LITERARY STUDIES- the science of the principles and methods of researching fiction and the creative process;
The science that comprehensively studies art. literature, its essence, origin and societies. communications; body of knowledge about the specifics of literary and literary arts. thinking, genesis, structure and functions of literature. creativity, about local and general patterns of historical literature. process.
Main disciplines:
Literary theory– the doctrine of a literary work, its content, structure and functions, types and genres of literature, artistic styles and movements.
History of literature– the doctrine of the main milestones of evolution, artistic literature, the path of specific writers, the fate of works.
Literary criticism– evaluation of works of art from the point of view of modernity.
* Projective activity
Auxiliary disciplines:
Bibliography- a scientific discipline that studies the history, theory and methodology of bibliography, as well as bibliographic. source study. Basic tasks of B.L.: assistance to literary historians and literary scholars in research. work
Source study(including archival science): a scientific discipline that develops the theory and history of historical sources, as well as methods for studying them. The subject of source studies is a historical source and methods of searching and studying it.
Textual criticism: studies works of writing, literature and folklore in order to restore history, critical. checking and establishing them texts for their further research, interpretation and publication.
2. Literary criticism and linguistics. Literary criticism and other sciences.
LITERARY STUDIES AND LINGUISTICS are two components of one science: philology.
Literary criticism is the science of literature. Linguistics (linguistics) is the science of language. These sciences have much in common: both of them - each in their own way - study the phenomena of literature. Therefore, over the past centuries they have developed in close connection with each other under the general name “philology”.
Essentially, literary criticism and linguistics are different sciences, since they set themselves different cognitive tasks. Linguistics studies the phenomena of literature, or more precisely, the phenomena of verbal activity of people, in order to establish in them the features of the natural development of those languages spoken and written by various peoples around the world. Literary studies studies fiction (more precisely, all literary literature - written and oral) of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.
Nevertheless, literary studies and linguistics constantly interact with each other and help each other. Along with other phenomena of literature, fiction serves as very important material for linguistic observations and conclusions about the general characteristics of the languages of certain peoples. But the peculiarities of the languages of artistic works, like any other, arise in connection with the peculiarities of their content. And literary criticism can give linguistics a lot for understanding these substantive features of fiction, which explain the inherent features of language. But for its part, literary criticism in the study of the form of works of art cannot do without knowledge of the characteristics and history of the languages in which these works are written. Here linguistics comes to his aid. This assistance varies when studying literature at different stages of its development.
Modern literary criticism is also inseparable from aesthetics; it is closely related to philosophy, sociology, history and psychology.
LITERARY STUDIES AND HISTORY. Works of artistic literature always belong to one or another people in whose language they were created, and to a certain era in the history of this people. Literary studies cannot fail to take into account the close connection between the development of artistic literature and the historical life of individual peoples. Moreover, it makes the understanding of these connections the basis of its study. As a result, literary criticism itself acts as a socio-historical science, standing among the historical sciences that study from different sides the development of the social life of the peoples of the world. Works of artistic literature always reflect the originality of the historical era of national life in which they were created.
Without understanding this, without knowing many facts, events, relationships characteristic of the time when certain works arose, without the ability to delve into the very “spirit” of that era or its period, it is impossible to scientifically study fiction. Therefore, a literary critic must always turn to other historical sciences so that they arm him with the appropriate knowledge and information.
PHILOSOPHY and AESTHETICS serve as a methodological basis for literary criticism.
FOLKLORISTICS, ART SCIENCE close to literary studies in terms of tasks and subject of research.
HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY and SOCIOLOGY similar to Lit-Ved. general humanitarian orientation.
Basic and auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism
Basic literary disciplines
1. History of literature solves several main problems. Firstly, she studies the connections between literature and life reality. For example, when we talk about what social and philosophical problems brought to life “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov or “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky, we find ourselves in the bosom of the historical-literary approach. Secondly, literary history builds a chronology of the literary process. For example, the fundamental “History of World Literature” - the fruit of the joint work of many outstanding philologists - not only describes how literature developed in different eras in different countries, but also offers comparative tables that allow the philologist to clearly see general and different trends in world literatures different eras. Thirdly, the history of literature examines the chronology of the life and work of individual authors. For example, the historical and literary type of publications includes the multi-volume dictionary “Russian Writers. 1800 – 1917”, containing a wealth of factual material about the life and work of most Russian writers of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
Any philological study in one way or another affects the sphere of literary history.
