School encyclopedia. Sentimentalism in Russian literature

The 19th century gave birth to a large number of talented Russian prose writers and poets. Their works quickly burst into the world and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. general characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century has become the subject of study in a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, the prerequisites for such a rapid cultural rise were events in political and social life.

Story

The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in XVIII century Since social life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important vicissitudes that influenced not only the further development of society and politics, but also the formation of new trends and trends in literature.

The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of words was A.S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.

Literary language

The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to his comprehensive development and excellent education. One day he set himself the goal of achieving all the peaks in education. And he achieved it by the age of thirty-seven. They became atypical and new for that time Pushkin's heroes. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and characteristics of the Russian soul. This literary type There were no analogues in our literature before.

Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, a person with at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of “Eugene Onegin” who made a revolution in Russian literature.

Romanticism

This concept originates from Western medieval epic. But to 19th century it acquired new shades. Originating in Germany, romanticism penetrated into the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by a desire for mystical motives and folk legends. Poetry traces the desire to transform life for the better and the chanting folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity.

The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century are marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite often found in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.

As for prose, new forms of the story have appeared here, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples of romantic prose are the early works of Nikolai Gogol.

Sentimentalism

With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is sensual and focuses on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century he gained a number of followers.

Satirical prose

It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting your creative path from description small homeland, this author later moved to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult today to imagine what Russian literature of the 19th century would have been like without this master of satire. The general characteristics of his prose in this genre come down not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirical writer “traversed” almost all layers of society.

A masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel “The Golovlevs,” dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world of landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence

Realistic novel

In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general description briefly represents a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most current issues society in which he moved.

In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”

Folk poem

In the years when the realistic novel took a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. A general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century allows us to trace the long path from dreamy poetry to a truthful novel. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be classified as one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.

End of the century

At the end of the 19th century, one of the most readable authors became Chekhov. Despite the fact that at the beginning of his creative career, critics accused the writer of being cold towards current social topics, his works received undeniable public acceptance. Continuing to develop the image of the “little man” created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that were developed in late XIX centuries, could not help but influence the lives of individual people.

IN later literature The 19th century was dominated by revolutionary sentiments. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.

The general characteristics of the 19th century deserve closer attention. Each major representative of this period created his own art world, whose heroes dreamed of the impossible, fought social evil or experienced their own small tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of a century rich in social and political events.

At the Lyceum exam on January 8, 1815, Alexander Pushkin, in the presence of G. R. Derzhavin, inspiredly read his poem “Memories in Tsarskoe Selo.” The future poet said about the bygone century: “And you flew by, unforgettable!” A little later he will again remember the past century:

How long has it been rushing along, full of events, Worried like the ocean?

Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin, in whose works “was clearly imprinted Russian XVIII century”, opened up new opportunities for Russian poetry. The poet made the life of an ordinary person the subject of his lyrical works, and his artistic discoveries were adopted by poets XIX century. Poem “Eugene. Life of Zvanskaya" was the first attempt to create a novel in verse, to which he later received a lively response A. S. Pushkin"Eugene Onegin". The poets of the golden age of Russian literature were close to the accusatory thrust of Derzhavin’s “formidable lyre.” In the poem “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...” Pushkin, asserting his place in Russian literature, clearly outlined the great role of Derzhavin in the history of Russian poetry.

“Old Man Derzhavin” crossed the turn of the century in the prime of his creative powers: “Derzhavin’s poetry is the one that appeared untimely... Pushkin’s poetry, and Pushkin’s poetry is the one that appeared on time... Derzhavin’s poetry” (V. Belinsky).

Unlike his predecessors, Krylov acted in fables not only as a moralist. A. A. Bestuzhev Marlinsky wrote: “...his every fable is a satire, the strongest because it is short and told with an air of innocence.” Often Krylov’s fables were associated with specific historical events: the “Quartet” ridiculed the reorganization of ministries, “Fish Dances” the omnipotence of Arakcheev, fables reflecting the events of the Patriotic War of 1812 are widely known. Of course, the possible interpretation of fables is much broader than the facts that gave rise to their creation.

IN early XIX century, the literary community widely discussed the issue of ways to develop the Russian language. As a result of the controversy, opposing literary organizations arose. In 1811, Admiral A. S. Shishkov founded the society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” in St. Petersburg, whose meetings were held in Derzhavin’s house - the venerable poet presided over them. The object of attacks by “Conversations...” was first Karamzin and his supporters - the “Karamzinists”, and then Zhukovsky.

One should not think that everything that “Conversation...” defended was bad and worthy of ridicule. Thus, they keenly felt the power and energy of Derzhavin’s poetry, but at the same time they were fierce defenders of the archaic, ponderous style. Shishkov demanded the abolition or replacement of foreign words that Karamzin introduced into the Russian language: audience, billiards, heroism, galoshes, catastrophe, moral, orator, enthusiasm, era, aesthetic. Shishkov's supporters suggested speaking to the audience instead of the audience. an eloquent speaker instead of an orator. Sharokat instead of billiards. wet shoes instead of galoshes... The “Shishkovists” did not accept the words created by Karamzin: development, influence, shade, touching...

