybe antisocial (criminal). A child is not yet a person, but he will become a person in the future.
2) According to A.N. Leontiev, personality is born twice: the first time when a three-year-old child puts up the slogan: “I myself”; the second time (or maybe not born!), when a conscious personality emerges with his own beliefs and worldview (at the age of 16).
2. Personality structure. Biological and social in the structure of personality. Let's consider several options for personality structure.
The personality structure according to Freud includes three components:
· Id (It) – primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of personality; functions in the unconscious, obeying the pleasure principle.
· Ego (I) – consciousness, a component of the mental apparatus responsible for making decisions.
· Superego (Superego) – moral control, norms of society.
The function of the Ego is to eliminate the contradictions between the Id and the SuperEgo: behavior should be structured in such a way that both pleasure is received and the norms of society are respected.
The personality structure (according to A.V. Petrovsky) includes the following components.
1. The intra-individual subsystem is the systemic organization of its individuality, represented in the structure of a person’s temperament, character, and abilities.
However, personality cannot be studied outside the system of its social relations and interrelations.
2. Interindividual subsystem - a person in the system of his relationships with other people (outside the individual’s organic body).
3. Meta-individual subsystem - “contributions” of the individual to other people, which the subject carries out through his activities (continuation of himself in others). The process and result of imprinting a subject in other people, its ideal representation and the continuation of “contributions” in them is called personalization. An individual passes away, but personalized in other people he continues to live (deeds, students, objects of material culture). When the entire structure of the personality is destroyed, this link is preserved.
So, in this structure Personality includes three components: the individuality of the individual, its representation in the system of interpersonal relationships and in other people.
Personality structure according to K.K. Platonov includes the following components (Table 5)
Dynamic structure of personality according to K.K. Platonov
The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social is one of the most difficult in modern psychology.
Biological– what is given to a person by nature (anatomical structure of the body, characteristics of GNI, temperament, inclinations). Social- what characterizes a person; this is lifetime education (worldview, tastes, character, etc.).
In psychology, there are theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors, biological and social - “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization.
Endopsychics how the personality substructure expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if an internal mechanism human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. It includes such traits as sensitivity, characteristics of memory, thinking, imagination, ability to exert volition, etc.
Exopsyche determined by a person's attitude towards external environment and includes a person’s system of relationships and his experience, i.e. interests, ideals, inclinations, worldview, prevailing feelings, knowledge, etc.
The endopsyche has a natural basis, the exopsyche is determined by the social factor.
How to treat this two-factor theory? A person is born as a biological being. In this case, the individual is born biologically, much less socially immature; the maturation and development of his body from the very beginning proceeds in social conditions. The development of an individual does not begin in a vacuum; he is not a tabula raza, a person is born with a certain set of biological properties and physiological mechanisms, which are a prerequisite for the further development of the individual (“No gardener can grow an apple on an oak tree” - V.G. Belinsky). The biological determinant acts throughout the life of the individual (since development occurs throughout life), but in different periods its role is different. However, the biological, entering into a person’s personality, becomes social (brain pathology Þ individual biological conditioned natural traits Þ become personal traits in society).
Natural organic traits exist in the personality structure as its socially determined elements. The natural and the social form a unity and cannot be mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of personality.
Question 21 Self-awareness, “I am a concept”, the image of “I”. Self-esteem and level of aspirations. Affect of inadequacy. Personality characteristics (psychological protection of the individual, life plan, compensatory mechanisms, intrapersonal conflict)
1. Self-awareness, “I am a concept”, the image of “I”. A person’s interest in his “I” has long been a subject of special attention. Interacting and communicating with other people, a person feels himself to be the subject of his physical and mental states, actions and processes, acts for itself as “I”, opposed to “others” and inextricably linked with them.
Self-awareness is a set of mental processes through which an individual recognizes himself as a subject of activity, and his ideas about himself are formed into a certain image of “I”.
The image of "I" includes 3 components:
1) cognitive (cognitive) – knowledge of oneself;
2) emotional (assessment of one’s qualities);
3) behavioral (practical attitude towards oneself).
The image of “I” is a dynamic formation and includes many “I” images that replace each other depending on the situation: ~ real “I” ~ ideal “I” ~ fantastic “I”, etc.
"I-concept"- this is the totality of all an individual’s ideas about himself, associated with an assessment. “I-concept” performs 3 main functions.
1) Contributes to the achievement of internal consistency of the individual. A person strives to achieve maximum internal consistency. Representations, ideas, feelings that contradict his own perceptions, ideas, feelings lead to deharmonization of the personality. If a new experience does not fit into existing ideas, the “I-concept” rejects it and acts as a protective screen (“This cannot be, because this can never be”).
2) Determines the interpretation of the acquired experience. Passing through the “I-concept” filter, information is interpreted and given a meaning that corresponds to a person’s ideas about himself.
3) Determines a person’s expectations about himself, i.e. something that needs to happen (“I am a good student, therefore I will pass the psychology exam”). The self-concept guides behavior.
Self-awareness constantly compares actual behavior with the “I-concept” (discrepancy between them leads to suffering).
Self-concept can be positive or negative. A positive self-concept means a positive attitude towards oneself, self-respect, self-acceptance, and a sense of self-worth.
A negative “I-concept” presupposes a negative attitude towards oneself, self-rejection, a feeling of one’s own inferiority; a person cannot achieve agreement between the “I-concept” and behavior.
A person’s ideas about himself, as a rule, seem convincing to him, although they may be subjective. Even objective indicators (height, age) can have different people different meaning, determined by the structure of their “I-concept” (for example, is 40 years old – a time of blossoming or aging?)
A too rigid structure of the “I-concept” is not a strength of character, but a source of painful inconsistencies. Too weak leads to spinelessness, unsuitability for long and strenuous efforts to achieve the goal.
The image of “I” is one of the most important for life social attitudes. All people feel the need for a positive self-image; a negative attitude towards oneself is always painful.
2. Self-esteem and level of aspirations. Affect of inadequacy. The degree of adequacy of the image of “I” is clarified by studying self-esteem personalities, i.e. a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people.
An individual evaluates himself in two ways:
1) by comparing the level of their aspirations with the actual results of their activities;
2) by comparing yourself with other people.
Self-esteem is always subjective. It is not constant, changing depending on circumstances.
Assimilation of new grades can change the meaning of those previously acquired (a student considers himself a good student, but later becomes convinced that good academic performance does not bring happiness in life; self-esteem falls).
Self-esteem can be adequate, inflated (in this case, the person is characterized by arrogance, suspicion, aggression); underestimated (uncertainty, indifference, self-blame, anxiety).
Self-esteem is closely related to the level of aspirations. Level of aspiration- this is the desired level of self-esteem of an individual, manifested in the degree of difficulty of the goal that the individual sets for himself. The level of individual aspirations is set somewhere between too easy and too difficult tasks so as to maintain self-esteem at the proper height.
