Emergence Patriotic War 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over Russia's borders. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.
Napoleon became the aggressor
He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation and Patriotic war, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.
Balance of power
In preparation for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. These were perfectly armed and trained troops, seasoned in previous wars. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte. Weak spot his army was hers motley National composition. The aggressive plans of the French emperor were deeply alien to the German and Spanish, Polish and Portuguese, Austrian and Italian soldiers.
Active preparations for the war that Russia had been waging since 1810 brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others. They were distinguished by extensive military experience and personal courage. The advantage of the Russian army was determined by the patriotic enthusiasm of all segments of the population, large human resources, food and fodder reserves.
However, on initial stage During the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian one. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 210 thousand people, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - under General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .
Plans of the parties
Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan was based on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from uniting and deciding the outcome of the war in one or more border battles.
Even on the eve of the war, the Russian emperor and his entourage decided not to make any compromises with Napoleon. If the clash was successful, they intended to transfer military operations to the territory Western Europe. In case of defeat, Alexander was ready to retreat to Siberia (all the way to Kamchatka, according to him) to continue the fight from there. Russia had several strategic military plans. One of them was developed by the Prussian general Fuhl. It provided for the concentration of most of the Russian army in a fortified camp near the city of Drissa on the Western Dvina. According to Fuhl, this gave an advantage in the first border battle. The project remained unrealized, since the position on Drissa was unfavorable and the fortifications were weak. In addition, the balance of forces forced the Russian command to initially choose a strategy of active defense. As the course of the war showed, this was the most correct decision.
Stages of the war
The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deeper Russian territory and the disruption of his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive of the Russian army with the goal of completely expelling the enemy from Russia.
Beginning of the war
On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia by forced march.
The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, avoiding a general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with in separate parts the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.
Two main tasks faced the Russian troops - to eliminate disunity (not allow themselves to be defeated one by one) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first task was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies united near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant solving the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on August 17. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.
battle of Borodino
M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. In the center there was an earthen mound where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky were located. The army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.
Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, encircle it and completely defeat it.
The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.
Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The fight for flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. Bagration was seriously wounded. (He died from his wounds a few days later.) Taking the flushes did not bring any particular advantages to the French, since they were unable to break through the left flank. The Russians retreated in an organized manner and took up a position near the Semenovsky ravine.
At the same time, the situation in the center, where Napoleon directed the main attack, became more complicated. To help the troops of General N.N. Raevsky, M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks of M.I. Platov and the cavalry corps of F.P. Uvarov to carry out a raid behind French lines. The sabotage, which was not very successful in itself, forced Napoleon to interrupt the assault on the battery for almost 2 hours. This allowed M.I. Kutuzov to bring fresh forces to the center. The battery of N.N. Raevsky changed hands several times and was captured by the French only at 16:00.
The capture of Russian fortifications did not mean Napoleon's victory. On the contrary, the offensive impulse of the French army dried up. She needed fresh forces, but Napoleon did not dare to use his last reserve - the imperial guard. The battle, which lasted more than 12 hours, gradually subsided. The losses on both sides were enormous. Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while Napoleonic's was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.
From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets
After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.
M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutino march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the Krasnaya Pakhra area reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the French from seizing the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon’s army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested and were replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.
The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented case in history), it burned in the fire. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. Its decomposition was so strong that Napoleon had only two options - either immediately make peace or begin a retreat. But all the peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M. I. Kutuzov and Alexander I.
On October 7, the French left Moscow. Napoleon still hoped to defeat the Russians or at least break into the unravaged southern regions, since the issue of providing the army with food and fodder was very acute. He moved his troops to Kaluga. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. Once again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had destroyed.
Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia
The retreat of the French army looked like a disorderly flight. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.
The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Robbery and looting French. Chinese soldiers caused resistance local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders on native land. Names go down in history ordinary people(G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina), who organized partisan detachments. They also sent to the rear of the French " flying squads"regular army soldiers led by career officers (A. S. Figner, D. V. Davydov, A. N. Seslavin, etc.).