In contrast to Shishkov’s society, the famous “Arzamas” arose in 1815. All members of this literary society bore names taken from Zhukovsky's ballads. Zhukovsky was Svetlana, Batyushkov was Achilles, young Pushkin- Cricket, and his uncle Vasily Lvovich was called “Here.” Defending innovations in the language, they actively ridiculed the “Conversation...”, calling it “The Conversation of the Destroyers of the Russian Word,” and distributed many satires and parodies of their opponents in handwritten form. For example, every new member“Arzamasa” was supposed to “bury” one of the participants in the “Conversation...” in its opening speech. The protocols of society, which Zhukovsky kept, still delight readers with their wit and originality.

“Beseda...” disintegrated after Derzhavin’s death in 1816, and in 1818 “Arzamas” also ceased to exist. For the “Arzamas Protocols” Zhukovsky wrote a poetic text of his farewell speech:

Brothers are friends from Arzamas! You listen to the protocol, that's right, you hoped. No protocol! What to record? ..

This latest comic document records what each of the Arzamas participants was doing this year and why they could not be brought together.

Echoes of the disputes between “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word” and “Arzamas” will sound on the pages of literary works for a long time. You can find a mention of the name Shishkov in the lines of “Eugene Onegin”. In Chapter VIII of the novel, Pushkin uses a French phrase and immediately makes a playful reservation: “...Shishkov, forgive me: / I don’t know how to translate.”

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of sentimentalism came to an end and a new literary movement emerged - romanticism.

Romanticism widely embraces the phenomena of reality. We can no longer say that this is only a literary direction - this is the principle of perception of the world, therefore, in the interpretation of the term dictionaries do not skimp on variants of meanings. At the heart of the romantic worldview and romantic art is the discord between ideal and reality. When an obvious discrepancy arises between the imperfect surrounding world and the ideal that exists beyond its borders, the world seems to bifurcate. This phenomenon has received an expressive definition: romantic duality. Such conflictual unity forces us to see any phenomenon both in the light of those ideas that the romantic soul gives birth to, and in the system of connections determined real life.

The preferences of the romantic authors were on the side of the sublime soul, striving to overcome the imperfections of the world. Romanticism intensified in art lyrical beginning, focusing the artist mainly on depicting the unique and changeable internal state of the individual. “Lyricism for romantic art is, as it were, a spontaneous basic feature,” poetry turned out to be most “capable of finding expressions for an internal experience preoccupied only with itself, its goals and events,” noted German philosopher Hegel.

Romanticism contrasted the canons with improvisation, stylistic freedom, and a new attitude towards genres. Classicism trusted primarily reason, sentimentalism - feeling, romanticism - intuition.

In Russian literature, the term romanticism was first mentioned in 1816 by the poet and friend of Pushkin, P. A. Vyazemsky. “Apology of the individual,” according to A.I. Tyrgenev, is the main thing in this method. The properties of a particular person, and not circumstances or the environment, determine the logic of plots among romanticists. "The circumstances have no of great importance. The whole point is in character,” writes one of the prominent representatives of romanticism French writer Benjamin Constant, whose hero Adolphe (from the novel of the same name, created in 1815) was considered an example of a romantic hero “with his embittered mind seething in empty action. The sphere of romanticism, as Belinsky wrote, is “the entire inner, soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all vague aspirations for the best and sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy.” The romantic created a world in which unusual characters and amazing passions appeared, the lives of the heroes took place in plots full of dramatic events, they were surrounded by spiritual and healing nature. the heroism of protest coexisted with the motives of “world sorrow”, “world evil”, “the night side of the soul”.

The English poet George Gordon Byron, who died for the freedom of Greece, became the personification of the romantic hero of the era. This was an example of the unity of poetry - action - fate. It was in Byron's work that a new literary image appeared: a romantic personality who challenges the world with its inertia and immobility? - Byronic hero.

Romantics were interested in the origins of the birth of powerful characters on their native soil, which had a fruitful effect on the development national cultures. They saw folklore as one of the sources of fantasy that carried them into other worlds. It was then that the Brothers Grimm turned to the literary treatment of folk tales. German fairy tales. Interest in the history of one's people, national traditions reflected in the plots of ballads, legends and fairy tales of Zhukovsky, in the brightness of the romantic works of Pushkin and Lermontov. The mysterious world of the Middle Ages was captured in historical novels Walter Scott. The Romantics put forward the principles of historicism and nationalism in literature, which prepared the way for the advent of realism. “Nationality, originality are the main signs of true poetry,” speaking in defense of romanticism, writes P. A. Vyazemsky in the preface to Pushkin’s poem “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai.”

Romantic techniques caused fierce disputes, which mostly concerned violations of all kinds of canons. A powerful impetus for the emergence of such disputes was given by the publication of Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmida”. Supporters of classicism strongly criticized it for its style, plot, and the characters chosen; critics saw obvious deviations from the rules in everything.