Usually, with failures, the level of aspirations and self-esteem decreases. However, it may be that, despite failures, this does not happen and the person does not make any effort to achieve success, to raise his capabilities to the level of aspirations. Reasons for this:
1) some of the child’s abilities, sufficient for success in some area, but not sufficient for great achievements;
2) overestimation, long experience of undeserved praise, consciousness of one’s exclusivity;
3) a very strong need for self-affirmation.
There is a feeling of resentment and confidence in the injustice of others, a hostile and suspicious attitude towards everyone, and aggressiveness. This condition is called affect of inadequacy.
The affect of inadequacy arises for the sake of preserving one’s own attitude towards oneself at the cost of violating adequate relationships with the surrounding reality. Performs a protective function: it satisfies the need for high self-esteem, but is a serious obstacle to the formation of personality.
Prevention of the affect of inadequacy:
1) formation of adequate self-esteem;
2) formation of deep and sustainable interests.
A person’s self-awareness, using the mechanism of self-esteem, sensitively registers the relationship between one’s own aspirations and real achievements. A specific component of the “I” image – self-respect- characterized by the relationship between her actual achievements and what a person claims to achieve.
Self-esteem = success/aspiration
To maintain self-respect you need:
Achieve success (it's hard) or
Reduce the level of claims.
3. Personality characteristics (psychological protection of the individual, life plan, compensatory mechanisms, intrapersonal conflict).
Psychological defense mechanisms begin to operate when achieving a goal in a normal way is impossible (or the person thinks so).
Main types of psychological defense.
1. crowding out- a way to get rid of internal conflict by actively turning off an unacceptable motive or unpleasant information from consciousness. Injured pride, hurt pride and resentment can give rise to the proclamation of false motives for one’s actions in order to hide them not only from others, but also from oneself. True motives are replaced by others that do not cause shame and remorse and are acceptable from the point of view of the social environment. A person can “honestly” forget about an ugly act and force unwanted information out of memory. What is most quickly forgotten by a person is not the bad things that people have done to him, but the bad things that they have done to themselves and others. Ingratitude is associated with repression, with enormous power envy and components of inferiority complexes are repressed.
2. Reactive formation (inversion)– transformation in the consciousness of the emotional attitude towards an object to the exact opposite.
3. Regression– a return to more primitive forms of behavior and thinking.
4. Projection– unconscious transference to another person, attribution of feelings, desires, inclinations that a person does not want to admit to himself, understanding their social unacceptability. When a person has been aggressive towards someone, he often reduces the attractive qualities of the victim. A stingy person does not consider himself this way, but attributes this quality to other people.
5. Identification- unconscious transference to oneself of feelings and qualities inherent in another person, and inaccessible, but desirable for oneself. The boy unconsciously tries to be like his father and thereby earn his love. In a broad sense, identification is the unconscious adherence to ideals and models in order to overcome one’s own weakness and sense of inferiority.
6. Rationalization- a pseudo-reasonable explanation by a person of his desires, actions, in reality caused by reasons, the recognition of which would threaten the loss of self-esteem. Having not received what he passionately desired, a person convinces himself that “I didn’t really want it.” A person who has committed an unprincipled act refers to “general opinion.”
7. Insulation, or alienation– isolation within the consciousness of factors traumatic to a person. Unpleasant emotions are blocked by consciousness. This type of defense resembles alienation syndrome, which is characterized by a feeling of loss of emotional connection with other people, previously significant events or one’s own experiences, although their reality is recognized.
8). Sublimation– the process of transformation of sexual energy into socially acceptable forms of activity (creativity, social contacts).
The influence of psychological defense preserves a person’s inner comfort, creating the ground for self-justification. A person who is aware of his shortcomings takes the path of overcoming them and can change his actions. If information about the discrepancy between desired behavior and actual actions is not allowed into consciousness, then the psychological defense mechanism is activated and the conflict is not overcome, i.e. a person cannot take the path of self-improvement.
F. Nietzsche wrote about psychological defense: “A person is well protected from himself, from reconnaissance and siege from himself: he usually can only recognize his external fortifications. The fortress itself is inaccessible to him and even invisible - unless friends and enemies play the role of traitors and lead him into it in secret ways.”
Life plan as a characteristic of a person arises as a result of generalization and enlargement of the goals that a person sets for himself, the subordination of his motives, and the formation of a stable core of value orientations. At the same time, concretization and differentiation of goals occurs. A life plan is a phenomenon of both a social and ethical order.
The next personality characteristic is compensatory mechanisms. According to the teachings of A. Adler, an individual, due to defects in the development of his bodily organs, experiences a “feeling of inferiority.” Children experience feelings of inferiority due to their physical size and lack of strength and capabilities. Strong feeling inferiority (or "inferiority complex") can make positive growth and development difficult. However, a moderate feeling of inferiority motivates a child to grow, develop, improve and excel.
According to Adler, certain childhood situations can create isolation and psychological problems: 1) organic inferiority, frequent illnesses; 2) spoiledness, when the child lacks confidence because others have always done everything for him; 3) rejection - situation family education when a child does not feel love and cooperation in the home, so it is extremely difficult for him to develop these qualities (such children most often become cold and cruel). To help a person compensate for an obvious or disguised inferiority complex, it is important: 1) to understand the person’s specific lifestyle (for this, Adler asked the person to tell the earliest memories or events of his childhood); 2) help a person understand himself; 3) strengthen social interest.
Another personality characteristic is intrapersonal conflict– as a rule, it is generated by oppositely directed aspirations of a person (for example, the desire to immediately satisfy one’s physiological needs and the desire to look decent in the eyes of other people). Often intrapersonal conflict is caused by the need to make a choice. K. Levin proposed the following classification of intrapersonal conflicts: 1) a person must choose from two options that are positive for him; 2) the personality is between the positive and negative options; 3) choice “of two evils”.
Question 22. Motivational-need sphere of personality. Directionality. Personal dispositions: needs, goals, attitudes. Value orientations personality.
1. Motivational-need sphere of personality. Directionality. There are two functionally interconnected sides in human behavior: incentive and regulatory. Inducement provides activation and direction of behavior, and regulation is responsible for how it develops in a specific situation from beginning to end. Regulation of behavior is ensured by mental processes, phenomena and states: thinking, attention, abilities, temperament, character, will, emotions, etc. Stimulation (motivation) of behavior is associated with the concept of motive and motivation.
Motivation can be defined as a set of reasons psychological nature, explaining human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity (searching for answers to the questions: why? why? for what?).
Any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external reasons (i.e., the psychological properties of a person or the external conditions and circumstances of his activity). In the first case, they talk about motives, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests, etc.; in the second - about the incentives emanating from the current situation. Psychological factors are called personal dispositions(dispositional motivation), external stimuli determine situational motivation.