At the final stage of the war, M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy’s forces were melting every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and north-west. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near the city of Krasny in early November, when more than half of the 50 thousand people of the retreating army were captured or died in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops across the Berezina River on November 14-17. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. The order of M.I. Kutuzov on the army of December 21 and the Tsar's Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War.
The meaning of war
The Patriotic War of 1812 is the greatest event in Russian history. During its course, heroism, courage, patriotism and selfless love from all walks of life and especially ordinary people to their homeland. However, the war caused significant damage to the Russian economy, which was estimated at 1 billion rubles. During the hostilities, about 300 thousand people died. Many western areas were devastated. All this had a huge impact on the further internal development of Russia.
At dawn on June 24 (12 old style) June 1812, Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River without declaring war and invaded Russia. Napoleon's army, which he himself called the "Grand Army", numbered over 600,000 people and 1,420 guns. In addition to the French, it included the national corps of European countries conquered by Napoleon, as well as the Polish corps of Marshal Y. Poniatowski.
Napoleon's main forces were deployed in two echelons. The first (444,000 people and 940 guns) consisted of three groups: the right wing, led by Jerome Bonaparte (78,000 people, 159 guns) was supposed to move to Grodno, diverting as many Russian forces as possible; the central group under the command of Eugene Beauharnais (82,000 people, 208 guns) was supposed to prevent the connection of the 1st and 2nd Russian armies; the left wing, led by Napoleon himself (218,000 people, 527 guns) moved to Vilna - he was assigned the main role throughout the entire campaign. In the rear, between the Vistula and Oder, there remained a second echelon - 170,000 people, 432 guns and a reserve (Marshal Augereau's corps and other troops).
The invading enemy was opposed by 220 - 240 thousand Russian soldiers with 942 guns - 3 times less than the enemy had. In addition, the Russian troops were divided: the 1st Western Army under the command of the Minister of War, General of Infantry M.B. Barclay de Tolly (110 - 127 thousand people with 558 guns) stretched over more than 200 kilometers from Lithuania to Grodno in Belarus; The 2nd Western Army, led by Infantry General P.I. Bagration (45 - 48 thousand people with 216 guns) occupied a line up to 100 kilometers east of Bialystok; The 3rd Western Army of cavalry general A.P. Tormasov (46,000 people with 168 guns) was stationed in Volyn near Lutsk. On the right flank of the Russian troops (in Finland) was the corps of Lieutenant General F.F. Steingel, on the left flank - the Danube Army of Admiral P.V. Chichagov.
Considering the enormous size and power of Russia, Napoleon planned to complete the campaign in three years: in 1812, to capture the western provinces from Riga to Lutsk, in 1813 - Moscow, in 1814 - St. Petersburg. Such gradualism would allow him to dismember Russia, providing rear support and communications for the army operating over vast areas. The conqueror of Europe did not count on a blitzkrieg, although he intended to quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army one by one in the border areas.
But realizing that it was impossible to resist in scattered units, the Russian command began to retreat deeper into the country. And this thwarted Napoleon's strategic plan. Instead of gradually dismembering Russia, Napoleon was forced to follow the fleeing Russian armies deeper into the country, stretching communications and losing superiority in forces.
FIRST STAGE OF THE WAR: RETREAT
Retreating, Russian troops fought rearguard battles, inflicting significant losses on the enemy. The main task was to unite the forces of the 1st and 2nd Western armies. The position of Bagration's 2nd Army, which was threatened by encirclement, was especially difficult. It was not possible to get through to Minsk and connect with Barclay’s army there: the path was cut off. Bagration changed the direction of movement, but the troops of Jerome Bonaparte overtook him. On July 9 (June 27, old style) near the town of Mir, a battle between the rearguard of Russian troops (it was the Cossack cavalry of Ataman M.I. Platov) and the French cavalry took place. The French were defeated and retreated in disorder. The next day there was a new battle, and again the French were defeated. On July 14 (2), near the town of Romanovo, Platov’s Cossacks held back the French for 24 hours to allow army convoys to cross the Pripyat. Platov's successful rearguard battles allowed the 2nd Army to freely reach Bobruisk and concentrate its forces, which had been stretched to that point. All attempts to surround Bagration failed. Npoleon was furious; he accused his brother Jerome of slowness and transferred command of his corps to Marshal Davout.