Each literary movement has a predominant inclination towards specific genres and even types of literature. For Russian romanticism of the early 19th century, these were lyrical and lyric-epic genres. The brightness of the romanticism palette was ensured by its stylistic freedom. The names of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, P. A. Vyazemsky, A. I. Odoevsky, D. V. Benevitinov, I. I. Kozlov, M. Yu. Lermontov are associated with romanticism. Prose writers V.F. Odoevsky and A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky are also considered romantics.

The founder of Russian romanticism was Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. You have already encountered the work of this poet more than once, who at the beginning of the 19th century was considered the first Russian poet in terms of fame and recognition. You are familiar with his fate, his rare gentleness and humanity, and his spiritual responsiveness. “The ability to understand and feel the creativity of another person, combined with a brilliant poetic gift, allowed him to become a brilliant translator. However, subtly perceiving all the movements of someone else’s soul, Zhukovsky creates his translations as original and completely independent works. This is “ Rural cemetery"- a free translation of Thomas Gray's elegy. According to Zhukovsky, this work was the beginning of his creative path.

The spiritual sensitivity and inspired grace of Zhukovsky’s lyrics captivated his contemporaries. We still feel “the captivating sweetness of his poems.” Belinsky claimed that Zhukovsky’s muse “gave Russian Poetry a soul and a heart.” The poet's pen includes excellent examples of landscape lyricism; among the genres, elegy and friendly message especially stand out.

Zhukovsky was often called a “balladeer.” Belinsky claimed that he began, created and approved this kind of poetry in Rus': contemporaries of Zhukovsky’s youth looked at him primarily as an author of ballads.” He expanded the range of topics to which the ballad addressed. This lyric-epic genre was previously limited to the reproduction of medieval folk legends, and Zhukovsky used both ancient myth and Russian legends, which have their own unique flavor. It is interesting to compare the free adaptations of Burger's ballad "Lenora": "Lyudmila" (1808), "Svetlana" (1812) and the closest to the original called "Lenora" (1831). Of these three ballads, you know “Svetlana,” which was and remains one of the most popular among the dozens of works created by Zhukovsky. You are probably familiar with the poet’s other ballads: “The Cup”, “Roland the Squire”, “Fisherman”, “The Glove”, “The Forest King”.

When characterizing Zhukovsky’s work, we must not forget about his activities as a translator. The poet introduced the Russian reader to the works of writers and poets different countries. He translated the works of Homer, Goethe, Schiller, Byron, Gray, Scott, Burger, Uhland, Klopstock, Iranian, Indian, Tajik epic, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, the old story “Ondine” by Lamott Fouquet, the Corsican story “Matteo Falcone” and etc.

“The importance of this poet for Russian poetry and literature is immensely great,” wrote Belinsky.

Big role Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov played a role in the development of Russian romanticism. His lyrics appear as a poetic autobiography - “Live as you write, and write as you live.” Batyushkov’s work is distinguished by the perfection of verse, the search for new artistic forms, deep psychologism. The perfection of the poet’s lyrics was highly appreciated by Pushkin, who considered Batyushkov his idol: “Italian sounds! What kind of miracle worker is this Batyushkov.” V. G. Belinsky highly appreciated his poetic gift: “Batyushkov contributed a lot and a lot to the fact that Pushkin appeared as he really appeared.”

The influence of romanticism on all spheres of cultural life in Europe and America was very strong. It is enough to list the names of the most famous authors who firmly connected their work with this direction: J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley, G. Heine, A. V. de Vigny, D. Leopardi, E. T. A. Hoffmann, E. Poe, G. Melville.

Romanticism in music developed in close connection with literature (hence the attention to synthetic genres - opera, song): F. Schubert, K. M. von Weber, R. Bagner, G. Berlioz, F. Liszt, F. Chopin.

IN fine arts The romantic direction was most clearly manifested in the painting and graphics of E. Delacroix, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky.

30-40s years XIX century.

The first decades of the 19th century passed under the sign of romanticism. Zhukovsky is popular, the genius of Pushkin is blossoming, Lermontov is making himself known, Gogol’s creative path is beginning, and the critic Belinsky is actively participating in the development of Russian literature. Literature is increasingly becoming an integral part of the spiritual life of society.

Young people and students create associations that have a socio-political orientation. Thus, at Moscow University, in the circle of N.V. Stankevich - V.G. Belinsky, M.A. Bakunin, K.S. Aksakov participate; in the circle of A. I. Herzen - N. P. Ogarev. As Herzen argued, the “Russia of the future” existed precisely between these “boys who had just emerged from childhood” - they had “the heritage of universal science and purely folk Rus'.”

The autocratic government proclaims the ideological formula of Russian society: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. It was made in 1833 in a circular from the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov, which stated “that public education should be carried out in the united spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality.”

Disputes about the nationality of literature, about the type of positive hero, about patriotism, about attitudes towards the culture of other peoples were actively conducted in the periodical press. The role of magazines continues to increase, among the most "Moscow Telegraph" N. A. Polevoy and “Telescope” by N. I. Nadezhdin, in which potters, Koltsov, Tyutchev, Belinsky were published. For publishing works objectionable to the authorities, these magazines were closed. For some time (1830-1831) their place was taken by the Literary Newspaper. It was the organ of the writers of Pushkin's circle. the newspaper was edited by A. A. Delvig, A. S. Pushkin, P. A. Vyazemsky, D. V. Davydov, E. A. Baratynsky, N. M. Yazykov, V. F. Odoevsky, A. A. were published in it . Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. The active position of the newspaper caused a response from the authorities: Literaturnaya Gazeta was closed.