Dispositional and situational motivations are not independent. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and the activation of certain dispositions leads to a change in the subject’s perception of a given situation. Almost any human action is determined situationally and dispositionally. A person's actual behavior is the result of the interaction of his dispositions on a situation, and not simply a response to external stimuli. The subject of the action and the situation mutually influence each other, the result is observed behavior (for example, a person answers the same questions differently in different situations). Motivation is a process of continuous choice and decision-making by weighing behavioral alternatives, which largely depends on the orientation of the individual.
Focus can be defined as a stable aspiration, orientation of thoughts, feelings, desires, actions in a person, which is a consequence of the dominance of certain (main, leading) motivations. We can say that direction is a system of needs, interests, beliefs, and value orientations of a person that give his life meaning and direction. This highest level personality, which is most socially conditioned, most fully reflects the ideology of the community in which the person is included.
2. Personal dispositions: needs, goals, attitudes. Value orientations of the individual. One of the most important dispositions of the motivational sphere is motive. Under motive is understood as: 1) a material or ideal object that directs an activity or action to itself in order to satisfy certain needs of the subject; 2) the mental image of a given object. Motives can be stable and situational, conscious and unconscious. The same behavior can be driven by different motives. Awareness and sustainable motives play a leading role.
The entire set of motives of an individual, which is formed during his life, is called motivational sphere of the individual. The motivational sphere of a person is characterized by: breadth (diversity of motives); flexibility (to assimilate a motivational drive of a lower level, more diverse incentives of a lower level can be used, i.e., a person can use a variety of means to satisfy the same motive); hierarchy (characteristic of the structure of the motivational sphere).
To understand a person’s motivational sphere and its development, it is necessary to consider the individual’s relationships with other people. The formation of the motivational sphere is influenced by the life of society: ideology, politics, ethics, public institutions.
In general, this sphere is dynamic, but some motives are relatively stable and form, as it were, the core of this sphere (the direction of the personality is manifested in them).
Let us list the most important motives for activity and behavior:
a) attraction is the most primitive biological form of orientation;
b) desire - a conscious need and desire for something consciously;
c) desire – arises when a volitional component is included in the structure of desire;
d) interest – a cognitive form of focus on objects;
e) when a volitional component is included in interest, it becomes an inclination;
f) ideal - the objective goal of inclination, concretized in an image or representation;
g) worldview - a system of philosophical, ethical, aesthetic and other views on the world;
h) belief - a system of motives of an individual that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, ideals, and worldview.
A motive directs activity to satisfy a specific need. Need is the most important of all possible dispositions.
Need- the state of need of a person or animal in certain conditions that they lack for normal existence and development. A need is always associated with a person’s feeling of dissatisfaction associated with a deficiency of what the body (person) requires. The need activates the search for what is required and maintains the activity of the body until the state of need is completely satisfied.
Human needs are interconnected with each other and with other motivations. The dominant need at a given time can suppress all others and determine the main direction of activity (a hungry student). The main characteristics of human needs are strength, frequency of occurrence and method of satisfaction. An additional characteristic is the substantive content of the need, i.e. what objects of material and spiritual culture can contribute to its satisfaction. Characteristic human needs - their insatiability. Once satisfied, the need arises again and again, forcing a person to create more and more new objects of material and spiritual culture. Spiritual needs play a special role in the development of personality. Each person has a unique combination of needs. A perceived need becomes a motive for behavior.
All living beings have needs, but humans have the most diverse needs. A. Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs, presenting them in the form of a “pyramid” (Table 6)
“Pyramid” of needs by A. Maslow.
Maslow identified the following principles of human motivation.
· Motives have a hierarchical structure.
· The higher the level of motive, the less vital the corresponding needs are, the longer their implementation can be delayed.
· Until the lower needs are satisfied, the higher ones remain relatively irrelevant.
· As needs increase, readiness for greater activity increases. The opportunity to satisfy higher needs is a greater stimulus for activity than satisfying lower ones.
Self-actualization is not the final state of human perfection. Every person always has talents for further development. Maslow called a person who has reached the fifth level a “psychologically healthy person.”
Second in motivational significance (after need) is the concept of goal. Target– a directly cognizable result to which an action is currently directed, associated with an activity that satisfies an actualized need. The goal is perceived by a person as the immediate and immediate expected result of his activity. It is the main object of attention, occupies the volume of short-term and operative memory, the thought process unfolding at the moment and most of the emotional experiences are associated with it.
In the direction structure important place occupy value orientations– personal formations that characterize the attitude towards the goals of life, as well as the means of achieving these goals. Value orientations express an individual’s preferences regarding certain human values (well-being, health, cognition, creativity, etc.). The nature of goals and value orientations determines the nature of a person’s life activity as a whole.
Question 23. Communication concept. Types and means of communication. Structure of communication. Communication as a communicative process. Interactive and perceptual aspects of communication.
1. The concept of communication. Types and means of communication. Communication structureCommunication- a complex multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy and the perception and understanding of another person.
Thus, three sides can be distinguished in communication:
· communication (exchange of information),
interaction (organization of interaction),
· social perception (partners’ perception and knowledge of each other).
In communication, content, purpose and means are distinguished.
Communication means- methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information (through the senses, tactile contact, sign contacts).
Types of communication:
Direct (using natural human organs);
Indirect (using special means and tools);
Indirect (through intermediaries);
Interpersonal;
Role-playing (participants are carriers of certain roles);
Verbal;
Nonverbal.
2. Communication as a communicative process. When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word, they mean that people communicate in the course of joint activities with their ideas, ideas, moods, feelings, and attitudes. However, human communication is not limited to the transfer of information: information in human communication is not only transmitted, but also is being formed, TBC, develops.
Firstly, communication cannot be understood only as the sending of information to some transmitting system and its reception by another system, since, unlike simple movement information, we are dealing with the relationship of two active individuals, and mutual informing of them presupposes the establishment of joint activities. When sending information to another participant, it is necessary to focus on him, that is, analyze his motives, goals, attitudes, and contact him. Schematically: S=S (communication is an intersubjective process). It must also be assumed that in response to the information sent, new information will be received coming from the other partner.
In the communication process, there is not just the movement of information, but also the active exchange of it. Special role For each participant in communication, the importance of information plays a role: after all, people not only exchange knowledge, but also strive to develop a common meaning. This is possible only if the information is not just accepted, but also understood, comprehended, not just information, but a joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communication process, communication, activity and cognition are presented in unity.
Secondly, the exchange of information involves influencing the behavior of the partner. The effectiveness of communication is measured by the extent to which this impact is achieved. When exchanging information, the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication changes.
Thirdly, communicative influence is possible only when the person sending the information ( communicator), and the person receiving it ( recipient) have a single or similar codification system (everyone must speak the same language). People do not always understand the meaning of the same words in the same way. The exchange of information is possible only when the signs and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them are known to all participants in the communication process (then they will be able to understand each other).