From Tarutin, Kutuzov launched a “small war” with army partisan detachments. The detachments of D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, A.S. Figner, I.S. Dorokhov, N.D. Kudashev, I.M. Vadbolsky were especially successful. Kutuzov sought to expand the peasant partisan movement, merging it with the actions of army detachments. Some of the peasant detachments numbered several thousand people. For example, Gerasim Kurin’s detachment consisted of 5,000 people. The detachments of Ermolai Chetvertakov, Fyodor Potapov, and Vasilisa Kozhina were widely known.
The actions of the partisans caused great human and material losses to the enemy and disrupted their communications with the rear. In just six autumn weeks, the partisans destroyed about 30,000 enemy soldiers.
On October 18 (6), on the Chernishna River, Russian troops defeated the strong vanguard of the French army, commanded by Marshal Murat. This victory marked the beginning of a counteroffensive by the Russian army.
Those same days began active actions 3rd Western Army. On October 17 (5), the battle for Polotsk began, in which, in addition to the soldiers of Wittgenstein’s corps, soldiers of the Novgorod and St. Petersburg militia took an active part. By the morning of October 20, Polotsk was liberated. In the southwestern direction, Admiral Chichagov threw back the troops of Schwarzenberg and Rainier beyond the Southern Bug, into the Duchy of Warsaw, and moved towards Minsk.
All this prompted Napoleon to take action. On October 19 (7), the French set out from Moscow to Tarutin, hoping to take Kutuzov by surprise, defeat him and break through to Kaluga. The ancient capital of Russia was burned and plundered. The French tried to blow up the Kremlin, but fortunately the destruction was not too great. Napoleon's new plans were again destroyed. Seslavin's partisan detachment discovered Naoleon's army near the village of Fominskoye and transmitted information about this to Kutuzov's headquarters. The Russian army set out from the Tarutino camp and moved towards the French. On October 24 (12), a fierce battle took place between the advanced units of both armies for Maloyaroslavets. The city changed hands 8 times. And although in the end the French captured the city, Napoleon had to give up hope of breaking through to Kaluga: the main forces of the Russian army that arrived took up strong positions near Maloyaroslavets. Napoleon gave the order to begin a retreat to Mozhaisk and further to the old Smolensk road, devastated by the war.
Having finally wrested the strategic initiative from the enemy’s hands, Kutuzov launched a general counteroffensive. It was active in nature and set as its goal, while preserving the army, not just to expel, but to completely destroy the enemy. A huge role in the pursuit of the French was played by army and peasant partisan detachments, as well as the mobile Cossack units of Ataman Platov.
In the battles near Vyazma and Dorogobuzh, the enemy fleeing to the west lost about 13,000 people killed, wounded and captured. In the battle near Lyakhov, the partisans surrounded and forced to surrender an entire enemy division led by General Augereau. Leaving Moscow, Napoleon had an army of 107,000 people. He managed to bring only about 60,000 people to Smolensk, including reinforcements.
In mid-November, Russian troops surrounded Napoleonic army near the Berezina River. However, due to inconsistency in the actions of the Russian corps, Napoleon managed to cross the Berezina near the village of Studyanki. However, only about 9,000 people crossed to the west bank. The rest either died or were captured. After the Berezina, Napoleon fled to Paris. To the question “What is the situation of the army?” he replied: “There is no more army.”
On November 28, old style, Russian troops occupied Vilna. On December 2, near Kovno, about 1,000 enemy soldiers crossed the Neman. These were the last remnants of Napoleon's main forces. In total, out of the 600,000-strong “Great Army,” about 30,000 people escaped. The war, as Kutuzov wrote, “ended with the complete extermination of the enemy.”
“No matter how critics speak about individual moments of the persecution, one must attribute the energy with which this persecution was carried out to the fact that the French army was completely destroyed, and a greater result cannot be imagined,” wrote the German military theorist and historian Carl Clausewitz. "
As a result of the defeat of Napoleonic army in Russia, the national liberation movement intensified in Europe. The patriotic upsurge of 1812 had a huge impact on the growth of self-awareness of the peoples of Russia.