Pushkin could not come to terms with the fact that the possibility of publication had disappeared. In 1836, he created the magazine “Sovremennik”, in which he published his works: “The Feast of Peter the Great”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, “ The Stingy Knight”, as well as works by authors close to him: “The Nose” and “Carriage” by Gogol, poems by Davydov, Baratynsky, Koltsov, Tyutchev, excerpts from notes about the Patriotic War of 1812 by the cavalry maiden Durova, etc.

It was during these years that Russian literature made its way from romanticism to realism.

The confrontation and interaction of literary trends lasted for a long time, and it manifested itself not only in the work of individual writers, but also in specific works. This is evidence of the complexity of development literary process but in Russia. A striking example of this is the fate of the comedy “Wit from the Mind” by Alexander Sergeevich Griboedov. Conceived in 1816, completed in 1824, first published (only a fragment!) in 1825 and not allowed on stage for a long time. The comedy became popular, spreading in the lists. The appearance of “Woe from Wit” caused a fierce controversy, during which its special place in Russian literature was established. The comedy retained the signs of classicism, in its characters one could discern romantic traits, and above all, she amazed with the sharp picture of morals characteristic of realism. “I’m not talking about poems: half of them must be included in the proverb” - this is how A. S. Pushkin characterized the bright, living language of realistic comedy.

For Russian literature of the 19th century century, realism can be considered the leading direction. In the literature of different countries, it arose in parallel with the successes of the exact sciences. The position of a realist writer is close to that of a scientist, since they consider the world around them as a subject of study, observation, and research.

Romanticism gravitated towards the depiction of an extraordinary personality, unusual subjects, spectacular contrasts and vivid forms of expression. Realism strives to depict the everyday existence of ordinary people, to reproduce the real flow of life. “To accurately and powerfully reproduce the truth, the reality of life, is the greatest happiness for a writer, even if this truth does not coincide with his own sympathies,” argued I. S. Typgenev.

Modern literary critic A. M. Gurevich defines the peculiarity of realism of the 30-40s of the 19th century: “The discovery of the poetry of the everyday, prosaic and everyday side of reality, the everyday flow of life, the beauty of familiar, established relationships between people became the most important achievement of classical realism.” Reproducing the truth of life, realism reflected various forms of human dependence on society, the hostility of the social system to the personality of the individual. This is how critical realism was born.

However, for Russian realism XIX century, the foreground was not denial, but affirmation. “The dynamic relationship between the pressure of external circumstances and internal freedom becomes a problem that worries literature,” argued literary historian Yu. M. Lotman.

Within the 19th century, Russian and Western European realism differed in that foreign realist writers gravitated primarily towards an artistic and analytical study of modernity, while in Russia authors sought to transform the world and man. What united them was their close attention to research general properties human nature. These problems will arise especially convincingly later, in the middle of the 19th century.

Characteristic of Russian realism close connection with previous literary movements: sentimentalism and romanticism. The romantic thirst for transformation does not leave Russian realists. The ideals, hopes, and aspirations of the people lived on the pages of the works of Russian classics, again and again affirming its nationality.

The development of realism significantly expands the themes of literary works, enriches genre originality works, the sphere of observations of life. “If we were asked what the distinctive character of modern Russian literature is, we would answer: in closer and closer proximity to life, to reality,” wrote V.G. Belinsky in a review of Russian literature for 1846. A mighty galaxy of prose writers entered Russian literature during these years: I. S. Tyrgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Belinsky was published in the magazine “Domestic Notes” from 1839 to 1846, and Lermontov’s works were published in them: “Bela”, “Taman”, “Fatalist”, “& Boyarin Orsha”, “Izmail - Bey”; poems by Koltsov, Ogareva, Nekrasov.

In the 30-40s, realism was looking for new forms and a direction appeared that was called the “natural school”.

The combination of the spirit of analysis and detailed, even often scrupulous reproduction of reality, the taste for the “little things in life” came from Gogol’s powers of observation. The image of the “little man” was impossible without attention to detail. In this direction there was a search in the stories and poems of Typgenev, early prose and the poetry of Nekrasov, about the works of Dostoevsky and Dahl, and the poems of Koltsov. One of the most popular genres of this direction was the essay. The titles of the essays can already serve as a characteristic of their content: “The Coachman”, “The Orderly” by V. I. Dahl, “Merchants”, “Officials”, “The Landowner” by V. A. Sollogub.

The works of this direction combine the desire to accurately depict reality and generalize their observations. In this regard, the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1844-1845) is indicative. It contained essays: Petersburg Corners by Nekrasov, Petersburg Janitor by Dahl, Petersburg Organ Grinders by Grigorovich. In introductory article Belinsky argued that the collection makes readers think. Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky occupied a special place in the literature of those years. His name has become known since 1834, when the article “Literary Dreams” was published. Elegy in prose." Following this publication, articles by the critic began to appear in the magazines Telescope, Moscow Observer, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Sovremennik. Belinsky saw in literature the expression of “a symbol of the inner life of the people.” He considered criticism to be “the sister of doubt,” and art to be an artistic analysis of reality.