Thesaurus– a common system of meanings understood by all members of the group. The reason for different understanding of the same words may be social, political, age characteristics of people. “A thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words” (L.S. Vygotsky). If what a person intended for a statement is taken as 100%, then only 90% is put into verbal forms (sentences), and only 80% is expressed. Of what was intended, 70% is heard, only 60% is understood, and 10-24% remains in memory.
Communicators also need the same understanding of the communication situation (this is only possible if communication is included in some general system of activity). For example, a husband greeted at the door by his wife’s words: “I bought some light bulbs today,” should not be limited to their literal interpretation: he should understand that he needs to go to the kitchen and change the light bulb.
Fourthly, in the context of human communication, specific communication barriers may arise:
I. Barriers to understanding:
2) semantic (caused by differences in the meanings of the participants in communication)
3) stylistic (mismatch of communication styles)
4) logical (the logic of the communicator is either complex, incorrect, or contradicts the inherent manner of proof of the recipient)
II. Barriers of socio-cultural differences.
III. Attitude barrier (hostility, distrust of the communicator extends to the information transmitted by him).
The transmission of any information is possible only through sign systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as a sign system. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information through speech, only the style of the message is lost.
Speech performs two functions:
1) communicative (means of communication),
2) significative (form of existence of thought).
With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator, in the process of speaking, encodes his idea using words, and the recipient, in the process of listening, decodes this information. Disclosure of the meaning of a message is unthinkable outside the situation of joint activity. The accuracy of understanding can become obvious to the communicator only when the recipient himself turns into a communicator and, through his statement, makes it known how he revealed the meaning of the received information. The success of verbal communication in the case of dialogue is determined by the extent to which the partners provide the thematic focus of the information, as well as its two-way nature.
How to increase the effect of speech influence?
A set of special measures aimed at increasing the effectiveness of speech influence is called "persuasive communication"
Here are some examples of persuasive communication techniques. The speaker must have the ability to attract the attention of the listener if he resists accepting information, to attract him in some way, to confirm his authority, and to improve the manner of presenting the material. An important factor influencing the audience is the interaction of information and audience attitudes.
There are 3 possible communicator positions:
Open – the communicator openly declares himself a supporter of the stated point of view, provides facts to support it
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Personality in psychology, it denotes a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the level and quality of representation of social relations in the individual.
What is personality as a special social quality of an individual? First of all, if we recognize that personality is the quality of an individual, then we thereby affirm the unity of the individual and personality and at the same time deny the identity of these concepts (for example, photosensitivity is the quality of photographic film, but we cannot say that photographic film is photosensitivity or that photosensitivity is photographic film). The identity of the concepts “personality” and “individual” is denied by all leading Soviet psychologists - B. G. Ananyev, A. N. Leontiev, B. F. Lomov, S. L. Rubinstein etc. “Personality is an individual; this is a special quality that is acquired by an individual in society, in the totality of relations, social in nature, in which the individual is involved, the essence of personality in the “ether” (Marx) of these relations... personality is a systemic and therefore “supersensible” quality, although the carrier This quality is a completely sensual, bodily individual with all his innate and acquired properties.”
Thus, a person needs a special characteristic that could describe this social quality, the bearer of which is the individual. And first of all, it is necessary to clarify why personality can be said to be a “supersensible” quality of an individual (“systemic and therefore “supersensible”). It is obvious that the individual has completely sensory (i.e., accessible to perception with the help of the senses) properties: physicality, individual characteristics of behavior, speech, facial expressions, etc. How are qualities discovered in a person that cannot be seen in his direct sensory form? To embody a system of social relations means to be their subject. A child involved in a relationship with adults initially acts as an object of their activity, but, mastering the composition of the activity that they offer him as leading for his development, for example, learning, he in turn becomes the subject of these relationships.
Social relations are not something external to their subject; they act as a part, side, aspect of personality as a social quality of an individual.
If the generic essence of a person, unlike all other living beings, is the totality of all social relations, then the essence of each specific person, i.e., the abstract inherent in an individual as a person, is the totality of specific social connections and relationships. in which he is included as a subject. They, these connections and relationships, are outside him, that is, in social existence, and therefore impersonal, objective (the slave is completely dependent on the slave owner), and at the same time they are inside, in him as individuals and therefore subjective (he hates the slave owner, submits to or rebels against him, generally treats him, enters into socially determined relationships with him).
The assertion of the unity, but not the identity of the concepts of “individual” and “personality” presupposes the need to answer a possible question: can the fact of the existence of an individual who is not a person be indicated, or a personality that would exist outside and without the individual as its specific bearer ? Hypothetically, it could be both. If we imagine an individual who grew up outside of human society, then, when he first encounters people, he will not discover, in addition to the individual characteristics inherent in the biological individual, any personal qualities, the origin of which, as was said, always has a socio-historical character, but has only natural prerequisites for their appearance if the people around him manage to “draw” him into joint activities and communication. The experience of studying children raised by animals indicates the exceptional complexity of this task. Before us will be an individual who has not yet matured as a person. It is also acceptable, with certain reservations, to recognize the possibility of the emergence of a personality behind which there is no real individual. However it will quasi-identity.
Such, for example, is Kozma Prutkov, created as a result of the co-creation of A.K. Tolstoy and the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers. The hero of E. Voynich’s novel “The Gadfly,” who did not have a real individual behind him, nevertheless had a huge impact on society.
Addressing the situation of “an individual without a personality” or “a personality without an individual” is like a thought experiment, which is not useful for understanding the problem of unity and non-identity of a personality and an individual.
As follows from the fact of discrepancy, non-identity of the concepts “individual” and “personality”, the latter can only be understood in a system of stable interpersonal connections that are mediated by the content, values, and meaning of joint activity for each of the participants. These interpersonal connections are real, but “supersensual” in nature. They manifest themselves in specific individual properties and actions of people included in the team, but are not reducible to them. They form a special quality of the group activity itself, which mediates these personal manifestations, which determine the special position of each individual in the system of interindividual connections and, more broadly, in the system of social relations.
Interpersonal connections that form a personality in a team appear externally in the form of communication, or subject - subjective relationship, existing along with subject - object relation, characteristic of subject activity. However, the moment, the fact of mediation remains the central link not only for objective activity, but also for communication. Upon deeper examination, it turns out that direct subject-subjective connections exist not so much on their own, but rather in mediation by some objects (material or ideal). This means that the relationship of an individual to another individual is mediated by the object of activity (subject - object - subject).
In turn, what outwardly looks like a direct act of the individual’s objective activity is in fact an act of mediation, and the mediating link for the individual is no longer the object of the activity, not its objective meaning, but the personality of another person as a participant in the activity, acting as if a refractive device through which he can better perceive, understand, feel the object of activity. In order to resolve an exciting issue, I turn to another person.
All that has been said makes it clear personality as a subject of a relatively stable system of interindividual (subject - object - subjective and subject - subject - object) relationships, emerging in activity and communication.