The official cause of the war was the violation of the terms of the Tilsit Peace by Russia and France. Russia, despite the blockade of England, accepted its ships under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg to its possessions. Napoleon considered Emperor Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of troops from the Duchy of Warsaw and Prussia to be insulting. The War of 1812 was becoming inevitable.
Here summary Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon, at the head of a huge 600,000-strong army, crossed the Neman on June 12, 1812. The Russian army, numbering only 240 thousand people, was forced to retreat deeper into the country. In the battle of Smolensk, Bonaparte failed to win a complete victory and defeat the united 1st and 2nd Russian armies.
In August, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. He not only had the talent of a strategist, but also enjoyed respect among soldiers and officers. He decided to give a general battle to the French near the village of Borodino. The positions for the Russian troops were chosen most successfully. The left flank was protected by flushes (earthen fortifications), and the right flank by the Koloch River. The troops of N.N. Raevsky were located in the center. and artillery.
Both sides fought desperately. The fire of 400 guns was directed at the flashes, which were courageously guarded by the troops under the command of Bagration. As a result of 8 attacks, Napoleonic troops suffered huge losses. They managed to capture Raevsky's batteries (in the center) only at about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, but not for long. The French attack was contained thanks to a bold raid by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps. Despite all the difficulties of bringing the old guard, the elite troops, into battle, Napoleon never risked it. Late in the evening the battle ended. The losses were enormous. The French lost 58, and the Russians 44 thousand people. Paradoxically, both commanders declared victory in the battle.
The decision to leave Moscow was made by Kutuzov at the council in Fili on September 1. This was the only way to maintain a combat-ready army. On September 2, 1812, Napoleon entered Moscow. Waiting for a peace proposal, Napoleon stayed in the city until October 7. As a result of fires, most of Moscow was destroyed during this time. Peace with Alexander 1 was never concluded.
Kutuzov stopped 80 km away. from Moscow in the village of Tarutino. He covered Kaluga, which had large reserves of fodder and the arsenals of Tula. The Russian army, thanks to this maneuver, was able to replenish its reserves and, importantly, update its equipment. At the same time, French foraging detachments were subjected to partisan attacks. The detachments of Vasilisa Kozhina, Fyodor Potapov, and Gerasim Kurin launched effective strikes, depriving the French army of the opportunity to replenish food supplies. They acted the same way special units Davydova A.V. and Seslavina A.N.
After leaving Moscow, Napoleon's army failed to get through to Kaluga. The French were forced to retreat along the Smolensk road, without food. Early severe frosts worsened the situation. The final defeat of the Great Army took place in the battle of the Berezina River on November 14–16, 1812. Of the 600,000-strong army, only 30,000 hungry and frozen soldiers left Russia. The manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War was issued by Alexander 1 on December 25 of the same year. The victory of 1812 was complete.
In 1813 and 1814, a campaign of the Russian army took place, liberating European countries from Napoleon's rule. Russian troops acted in alliance with the armies of Sweden, Austria, and Prussia. As a result, in accordance with the Treaty of Paris on May 18, 1814, Napoleon lost his throne and France returned to its 1793 borders.
Existed in Russian society early XIX centuries of Gallomania, i.e. the reverence for all things French, and the firmly ingrained bilingualism where Russian was spoken at home and French was used to write letters and submit official petitions, were seriously undermined by the French invasion of Russia. Perhaps it is rare when national history There was such a rise in patriotic sentiment. Society was unusually unanimous in its desire to give a worthy rebuff to his “Great Army.”
Causes of the Patriotic War
A Corsican on the French throne, a man with enormous conceit and exorbitant ambitions, Napoleon Bonaparte dreamed of expanding France to the level of the power of Alexander the Great, electing him as his idol. All agreements with Russia and meetings at top level two emperors - Alexander I and Napoleon, were only diplomatic tricks and delaying the inevitable military conflict. Russia was an obvious obstacle to the expansion of Napoleonic power to the East.