Sentimentalism (from French. sent – feeling, sensitive , English sentimental – sensitive) - an artistic movement in art and literature that replaced classicism.

Already from the name it is clear that the new direction, as opposed to the cult of reason, will proclaim the cult of feeling. Feelings come first, not great ideas. The author focuses on the reader's perception and his feelings that arise during reading.

The origins of the direction lie in Western Europe in the 20s of the 18th century, sentimentalism reached Russia in the 70s, and in the first three decades of the 19th century it took a leading position.

In terms of its appearance, sentimentalism preceded romanticism. This was the end of the Enlightenment, therefore, in the works of sentimentalists, educational tendencies are preserved, which is manifested in edification and moralizing. But completely new features also appeared.

Main features of sentimentalism

The focus is not on reason, but on feeling. The ability to sympathize and empathize was considered by writers as the most important dignity of the human personality.
The main characters are not nobles and kings, as in classicism, but ordinary people, humble and poor.
The cult of innate moral purity and innocence was glorified.
The writers' main attention is directed to the rich inner world of a person, his feelings and emotions. And also that a person’s spiritual qualities do not depend on his origin. Thus, new heroes appeared in literature - simple people, who in their moral qualities often surpassed the noble heroes.
Glorification in the works of sentimentalist writers of eternal values - love, friendship, nature.
For sentimentalists, nature is not just a background, but a living essence with all its little details and features, as if rediscovered and felt by the author.
Sentimentalists saw their main goal as to console a person in his life, full of sorrows and suffering, to turn his heart to goodness and beauty.

Sentimentalism in Europe

This direction received its most complete expression in England, in the novels of S. Richardson and L. Stern. In Germany, prominent representatives were F. Schiller, J. V. Goethe, and in pre-revolutionary France, sentimentalist motives found their most complete expression in the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

The name itself literary direction took root after the authors wrote numerous “Travels”, which revealed to the reader the beauty of nature, selfless friendship, family idyll. Touched the most tender feelings of readers. The first novel, “A Sentimental Journey,” was written by L. Stern in 1768.

Sentimentalism in Russia

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were M. N. Muravyov, I. I. Dmitriev, N. M. Karamzin with his most famous work “Poor Liza,” and the young V. A. Zhukovsky. The Enlightenment traditions of sentimentalism were most clearly manifested in the works of A. Radishchev.

In Russia there were two directions of sentimentalism:

Noble

A movement that did not advocate the abolition of serfdom. Nikolai Karamzin, the author of the story “Poor Liza”, in the conflict between classes, put in first place not social factor, but moral. He believed: “even peasant women know how to love...”.

Revolutionary

In literature, this trend advocated the abolition of serfdom. Radishchev believed that the basis of all culture, as well as the basis of social existence, is the individual who declares his right to life, freedom, happiness, and creativity.

Sentimentalists created many new genres in literature. This is an everyday novel, a story, a diary, a novel in letters, an essay, a journey and others; in poetry it is an elegy, a message. Since, in contrast to classicism, there were no clear rules and restrictions, genres were often mixed.

Since ordinary people became the heroes of the works of sentimentalists, the language of the works was significantly simplified, even vernacular appeared in it.

Distinctive features of Russian sentimentalism

Preaching conservative views: if all people, regardless of their position in society, are capable of high feelings, then the path to universal happiness does not lie in change government structure, and in moral self-improvement, moral education of people.
Enlightenment traditions, teaching, instruction, and moralizing are clearly expressed.
Improving the literary language by introducing colloquial forms.

Sentimentalism played an important role in literature by addressing the inner world of man; in this regard, it became a harbinger of psychological, confessional prose.

§ 2. Sentimentalism in Russian literature

At the end of the 18th century, in Russian literature, to replace the dominant direction of classicism, a new movement arose, called sentimentalism, which originated from French word sens, meaning feeling. Sentimentalism as an artistic movement, generated by the process of struggle against absolutism, appeared in the second half of the 18th century in a number of Western European countries, primarily in England (the poetry of D. Thomson, the prose of L. Stern and Richardson), then in France (the work of J.-J. . Rousseau) and Germany (the early work of J. V. Goethe, F. Schiller). Sentimentalism, which arose on the basis of new socio-economic relations, was alien to the glorification of statehood and class limitations inherent in classicism.

In contrast to the latter, he highlighted the issues personal life, the cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. Empty social life, the sentimentalists contrasted the depraved morals of high society with the idyll of village life, selfless friendship, touching love near the family hearth, in the lap of nature. These feelings were reflected in numerous “Travels”, which came into fashion after Stern’s novel “Sentimental Journey”, which gave its name to this literary movement.