The personality of each person is endowed only with his own inherent combination of traits and characteristics that form his individuality. Individuality - This is a combination of a person’s psychological characteristics that make up his originality, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), abilities, individual style of activity, etc. No two people have the same combination of these psychological characteristics - human personality unique in its individuality.
Just as the concepts of “individual” and “personality” are not identical, personality and individuality, in turn, form unity, but not identity. The ability to add and multiply large numbers very quickly “in the mind,” dexterity and determination, thoughtfulness, the habit of biting nails, laughter and other characteristics of a person act as traits of his individuality, but are not necessarily included in the characteristics of his personality, if only because they can be and are not represented in forms of activity and communication that are essential for the group in which the individual possessing these traits is included. If personality traits are not represented in the system of interpersonal relationships, then they turn out to be insignificant for assessing the individual’s personality and do not receive conditions for development. Only those individual qualities that are “involved” to the greatest extent in the leading activities for a given social community. So, for example, agility and determination, being traits of a teenager’s individuality, did not appear for the time being as a characteristic of his personality, until he was included in a sports team that claimed the championship of the region, or until he took upon himself the provision of food on a long-distance tourist trip. crossing a fast and cold river. The individual characteristics of a person remain “mute” until a certain time, until they become necessary in the system of interpersonal relationships, the subject of which will be this person as an individual.
So, individuality is only one of the aspects of a person’s personality.
That is why it is necessary to highlight the task of implementing individual approach to a student, which involves taking into account his differential psychological characteristics (memory, attention, type of temperament, development of certain abilities, etc.), i.e., finding out how this student differs from his peers and how in connection with This should be the basis for educational work. At the same time, it is necessary to understand that an individual approach is just an aspect of a more general personal approach to the schoolchild, which is based on the study of the conditions and circumstances of the inclusion of a teenager or young man in a system of inter-individual relationships with adults, teachers and parents, with peers of both sexes, fellow students and fellow students, friends on the street, etc. Only with well-established pedagogical communication between students and teachers It is possible to find out how this boy or this girl “fits in” into the class group, what place they occupy in the hierarchy of inter-individual relations, what prompts them to act in one way or another, what changes the student’s personality undergoes, integrated into the group or unable to adapt to it at all. Under these conditions, a personal approach to the student as a subject of his system of relations is realized. Only such an approach, not limited to taking into account the individual characteristics of the student’s thinking, will, memory, feelings, but aimed at identifying How is an individual represented in a team? And how the collective is represented in its personality, can be considered as personal, corresponding to the Marxist understanding of human essence as the representation of a system of social connections in the individual. The most favorable conditions for the implementation of a personal approach are created by collective educational activities, as well as participation in work in student production teams.
If the individual approach in pedagogy and psychology turns out to be divorced from the personal approach, then it leads to “collecting” the child’s personality traits, without proper understanding of what conclusions can be drawn based on the compilation of such a “collection.” A. S. Makarenko, who knew how to masterfully use a personal approach in education, wrote: “... a person was studied, learned and recorded that he has a will - A, an emotion - B, an instinct - C, but then what to do next with these quantities, no one knows.”
The personality of the student, included in the system of its actual relations, must remain constantly in the sight of the teacher, whose task is always to enrich the spiritual world of students. “...The actual spiritual wealth of an individual depends entirely on the wealth of his actual relationships...”
The fact that the concepts of “personality” and “individuality,” despite all their unity, do not coincide, does not allow us to imagine the structure of personality only as a certain configuration of individual psychological properties and qualities of a person. For non-Marxist directions of Western psychological science, where the concepts of “personality” and “individuality” (as well as the concepts of “individual” and “personality”) are identical and the personality is not considered as a subject of a system of relations, social in nature, as a systemic social quality of an individual, structure (i.e. structure, organization) personality and individuality are completely the same. From the point of view of representatives of these psychological schools and directions, it is enough to characterize the structure of individuality - and thereby the person’s personality will be fully captured and described. Thus, psychologists use special personality questionnaires(a kind of questionnaire, including questions in which the subject is asked to evaluate himself, his individual personal qualities). By analyzing the content of these answers and mathematically processing the survey results, the researcher obtains a numerical value for the severity of any trait (type) on the scale corresponding to this trait;
with this approach, a certain set of scales supposedly sets the structure of the personality. However, it can be assumed that, at best, with the help of these methods it is possible to describe the individuality of a person, but not the entire personality in the “totality” of social relations in which a person is involved.
Indeed, if we take into account that a person always acts as the subject of his “real relations” with a specific social environment, then the structure of the personality must necessarily include these “real relations” and connections that develop in the activities and communication of specific social groups and collectives. Questionnaires are focused on a person’s assessment of himself in an amorphous social environment, in an abstract “environment in general.” This side - real inter-individual personality relationships - questionnaires cannot reflect and detect. As already mentioned, while claiming to characterize the general structure of personality, questionnaires are in fact limited to attempts to describe individuality, to find the principle of organizing personality traits around some of its core traits (factors). Metaphorically speaking, an extensive “collection” of individual psychological traits is placed in several “showcases”, which are provided with labels (“schizothymia - cyclothymia”, “introversion - extroversion”, “emotionality - balance”, etc.).
Thus, psychology has identified numerous personality traits - conformity, aggressiveness, level of aspirations, anxiety, etc., which together describe the uniqueness of the individual. These psychological phenomena are essentially correlative, explicitly or implicitly a certain social environment is assumed, in relation to which the person does not show conformity, aggressiveness, anxiety, etc. But if the individual characteristics of people appear in these studies as flexible, changeable, diverse in content, then the social environment is presented as unchanging, amorphous, meaningless, “the environment in general.” This mechanistic interpretation of the social environment, which has become traditional, in the relationship “personality - environment” interprets the environment either as a point of application of forces for an active individual, or as a force of group pressure on the individual. The idea of the active nature of the interaction between the individual and his social environment in Western science was not included either in the fabric of theoretical constructs of personality psychology, or in psychological methods for studying personality.
However, the approach to the social environment as an “environment in general” gave rise to a theoretical idea of personality in general, regardless of the system of socially determined relationships in which it exists, acts and develops. Virtually all personality questionnaires adopted by traditional Western personality psychology are oriented towards this amorphous social environment.
Meanwhile, in the conditions of a specific social group, individual psychological qualities exist in the form of personality manifestations, which do not always coincide with them. A person’s individuality is significantly transformed in the conditions of joint objective activity and communication characteristic of a given level of development of the group. The individual psychological under these conditions changes as a personal aspect, as an aspect of interpersonal relationships. This hypothesis has now been tested and confirmed in a number of specific works.