The main battles of the Patriotic War
On a June night in 1812, having crossed the border Neman River, the French invaded Russia. By that time, the French troops were many times superior to the Russian forces, since the latter were dispersed throughout the western border of the empire. The Russian army consisted of three formations. The first was commanded by M.B. Barclay de Tolly, the second by P.I. Bagration, the third by A.P. Tormasov. The emperor tried to lead the army himself, but, being a secular man, he was forced to leave for the capital. Napoleon's plans called for defeating the main Russian forces one by one and preventing their reunification. The French emperor planned to give a general battle near the border. Barclay de Tolly had to adhere to a defensive strategy and retreat deeper into the country, luring the French there as well. The first major battle was Smolensk. The city was surrendered and turned into ruins. However, the French suffered significant damage and lost hope for fodder for horses and food supplies. The Russians even then adhered to the “scorched earth” tactics. In the meantime, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. We must pay tribute to Emperor Alexander - he showed the same respect for the field marshal as his father showed Suvorov, leaving personal hostility to himself. Kutuzov gave a general battle to Napoleon near the village of Borodino near Moscow. Both sides remained the same. There were no winners or losers. It was hard for Kutuzov to decide to leave Moscow to the French. However, he was firmly convinced that “Russia was not lost with the loss of Moscow,” and subsequent events only confirmed the rightness of his great sacrifice. The bloodless French army entered Moscow. Robberies and fires began. Taking advantage of the respite, Kutuzov’s army retreated to the village of Tarutino, where they set up a camp. On the initiative of the legendary poet and hussar Denis Davydov, a wide partisan movement developed, a “club” was raised people's war", according to the figurative expression of L.N. Tolstoy. It caused enormous harm to the French. All of Napoleon's appeals to Alexander remained unanswered. Moscow became the grave for the “Great Army”. The French forces were dwindling and there was no need to wait for help. The French moved from Moscow to southern Russia. The strengthened Russian army blocked their way there. Battles took place near Tarutin and Maloyaroslavets, which finally decided the outcome of the war in favor of Kutuzov and his army. The remnants of the once great army crossed the Berezina River with great difficulty. Emperor Napoleon left the army even earlier. Thus, by the end of 1812, the enemy forces were completely defeated and thrown back beyond the borders of Russia, which Kutuzov reported to Alexander I. Soon the field marshal died, covered in unfading glory.
- The town of Borodino, where one of the bloodiest battles took place XIX century, belonged specifically to the partisan poet D.V. Davydov.
- The French army was called the “army of twelve languages,” because not only the French fought in it, but also Poles, Italians, Austrians, Dutch, etc., and representatives of many of the “languages” that inhabited it rose up to defend Russia: Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars, Bashkirs and etc.
The military events of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place on the territory of Russia between it and France. The reason was Alexander I's refusal to support the continental blockade, which Napoleon wanted to use as the main weapon against Great Britain. In addition, France’s policy towards European states did not take into account the interests Russian Empire. And as a result, the Patriotic War of 1812 began. You will learn briefly but informatively about military operations from this article.
Background to the war
Due to the defeat of the Russian army in the Battle of Friedland in 1807, Alexander I concluded the Peace of Tilsit with Napoleon Bonaparte. By signing the treaty, the head of Russia was obliged to join the continental blockade of the United Kingdom, which, in fact, contradicted the political and economic interests of the empire. This world became a shame and humiliation - this is what the Russian nobility thought. But the Russian government decided to use the Peace of Tilsit for its own purposes to accumulate forces and prepare for war with Bonaparte.
As a result of the Erfurt Congress, the empire took Finland and a number of other territories, and France, in turn, was ready to capture all of Europe. After numerous annexations, Napoleon's army moved significantly closer to the Russian border.
Russian empire
The reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 on the part of Russia were primarily economic. The terms of the Peace of Tilsit dealt a significant blow to the finances of the empire. For a clear example, here are a number of figures: before 1807, Russian merchants and landowners exported 2.2 million quarters of grain for sale, and after the agreement - only 600 thousand. This reduction led to a drop in the value of this product. At the same time, the export of gold to France in exchange for all sorts of luxury goods increased. These and other events led to the depreciation of money.