In Russia, one of the first works of this kind was the famous “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. N. Radishchev (1790). Karamzin also paid tribute to this fashion, publishing “Letters of a Russian Traveler” in 1798, followed by P. Sumarokov’s “Travel to the Crimea and Bessarabia” (1800), “Journey to Midday Russia”. Izmailov and “Another Journey to Little Russia” by Shalikov (1804). The popularity of this genre was explained by the fact that the author could freely express thoughts here that gave rise to new cities, meetings, and landscapes. These reflections were characterized for the most part by increased sensitivity and moralism. But, in addition to this “lyrical” orientation, sentimentalism also had a certain social order.

Having emerged in the Age of Enlightenment, with its inherent interest in the personality and spiritual world of man, moreover, an ordinary, “little” man, sentimentalism also adopted some features of the ideology of the “third estate,” especially since during this period representatives of this estate also appeared in Russian literature - common writers.

Thus, sentimentalism brings a new idea of honor to Russian literature; this is no longer the antiquity of the family, but the high moral dignity of a person. In one of the stories, the “villager” notes that only a person with a clear conscience can have a good name. “For a “little” person - both a hero and a commoner writer who came to literature, the problem of honor takes on special significance; It’s not easy for him to defend his dignity in a society where class prejudices are so strong.”3

Characteristic of sentimentalism is also the affirmation of the spiritual equality of people, regardless of their position in society. N. S. Smirnov, a former runaway serf, then a soldier, the author of the sentimental story “Zara,” prefaced her with an epigraph from the Bible: “And I have a heart, just like you.”

Along with describing the “life of the heart,” sentimentalist writers paid great attention to issues of education. At the same time, the “teacher” educational function of literature was recognized as the most important.

Russian sentimentalism found its most complete expression in the works of Karamzin. His “Poor Liza,” “Notes of a Traveler,” “Julia” and a number of other stories are distinguished by all the features characteristic of this movement. Like the classic of French sentimentalism J.-J. Rousseau, in whose works Karamzin, by his own admission, was attracted by “sparks of passionate philanthropy” and “sweet sensitivity,” his works are filled with humane sentiments. Karamzin aroused readers' sympathy for his characters, excitedly conveying their experiences. Karamzin's heroes are moral people, gifted with great sensitivity, selfless, for whom affection is more important than worldly well-being. Thus, the heroine of Karamzin’s story “Natalya, the Boyar’s Daughter” accompanies her husband to the war so as not to be separated from her beloved. Love for her is higher than danger or even death. Alois from the story “Sierra Morena” takes his own life, unable to bear the betrayal of his bride. In the traditions of sentimentalism, the spiritual life of the characters in Karamzin’s literary works takes place against the backdrop of nature, the phenomena of which (thunderstorm, storm or gentle sun) accompany people’s experiences as an accompaniment.

So, the story about the sad fate of the heroine " Poor Lisa"begins with a description of the gloomy autumn landscape, the appearance of which seems to echo the subsequent dramatic love story of a peasant girl. The author, on whose behalf the story is told, walks through the ruins of the monastery “to grieve with nature on the dark days of autumn.” The winds howl terribly within the walls of the deserted monastery, between the coffins overgrown with tall grass and in the dark passages of the cells. “There, leaning on the ruins of tombstones, I listen to the dull groan of time.” Nature, or “nature,” as Karamzin more often called it, not only participates in people’s experiences, it nourishes their feelings. In the story "Sierra Morena" romantic landscape inspires the owner of the castle Elvira: “ Strong winds stirred and twisted the air, crimson lightning curled in the black sky, or the pale moon rose above the gray clouds - Elvira loved the horrors of nature:

they exalted, delighted, nourished her soul.”4

However, it was not only the “history of feeling” that attracted contemporaries in Karamzin’s works. The reader found in them a poetic depiction of Russian life, Russian people, Russian nature, Russian history. As Al testified. Bestuzhev, Karamzin “wanted us to the legends of our antiquity.” Karamzin's historical stories were characterized by the same features of sentimental sensitivity that distinguished his other works; their historicism was instructive in nature: the author used a historical plot to prove some moral sentiment.

However, the bourgeois morality of sentimentalism, glorifying the spiritual values of man and quite applicable to fictitious circumstances, was difficult to combine with the serfdom of Russia.

An appeal to contemporary Russian life revealed the contradictory nature of the writer’s worldview. In one of his most popular stories, “Poor Liza,” Karamzin, revealing with great sympathy the “life of the heart” of the heroine, convinced readers that “even peasant women know how to feel.” This humane statement was a bold innovation for the time. Karamzin was the first Russian writer to introduce the image of a peasant girl into literature, giving her high virtues. The peasant woman Liza, in whom her chosen one Erast saw only a simple-minded “shepherdess,” commits an act that proved that, in defending her love, she did not want to put up with the prejudices of society. Erast obeys the laws of “the world” and leaves Lisa in order to save himself from gambling debts by marrying a rich bride.