Thus, the task of one study was to test the above hypothesis in relation to suggestibility (conformity) as a personality property, as well as to the opposite phenomenon - self-determination as a phenomenon of interpersonal relations in a group. The hypothesis was specified in the following experimental procedure. A number of actually existing groups form a hierarchy of levels of group development - from a diffuse group to a genuine collective. According to the experiment, about a third of the subjects in each group, regardless of its level of development, showed a tendency to conform in an insignificant situation. The same is evidenced by data from personality questionnaires. The question was how these subjects would behave under the conditions of an experiment to identify the phenomenon of collectivist self-determination in groups different levels development. Experimental data confirmed that individuals belonging to the group of the highest level of development, in relation to whom, when using insignificant influences, it was concluded that they were malleable to group pressure, revealed a collectivist self-definition, i.e., the ability not to succumb to group pressure, defending collective values. In other words, such an individual psychological quality as suggestibility turns out to be transformed into the personality of the individual as a member of the team.
Other studies have examined whether a person's personality trait, such as extrapunitiveness(the tendency to blame other people for one’s own failures), the behavior of a member of a good team, i.e. whether it acts as a necessary manifestation of his personality. Initially, with the help of a special personality test, a group of athletes with pronounced extrapunitiveness was identified (there were quite a lot of them among team members in team sports). It would seem that this personality trait should determine the characteristics of their personality in their leading sporting activity. In fact, in highly developed groups of athletes (in genuine teams), according to a personality test, extrapunitive individuals showed collectivist identification towards the members of their team (see 11.6), i.e., they discovered personality traits that are directly opposite to extrapunitiveness.
Thus, it is obvious that the structure of a person’s personality is broader than the structure of individuality. Therefore, the first should include not only the traits and general structure of his individuality, most fully expressed in temperament, character, abilities, etc., but also how the personality reveals itself in groups of different levels of development, in interindividual relationships mediated by the leading for this group's activities. From the standpoint of psychology, the data obtained from the study personality as an individual cannot be directly transferred to the characteristics of a person as a subject of inter-individual relations; the individual-typical appears significantly differently depending on the development of the community in which the personality lives and is formed, and on the character, values and goals of activity that mediate interindividual relationships.
The problem of the relationship between biological (natural) and social beginnings in the structure of human personality is one of the most complex and controversial in modern psychology.
In psychology, a prominent place is occupied by theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors - biological And social. The idea was put forward that the entire human personality is divided into an “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization. “Endopsyche” as a substructure of personality expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. “Exopsyche” is determined by a person’s relationship to the external environment, i.e. to the entire sphere of what confronts the personality, to which the personality can relate in one way or another. “Endopsyche” includes such traits as receptivity, characteristics of memory, thinking and imagination, the ability to exert volition, impulsiveness, etc., and “exopsyche” is a person’s system of relationships and his experience, i.e. interests, inclinations , ideals, prevailing feelings, formed knowledge, etc. “Endopsyche,” which has a natural basis, is determined biologically, as opposed to “exopsyche,” which is determined by social factors. Modern foreign multifactorial theories of personality ultimately reduce the structure of personality to projections of all the same basic factors - biological and social.
How should we approach this concept of two factors? The human personality, being both a product and a subject of the historical process, could not preserve a biological structure, adjacent and equal to the social substructure. The natural prerequisites for the development of an individual, his bodily organization, his nervous and endocrine systems, the advantages and defects of his physical organization powerfully influence the formation of his individual psychological characteristics. However biological, entering a person’s personality, becomes social and then exists (psychologically) in a social form. Thus, brain pathology gives rise to individual biologically determined psychological traits in the individual, in his structure, but they become personal traits, specific personality traits or do not become due to social determination. Natural, organic features and traits appear in the structure of the personality as its socially conditioned elements.
Of course, the individuality of the human person retains the imprint of its natural, biological organization. The question is not whether biological and social factors should be taken into account in the personality structure - it is absolutely necessary to take them into account, but how to understand their relationships. The two-factor theory mechanically contrasts the social and the biological, the environment and the biological organization, the “exopsyche” and the “endopsyche.” In reality, such an external, mechanistic opposition is fruitless and does not provide anything for understanding the structure of personality. But a different approach to the problem of the natural and social in the formation and structure of personality is possible.
Let us show by the example of a study that studied the formation of personality traits of people whose height did not exceed 80 - 130 cm. It was established that there was a significant similarity in the personality structure of these people who, apart from short stature, did not have any other pathological deviations. They had a specific infantile humor, uncritical optimism, spontaneity, high endurance to situations requiring significant emotional stress, the absence of any shyness, etc. These personality traits cannot be attributed to either the “endopsyche” or the “exopsyche,” if only because, being the result of the natural characteristics of dwarfs, these traits can arise and be formed only in the conditions of the social situation in which dwarfs find themselves with moment when the difference in height between them and their peers was revealed. It is precisely because those around him treat the dwarf differently than other people, seeing him as a toy and expressing surprise that he can feel and think the same way as others, that dwarfs develop and fix a specific personality structure that masks their depressed state , and sometimes an aggressive attitude towards others and towards oneself. If you imagine for a moment that a dwarf is formed in a society of people of the same height, then it will become quite obvious that he, like everyone around him, will develop completely different personality traits.
Natural, organic aspects and traits exist in the structure of the individuality of the human person as its socially conditioned elements. Natural(anatomical, physiological and other qualities) and the social form a unity and cannot be mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of personality.
So, Recognizing the role of both the natural, biological, and social in the structure of individuality, it is impossible to look for biological substructures in a person’s personality on this basis alone, since in it they already exist in a transformed form.
The personality structure, therefore, first of all includes systemic organization of her individuality, presented in the structure of a person’s temperament, character, abilities, necessary, but not sufficient for understanding the psychology of the individual. Thus, the first component of the personality structure is highlighted - its intra-individual (intra-individual) subsystem.
The personality, being the subject of a system of actual relations with society, with the groups in which it is integrated, cannot be confined only to some closed space inside the organic body of the individual, but finds itself in the space of interindividual relations. Not the individual himself, but the processes of interpersonal interaction, which include at least two individuals (and in fact a community, group, collective), can be considered as manifestations of the personality of each of the participants in this interaction.
It follows from this that the personality in the system of its “real relations” (K. Marx) seems to acquire its own special existence, different from the physical existence of the individual. From the point of view of Marxist philosophy, the real existence of personality is revealed in the totality of objective relationships between individuals, mediated by their activities, and therefore one of the characteristics of the structure of personality should be sought in the “space” outside the organic body of the individual, which constitutes interindividual personality subsystem.
It is noteworthy that by transferring the consideration of the individual into the inter-individual “space”, we get the opportunity to answer the question of what the collective phenomena described above are: collectivist self-determination, collectivist identification, etc. What is it: actual group or personal manifestations? When the characteristics and the very existence of the personality are not locked “under the skin” of the individual, but are brought into the interindividual “space,” the false alternative generated by the identification of the concepts “individual” and “personality” (either personal or group) is overcome. The personal appears as a manifestation of group relationships, the group appears in the specific form of manifestations of the individual.