The territorial causes of the Patriotic War of 1812 are somewhat complicated due to Napoleon's desire to conquer the whole world. The year 1807 went down in history as the time of the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from lands that at that time belonged to Poland. The newly formed state wanted to unite all the territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. To fulfill the plan, it was necessary to separate from Russia part of the lands that once belonged to Poland.
Three years later, Bonaparte seized the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, who was a relative of Alexander I. The Russian emperor demanded the return of the lands, which, of course, did not happen. After these conflicts, talk began to appear about signs of a coming and inevitable war between the two empires.
France
The main reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 for France were the obstacle to international trade, as a result of which the state of the country's economy noticeably deteriorated. In essence, Napoleon's main and only enemy was Great Britain. The United Kingdom captured the colonies of countries such as India, America and, again, France. Considering that England literally reigned at sea, the only weapon against it would have been a continental blockade.
The reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 also lie in the fact that, on the one hand, Russia did not want to sever trade relations with Great Britain, and on the other, it was necessary to fulfill the conditions of the Tilsit Peace in favor of France. Finding himself in such a dual situation, Bonaparte saw only one way out - military.
As for the French emperor, he was not a hereditary monarch. In order to prove his legitimacy in holding the crown, he made an offer to the sister of Alexander I, which he was immediately refused. A second attempt to enter into a family union with the fourteen-year-old Princess Anne, who later became Queen of the Netherlands, was also unsuccessful. In 1810, Bonaparte finally married Mary of Austria. This marriage gave Napoleon reliable rear protection in the event of another war with the Russians.
The two-time refusal of Alexander I and Bonaparte's marriage to the princess of Austria led to a crisis of trust between the two empires. This fact served as the first reason due to which the Patriotic War of 1812 occurred. Russia, by the way, itself pushed Napoleon into conflict with its further controversial actions.
Shortly before the start of the first battle, Bonaparte told the Warsaw ambassador Dominique Dufour de Pradt that supposedly in five years he would rule the world, but for this all that remained was to “crush” Russia. Alexander I, constantly fearing the restoration of Poland, pulled several divisions to the border of the Duchy of Warsaw, which, in fact, was the second reason why the Patriotic War of 1812 began. Briefly, this can be formulated as follows: such behavior of the Russian ruler was perceived by the French emperor as a threat to Poland and France.
Further development of the conflict
The first stage was the Belarusian-Lithuanian operation, covering June-July 1812. At that time, Russia managed to protect itself from encirclement in Belarus and Lithuania. Russian troops managed to repel the onslaught of the French in the St. Petersburg direction. The Smolensk operation is considered the second stage of the war, and the third is the campaign against Moscow. The fourth stage is the Kaluga campaign. Its essence was the attempts of French troops to break through in this direction back from Moscow. The fifth period, which ended the war, saw the ousting of Napoleonic army from Russian territory.
Start
On June 24, at six in the morning, the vanguard of Bonaparte’s troops crossed the Neman, reaching the city of Kovno (Lithuania, modern Kaunas). Before the invasion of Russia, a large group of the French army numbering 300 thousand people was concentrated on the border.
As of January 1, 1801, the army of Alexander I numbered 446 thousand people. As a result of recruitment at the start of the war, the number increased to 597 thousand soldiers.
The Emperor addressed the people with an appeal for voluntary mobilization for the protection and defense of the Fatherland. Everyone had the opportunity to join the so-called people's militia, regardless of their type of activity and class.
Battle of Borodino
The largest battle took place on August 26 near the village of Borodino. More and more researchers are inclined to believe that the battle took place over 3 days (from August 24 to 26). In fact, this event marked the beginning of the defeat of Bonaparte's army.
In the battle, 135 thousand French fought with the 120 thousand army of Alexander I. The Russian army lost 44 thousand, while Napoleon lost 58 thousand people. During the battle, the army under the command of Bonaparte managed to capture the Russian positions, but after the end of hostilities, the French had to retreat to previously occupied lines. Thus, it is generally accepted that Russia won this battle. The next day, Commander-in-Chief M.I. Kutuzov ordered a retreat due to large human losses and Napoleon's presence of reserve troops rushing to help the French.