However, sincerely mourning the death of Lisa, the author refused to explain the cause of the misfortune. The problem of social inequality, which essentially determined the tragedy of the young peasant woman’s love for her master, was avoided in the story. Moreover, even the image of the “insidious seducer” Erast is drawn by Karamzin without condemnation, even with sympathy - an enlightened, sensitive nobleman, he is both to blame and not to blame for what happened. It was not malice, but only the young man’s frivolity that was to blame for his actions. In addition, as reported in the conclusion, the news of Lisa’s death made him unhappy, “he could not be consoled and considered himself a murderer.” So, contrary to his moralizing tendency, Karamzin passed over in silence the social conflict that arose the real reason tragedy. The attitude of sentimentalist writers to the social problems of contemporary Russia was quite ambiguous. If Radishchev’s writings contained a furious denunciation of serfdom and political system, in which these inhuman relations exist, then in the sentimental stories of writers of the early 19th century, in most cases there is not only a condemnation of serfdom, but there is their idealization, their depiction as the “fatherly” care of the landowner for his peasants: “The good landowner sincerely rejoiced at their happiness and shared it with them in his sensitive heart.”

Karamzin did not share either one or the other position. Karamzin’s attitude to serfdom, as well as his historical views, represented a rather complex combination of a monarchical worldview with the influence of idealistic philosophy of the 18th century, especially the teachings of J.-J. Rousseau. Convinced that the basis of world progress is the spiritual perfection of people, Karamzin, a historian and thinker, naturally opposed gross violence against the individual, “tyranny” even in royal throne. Thus, he praised Catherine II for “purifying the autocracy from the impurities of tyranny.” From the same position, he welcomed the policies of Alexander I. Of course, as a humanist and supporter of education, he could not approve of the cruelty of serfdom. The author of one of the monographs on Karamzin, N. Ya. Eidelman, cites a characteristic episode that illuminates the historian’s attitude to serfdom: “Pushkin recalled a conversation in which he, challenging Karamzin, said: “So, you prefer slavery to freedom?” Karamzin flared up and called him a slanderer.”5 However, the condemnation of “tyranny” did not exclude the apologetics of autocracy, the belief that Russia is held by it, and, consequently, the categorical denial of the violent breakdown of the existing order. While establishing autocracy, Karamzin, as a historian, could not help but see the connection between the institution of the feudal monarchy and serfdom. Hence the duality of his attitude to this issue, which was also expressed in literary works.

Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” evoked numerous imitations. Many authors varied the plot of “Poor Lisa”, however, abandoning too much tragic ending. Following Karamzin’s story, “Beautiful Tatyana, Living at the Foot of the Sparrow Mountains” by V.V. Izmailov, “Dasha - a Country Girl” by P.Yu. Lvov and others appeared. It is noteworthy that the love of a master and a peasant woman was not at all condemned in them; on the contrary: “the inequality of fortune, intensifying their passion, exalts their virtues,” notes the author of one of these stories.

The authors of sentimental stories sought to contrast relationships based on calculation with other, unselfish feelings. Lvov’s story emphasizes the love of the heroine, devoid of any selfish motives, who admits: “He just didn’t give me anything - silver, gold, beads, and ribbons; but I didn’t take anything, I only needed his love.”

Thus, Russian sentimentalism introduced into literature - and through it into life - new moral and aesthetic concepts, which were warmly received by many readers, but, unfortunately, diverged from life. Readers brought up on the ideals of sentimentalism, which proclaimed human feelings as the highest value, bitterly discovered that the measure of attitude towards people still remained nobility, wealth, and position in society. However, the beginnings of this new ethics, expressed at the beginning of the century in such seemingly naive works of sentimentalist writers, will eventually develop in the public consciousness and will contribute to its democratization. In addition, sentimentalism enriched Russian literature with linguistic transformations. The role of Karamzin was especially significant in this regard. However, the principles he proposed for the formation of the Russian literary language aroused fierce criticism from conservative writers and served as the reason for the emergence of the so-called “disputes about language” that captured Russian writers at the beginning of the 19th century.

Back at the end of the 18th century, a new movement arose in Russian literature to replace the dominant trend of classicism, called sentimentalism, which came from the French word sens, meaning feeling. Sentimentalism as an artistic movement, generated by the process of struggle against absolutism, appeared in the second half of the 18th century in a number of Western European countries, primarily in England (the poetry of D. Thomson, the prose of L. Stern and Richardson), then in France (the work of J.-J. Rousseau) and Germany (early works of J.V. Goethe, F. Schiller). Sentimentalism, which arose on the basis of new socio-economic relations, was alien to the glorification of statehood and class limitations inherent in classicism.

In contrast to the latter, he brought to the fore issues of personal life, the cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. The sentimentalists contrasted the empty social life and the depraved morals of high society with the idyll of village life, selfless friendship, touching love at the family hearth, in the lap of nature. These feelings were reflected in numerous “Travels”, which came into fashion after Stern’s novel “Sentimental Journey”, which gave its name to this literary movement.

Having emerged in the era of Enlightenment, with its inherent interest in the personality and spiritual world of man, and an ordinary, “little” man, sentimentalism also adopted some features of the ideology of the “third estate,” especially since during this period representatives of this estate also appeared in Russian literature - common writers.