Natural and social
Man is, on the one hand, a biological being, and on the other, a social being. This is a creature that embodies the highest level of development of life, a subject of socio-historical activity. A person as a subject and product of labor activity in society is a system in which the physical and mental, genetically determined and formed in life, natural and social form an indissoluble unity.
An individual (from Latin “indivisible”) is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo Sapiens, a bearer of individually unique traits (inclinations, drives, etc.). The most general characteristics of an individual are: the integrity of the psychophysiological organization, stability in interaction with the outside world, activity.
Personality is the same person, but considered as a social being. Personality is a systemic quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, characterizing him in terms of involvement in social relations. The characteristics of a person in terms of his socially significant differences from other people are determined by individuality, i.e., the originality of the psyche and personality of the individual, its uniqueness. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, specific interests, qualities of intelligence, needs and abilities of the individual.
P Psychological characteristics of personality and its structure
Three most important psychological characteristics of personality are noted: stability of personality properties, unity of personality, and activity of personality. Personality is a very complex whole, but three main blocks can be roughly distinguished in it. This is the orientation of the personality (the system of its relations to the surrounding world - motives, needs, feelings, interests); personal capabilities (abilities); psychological characteristics personality behavior (temperament, character). The personality structure is shown schematically in Fig. 2.
Rice. 2. Personality structure
There are also three components in the personality structure: 1)
intra-individual (intra-individual) - represented in the structure of a person’s temperament, character, and abilities; 2)
interindividual - represented by a set of objective relationships between individuals; 3)
meta-individual (supra-individual) - represented by “investments” in other people, which the individual, voluntarily or involuntarily, makes through his activities (this process is called “personalization”).
P Personality orientation
The set of stable motives that orient the activity of an individual and are relatively independent of existing situations is called the orientation of the individual. Direction determines the goals that a person sets for himself, the aspirations that are characteristic of him, the motives in accordance with which he acts.
Motives, or incentives for behavior, are, in fact, specific manifestations of needs. Needs are recognized and experienced by a person as a need for something, dissatisfaction with something. At the same time, natural needs are distinguished (for food, rest, sleep, procreation, etc.) and spiritual (for communication, knowledge, art, etc.).
A person’s cognitive need is manifested in interests, which represent his cognitive focus on something associated with a positive emotional attitude to him. Interests are characterized by their content (interest in technology, music, etc.), breadth (broad and narrow, deep and superficial), stability and effectiveness (passive and active).
An essential motive for behavior is also beliefs - a system of individual motives that encourages her to act in accordance with her views, principles, and worldview. In general, a personality’s orientation can be represented as a system of its relationships to itself as a person (self-direction); to other people and interaction with them (focus on interaction); to the results and products of labor (business orientation).
P Personality setup
The main role in the direction of personality belongs to conscious motives. However, an important area of motivation for human actions is also formed by unconscious impulses, which represent a certain attitude of the individual.
Personality setting is an unconscious state of readiness and predisposition to activity, with the help of which this or that need can be satisfied. Bias, which is the essence of many attitudes, is the result of either insufficiently substantiated conclusions from personal experience a person, or the uncritical assimilation of thinking stereotypes - standardized judgments accepted in a certain social group. Attitudes towards the facts of social life can be positive or negative (for example, among nationalists, racists).
In the structure of the attitude, there are three component substructures: cognitive (from the Latin “cognition”) - there is an image of what a person is ready to know and perceive; emotional-evaluative - this is a complex of likes and dislikes towards the object of the attitude; behavioral - readiness to act in a certain way in relation to the object of the attitude.
P Image “I”
The discovery of the Self—the experience of having a Self—is the result of a long process of personality formation that begins in infancy. The image of “I” is a relatively stable, conscious, experienced as a unique system of an individual’s ideas about himself, on the basis of which he builds his interaction with others. The image of “I” acts as an attitude towards oneself, and in oneself the individual is represented by his actions and deeds as in another.
Like any attitude, the image of “I” includes all three components: cognitive (idea about one’s abilities, appearance, social significance, etc.); emotional-evaluative (self-esteem, self-criticism, selfishness, self-deprecation, etc.); behavioral, or volitional (the desire to be understood, to gain respect, to increase one’s status, to hide one’s shortcomings, etc.) “I-image” can be experienced as “I-real” (i.e. momentary), “I-ideal” ( as a guideline in self-improvement) and “I-fantastic” (escape from reality).
P Personality self-esteem
Self-esteem is an individual’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people. With the help of self-esteem, the behavior of an individual is regulated.
Three main indicators - self-esteem, expected assessment, personality assessment of the group - are included in the structure of personality and, whether a person wants it or not, he is forced to objectively take into account these subjective indicators of his social well-being. At the same time, a significant increase in a person’s self-esteem is associated with a decrease in the expected assessment indicator. In addition, an increase in the assessment that a person gives to others leads to an increase in real assessment from others. Self-esteem is closely related to the level of a person’s aspirations.
P Level of aspirations
The level of aspiration is the desired level of self-esteem of an individual (level of self-image), manifested in the degree of difficulty of the goal that the individual sets for himself. Studying the level of a person’s aspirations allows us to better understand the motivation of human behavior. A person’s self-awareness, using the mechanism of self-esteem, sensitively registers the relationship between one’s own aspirations and real achievements, which is clearly presented in the following formula*:
Self-esteem =-- .
Claims
P Psychological protection of the individual
Psychological protection of the individual is a special regulatory system used by the individual to eliminate psychological discomfort that threatens the “I-image” and maintain it at a level that is desirable and possible for given specific circumstances.
The formula was proposed by the American psychologist W. James.
The mechanisms of psychological defense are aggression, substitution of activity, rationalization and repression (“hiding your head in the sand”, etc.).
P Driving forces of personality formation and development
The leading role in the processes of formation and development of personality is played by training and education, which are carried out in groups and society as a whole. At the same time, the formation of personality as its development, the process and result of this development illustrates the psychological approach, and the formation of personality as its purposeful upbringing illustrates the pedagogical approach.
In the history of psychology, there were three main directions in resolving the issue of the driving forces, the source of development and formation of personality: the biogenetic concept (personal development is determined by biological factors, mainly heredity); sociogenetic concept (personal development is the result of direct influences of the surrounding social environment, its “cast”); theory of convergence (mechanical interaction of two factors - environment and heredity). However, they all had certain disadvantages.
From the point of view of modern psychology, the driving forces of personality development are identified in the contradiction between human needs changing in activity and the real possibilities of satisfying them. Therefore, the development, selection and education of needs, bringing them into line with social ideals are one of the central tasks of personality formation.
P Socialization of personality
Personal socialization is the process of an individual’s entry into the social environment, his assimilation of social influences, and his introduction to the system of social connections. Socialization is a two-way process, which includes, on the one hand, the assimilation by an individual of social experience by entering a social environment, and on the other hand, the process of active reproduction of a system of social connections due to his active activity. The first side is a characteristic of how the environment affects a person, the second characterizes the process of a person’s influence on the social environment through his activities.