In 1839, a reconstruction of the events of the Battle of Borodino, carried out by Nicholas I, was created for the first time. 150 thousand military personnel ended up on the Borodino field. The centennial anniversary was celebrated no less richly. The film archive has preserved a small amount of footage chronicling how Nicholas II walked around the formation of soldiers participating in the reconstruction.
Result
The battles of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted from June 24 to December 26 (new style). And they ended with the complete destruction of Bonaparte’s Grand Army, which included soldiers from Prussia and Austria. On December 21, according to the official Hans Jacob von Auerswald, only a small part of the French soldiers returned back, and even those were in terrible condition. A little later, some of them died from multiple diseases and wounds in their homeland.
The results of the Patriotic War of 1812 cost Napoleon 580 thousand people and about 1200 guns. Historian Modest Bogdanovich estimated the losses Russian troops 210 thousand militias and soldiers. In 1813, the War of the Sixth Coalition began, in which European states fought against the plans of Napoleon and his allies. In October of the same year, Bonaparte was defeated in the battle of Leipzig, and in April next year- renounced the French crown.
Defeat of France
The reasons for the failure of Napoleon's plans were as follows:
An important role was played by Kutuzov’s military restraint and the political will of Alexander I;
A large number of patriots among common people and the nobility who donated their material resources for the maintenance of the Russian army and with their lives for the sake of victory;
A persistent and stubborn guerrilla war, in which even women took part.
Command
The heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 did everything possible to prevent the French from conquering Russian soil, thanks to which they won a well-deserved victory. Without the dedication of the people and the wisdom of the commanders, Emperor Alexander I would have lost this battle.
Among those who fought, such names as M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, S. Volkonsky, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, D. Golitsyn, D. S. Dokhturov, I. S. Dorokhov, P. Konovnitsyn, D. P. Neverovsky, D.V. Davydov, P.I. Bagration, M.I. Platov, A.I. Kutaisov, A.P. Ermolov, N.N. Raevsky, P.H. Wittgenstein and others.
But the main fighter against Napoleon’s aggression was the ordinary Russian people. Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 belongs to the voluntarily mobilized population, which withstood all the hardships of a hitherto unprecedented war. Many award documents testify to the massive heroism of the soldiers. More than four dozen officers were personally rewarded by Kutuzov with the Order of St. George.
Human losses of France and Russia
The data given below was published by historian S. Shvedov on the 175th anniversary of the end of the battle. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812, written by different researchers of the theater of operations, has significant differences in the issue of human losses.
On average, we can confidently say that the number of war victims from Russia reached 300 thousand, most of whom (175 thousand) were the mobilized part of the population. There are many factors that led to this outcome:
Rapid exhaustion of people due to movement over long distances;
Unfavorable climatic conditions;
Urgent need for more water, food and warm clothing;
Diseases and epidemics.
As for France, for it the results of the Patriotic War of 1812 took on a more serious form. The number of French killed is much greater than that of Russians. At the beginning of the war, Napoleon's army, which entered the territory of the empire, numbered 480 thousand soldiers. At the end of the war, Bonaparte withdrew only 20 thousand survivors from Russia, leaving about 150 thousand prisoners and 850 guns.
About the name
The course of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted 7 months. From the first day of the battles, it acquired a movement of national liberation from Napoleon's aggression. The popular trend was the main reason for the victory Russian army over French.
This war became a real test of the unity of the Russian people. All classes, regardless of state rank, material and property status, came to the defense of their Fatherland. This is where the name came from. One way or another, all the people who participated in the battles are real heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812.
● French soldiers never cooked or ate porridge, as the Russians do. Their field cuisine has different traditions.
● In Russia there is a lyceum, which bears the name of the ataman of the Patriotic War, Matvey Platov.
● On December 12, 1812, in honor of the victory over Bonaparte, Alexander I proclaimed the forgiveness of those people who helped the French army.
● M. Barclay de Tolly in 1812 created the first military intelligence service in Russia.