Karamzin's heroes are moral people, gifted with great sensitivity, selfless, for whom affection is more important than worldly well-being. Thus, the heroine of Karamzin’s story “Natalya, the Boyar’s Daughter” accompanies her husband to the war so as not to be separated from her beloved. Love for her is higher than danger or even death. Alois from the story “Sierra Morena” takes his own life, unable to bear the betrayal of his bride. In the traditions of sentimentalism, the spiritual life of the characters in Karamzin’s literary works takes place against the backdrop of nature, the phenomena of which (thunderstorm, storm or gentle sun) accompany people’s experiences as an accompaniment.

Thus, the story about the sad fate of the heroine of “Poor Liza” begins with a description of a gloomy autumn landscape, the appearance of which seems to echo the subsequent dramatic love story of a peasant girl. The author, on whose behalf the story is told, walks through the ruins of the monastery “to grieve with nature on the dark days of autumn.” The winds howl terribly within the walls of the deserted monastery, between the coffins overgrown with tall grass and in the dark passages of the cells. “There, leaning on the ruins of tombstones, I listen to the dull groan of time.” Nature, or “nature,” as Karamzin more often called it, not only participates in people’s experiences, it nourishes their feelings. In the story “Sierra Morena,” the romantic landscape inspires the owner of the castle, Elvira: “Strong winds agitated and twisted the air, crimson lightning curled in the black sky, or the pale moon rose above the gray clouds - Elvira loved the horrors of nature: they exalted, delighted, nourished her soul "

However, it was not only the “history of feeling” that attracted contemporaries in Karamzin’s works. The reader found in them a poetic depiction of Russian life, Russian people, Russian nature, Russian history. As Al testified. Bestuzhev, Karamzin “wanted us to the legends of our antiquity.” Historical stories Karamzin was characterized by the same traits of sentimental sensitivity that distinguished his other works; their historicism was instructive in nature: the author used a historical plot to prove some moral maxim.

However, the bourgeois morality of sentimentalism, glorifying the spiritual values of man and quite applicable to fictitious circumstances, was difficult to combine with the serfdom of Russia.

An appeal to contemporary Russian life revealed the contradictory nature of the writer’s worldview. In one of his most popular stories, “Poor Liza,” Karamzin, revealing with great sympathy the “life of the heart” of the heroine, convinced readers that “even peasant women know how to feel.” This humane statement was a bold innovation for the time. Karamzin was the first Russian writer to introduce the image of a peasant girl into literature, endowing her with high virtues. The peasant woman Liza, in whom her chosen one Erast saw only a simple-minded “shepherdess,” commits an act that proved that, in defending her love, she did not want to put up with the prejudices of society. Erast obeys the laws of “the world” and leaves Lisa in order to save himself from gambling debts by marrying a rich bride.

So, contrary to his moralizing tendency, Karamzin passed over in silence the social conflict, which was the true cause of the tragedy. The attitude of sentimentalist writers to the social problems of contemporary Russia was quite ambiguous. If Radishchev’s writings contained a furious denunciation of serfdom and the political system under which these inhuman relations exist, then in the sentimental stories of writers of the early 19th century, in most cases there is not only a condemnation of serfdom, but there is their idealization, their depiction as “fatherly” care landowner about his peasants: “The good landowner sincerely rejoiced at their happiness and shared it with them in his sensitive heart.”

The author of one of the monographs on Karamzin, N. Ya. Eidelman, cites a characteristic episode that illuminates the historian’s attitude to serfdom: “Pushkin recalled a conversation in which he, challenging Karamzin, said: “So, you prefer slavery to freedom?” Karamzin flared up and called him a slanderer.” However, the condemnation of “tyranny” did not exclude the apologetics of autocracy, the belief that Russia is held by it, and, consequently, the categorical denial of the violent breakdown of the existing order. While establishing autocracy, Karamzin, as a historian, could not help but see the connection between the institution of the feudal monarchy and serfdom. Hence the duality of his attitude to this issue, which was also expressed in literary works.

Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” evoked numerous imitations. Many authors varied the plot of “Poor Lisa”, however, abandoning the overly tragic ending. Following Karamzin’s story, “Beautiful Tatyana, Living at the Foot of the Sparrow Mountains” by V.V. Izmailov, “Dasha - a Country Girl” by P.Yu. Lvov and others appeared. It is noteworthy that the love of a master and a peasant woman was not at all condemned in them; on the contrary: “the inequality of fortune, intensifying their passion, exalts their virtues,” notes the author of one of these stories.

The authors of sentimental stories sought to contrast relationships based on calculation with other, unselfish feelings. Lvov’s story emphasizes the love of the heroine, devoid of any selfish motives, who admits: “He just gave me so many things - silver, gold, beads, and ribbons; but I didn’t take anything, I only needed his love.”

However, the beginnings of this new ethics, expressed at the beginning of the century in such seemingly naive works of sentimentalist writers, will eventually develop in the public consciousness and will contribute to its democratization. In addition, sentimentalism enriched Russian literature with linguistic transformations. The role of Karamzin was especially significant in this regard. However, the principles he proposed for the formation of the Russian literary language aroused fierce criticism from conservative writers and served as the reason for the emergence of the so-called “disputes about language” that captured Russian writers at the beginning of the 19th century.