The process of socialization, therefore, is the process of formation, formation and development of personality. There are three environments of personal socialization: activity, communication and cognition. The process of socialization has its stages. The pre-labor stage covers the period of a person’s life before starting work and includes two stages: early socialization (from birth to school entry) and the learning stage. The labor stage covers the entire period of labor activity, the post-labor stage covers the retirement period. The institutions of socialization are the family, preschool and school institutions, labor collective, as well as specific groups in which the individual joins existing systems of norms and values. The psychological effects of socialization are understood as psychological phenomena that indicate the extent and depth of socialization: the formation of social attitudes, motivation of activity, character formation, etc.
P Personality and activity
Activity is a person’s activity aimed at achieving consciously set goals related to meeting his needs and interests, and fulfilling the requirements for him from society. In any activity, the following components (stages) can be distinguished: setting a goal, planning work, performing work, checking results, summing up, evaluating work.
The types of activities include labor (results in the creation of a socially useful product), creative (provides a new original product of high social value), educational (aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for education and subsequent work activity) and gaming (a means of cognition of the environment world through story and role-playing games).
A skill is a way of performing an activity mastered by a person. Skills are acquired through practice. A skill is an action in which individual operations have become automated as a result of repeated exercises. There are motor (motor) and intellectual skills (in the field of mental work - for example, spelling skills). The physiological basis of a skill is a dynamic stereotype formed in the human brain.
A habit is a person's need to perform certain actions. A habit is a skill that has become a need. A skill is the ability to successfully carry out actions, a habit is an incentive to perform these actions. There are everyday habits (for example, hygienic) and moral (for example, politeness).
Activity expresses a person’s personality, and at the same time activity shapes his personality. The formation of human activity occurs in the following order: impulsive behavior (in the first year of life - exploratory), over the years - practical, then - communicative and, finally, - speech.
P Communication
Communication and activity form an inextricable unity. The means of communication is language - a system of verbal signs through which socio-historical experience exists, is acquired and transmitted. Communication acts as an exchange of information (speech - verbal communication; facial expressions, gestures, pauses, etc. - non-verbal), as interpersonal interaction (a set of connections and mutual influences of people that develop in the process of their joint activities), as people’s understanding of each other (perception and assessment of man by man).
P Social control
Joint activities and communication take place under conditions of social control, exercised on the basis of social norms - patterns of behavior accepted in society that regulate the interaction and relationships of people. Social control is exercised in accordance with a wide repertoire of social roles.
A social role is understood as a normatively approved pattern of behavior expected by others from everyone who occupies a given position. social position. Interaction of people performing different social roles regulated by role expectations, they can also cause role conflicts.
Conflicts
A person’s ability and ability to accurately attribute to others expectations of what they are ready to hear from him or see in him is called tact. Tactlessness is the destruction of expectations in the process of communication.
Interpersonal conflict is an antagonism of positions, reflecting the presence of mutually exclusive values, tasks and goals. Two types of determinants can act as causes of conflicts: substantive and business disagreements and divergence of personal and pragmatic interests. The cause of conflicts is also semantic barriers in communication - this is a discrepancy in the meanings of the expressed demand, request, order for partners in communication, creating an obstacle to their mutual understanding and interaction.
P Effects of Interpersonal Perception
In interpersonal perception, the action of three most important mechanisms is distinguished: -
identification is a way of understanding another person through awareness or unconscious assimilation of his characteristics to the characteristics of the subject himself (“put yourself in his place”); -
reflection - the subject’s awareness of how he is perceived by his communication partner. In communication, identification and reflection appear in unity. A causal explanation of the actions of another person by attributing to him feelings, intentions, thoughts and motives of behavior is called “causal attribution” (from the Latin “reason” and “I give”), or “causal interpretation”; -
stereotyping - classification of forms of behavior and interpretation of their causes by attribution to already known or seemingly known phenomena, i.e., corresponding social stereotypes(stamps). An essential basis for the formation of bias and subjectivism is preliminary information, which gives rise to the halo effect (its essence is that the general favorable impression left by a person leads the subject to positive assessments of those qualities that are not given in perception).
Basic Concepts
Personality is a systemic quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, characterizing him in terms of involvement in social relations.
Personality orientation is a set of stable motives that orient the activity of the individual and are relatively independent of existing situations. Characterized by interests, inclinations, beliefs, ideals in which a person’s worldview is expressed.
Activity is a dynamic system of interactions between a subject and the world, during which a mental image arises and is embodied in an object and the subject’s mediated relationships in objective reality are realized.
Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person.
Tasks for independent work
Annotating or taking notes from literature 1.
Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. - L., 1968. - 339 p. 2.
Bern E. Games that people play. Psychology of human relationships. People who play games. Psychology human destiny: Per. from English / Ed. M. S. Matskovsky. - M., 1988. - 400 p. 3.
Vygotsky L. S. Development of higher mental functions. - M.: APN RSFSR, 1960. 4.
Leontyev A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - 2nd ed. - M., 1977. - 230 p.
Topics of abstracts and reports 1.
Subject and tasks of psychology. 2.
Brain and human psyche. 3.
Basic methods of modern psychology. 4.
General psychology and branches of psychological science. 5.
Man as a subject of cognition, communication and activity. 6.
Individual. Personality. Individuality: The main directions of human socialization. 7.
Personality structure and its main psychological characteristics.
Ananyev B. G. On the problems of modern human knowledge. - M., 1977. 2.
Anokhin P.K. Essays on the physiology of functional systems. - M., 1975. 3.
Bekeshkina I. E. Personality structure: methodological analysis. - K., 1986. 4.
Bodalev A. A. Personality psychology. - M., 1988. 5.
Borodkin F. M., Koryak N. M. Attention: conflict! - Novosibirsk, 1983. 6.
Vasiliev I. A., Magomed-Eminov M. Sh. Motivation and control over action. - M., 1991. 7.
Vilyunas V.K. Psychological mechanisms of human motivation. - M., 1990. 8.
Grimak L.P. Reserves of the human psyche: Introduction to the psychology of activity. - M., 1989. 9.
Kovalev V.I. Motives of behavior and activity. - M., 1988. 10.
Kogan A. B. Fundamentals of higher physiology nervous activity. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M., 1988. 11.
Lomov B.F. Questions of general, pedagogical and engineering psychology. - M., 1991. 12.
Obozov N. N. Psychology of interpersonal relations. - K., 1990. 13.
Teplov V. M. Selected works. - M., 1985. - T. 1. 15.
Uznadze D. N. On the basic law of changing attitudes // Psychology. - 1930. - T. 3. - Issue. 3.16.
Ushinsky K. D. Man as a subject of education. - St. Petersburg, 1895. - T. 1. 17.
Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: Trans. with him. / Ed. B. M. Velichkovsky. - M., 1986. - T. 1.
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