2. Literary theory designed to solve completely different problems. The most important question that determines the sphere of interest of literary theory is the following: what are the features of a literary text that distinguish it from all other texts? In other words, literary theory studies the laws of construction and functioning of a literary text. Literary theory is interested in the problem of the emergence of fiction, its place among other forms of human activity, and most importantly, the internal laws by which a work of fiction lives. The study of these laws constitutes the scope poetics- the main part of literary theory. Distinguish general poetics(the science of the most general laws of text construction), private poetics(the artistic features of the texts of an author or group of authors are studied, or particular forms of organization of a literary work are analyzed, for example, verse), historical poetics(the science of the origin and development of individual forms and techniques of verbal art). In addition, the field of literary theory is sometimes, not without reason, attributed to rhetoric- the science of eloquence, although more often (at least in the Russian tradition) rhetoric is considered as an independent discipline.
Of course, there is no strict boundary between types of poetics; this division is rather arbitrary. There is no strict boundary between theory and literary history. For example, if we say: “The novel in verse by A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin” was written mainly in the 20s of the 19th century,” then in this phrase “novel in verse” clearly refers to theory (since we say about the genre), and the second part of the phrase - to the history of literature.
At the same time, the absence of clear boundaries does not mean that these boundaries do not exist at all. There are many publications and studies that have either a pronounced theoretical orientation (for example, the theory of genres) or a historical and literary one (for example, biographical dictionaries). Of course, a serious philologist must be equally prepared both historically and literaryly, and theoretically.
3. Literary criticism Not everyone recognizes it as a part of literary criticism. As already mentioned, in many traditions, primarily in the English language, the words “criticism” and “the science of literature” are synonymous, with the term “criticism” dominating. On the other hand, in Germany these words mean completely different things and are partly opposed to each other. There, “criticism” is just evaluative articles about modern literature. In the Russian tradition, “criticism” and “literary criticism” are also often opposed to each other, although the boundaries are less defined. The problem is that a “critic” and a “literary scholar” may turn out to be one and the same person, which is why in Russia criticism often merges with literary analysis, or at least relies on it. In general, criticism is more journalistic, more focused on topical topics; literary criticism, on the contrary, is more academic, more focused on aesthetic categories. As a rule, literary criticism deals with texts that have already won recognition, while the field of criticism deals with the latest literature. Of course, it is not so important whether we consider criticism a part of literary studies or a separate discipline, although in reality this affects the nature of literary education. For example, in Russia philologists not only actively use the achievements of critics, but even study a special course “History of Criticism”, thereby recognizing the kinship of these two spheres. More distant areas related to verbal culture, for example, journalism, actually find themselves outside the standards of philological education.
And yet, we repeat, the question of the place of literary criticism in the structure of literary criticism (or, conversely, beyond it) is partly of a scholastic nature, that is, we are arguing for the sake of arguing. It is more important to understand that the ways of approaching literary texts can vary greatly, and there is nothing wrong with that. These approaches also differ radically within “classical” literary criticism.
So, main disciplines literary criticism can be considered history of literature, literary theory and (with certain reservations) literary criticism.
Auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism
Auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism are those that are not directly aimed at interpreting the text, but help in this. In other cases, the analysis is carried out, but is of an applied nature (for example, you need to understand the writer’s drafts). Auxiliary disciplines for a philologist can be very different: mathematics (if we decide to conduct a statistical analysis of text elements), history (without knowledge of which historical and literary analysis is generally impossible) and so on.
According to the established methodological tradition, it is customary to talk about three auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism, most often highlighted in textbooks: bibliography, historiography, and textual criticism.
1. Bibliography - the science of publishing. Modern literary criticism without bibliography is not only helpless, but simply unthinkable. Any research begins with the study of bibliography - accumulated material on a given problem. In addition to experienced bibliographers who can give the necessary advice, the modern philologist is helped by numerous reference books, as well as the Internet.
2. Historiography. Due to inexperience, students sometimes confuse it with the history of literature, although these are completely different disciplines. Historiography describes not the history of literature, but the history of the study of literature(if we are talking about literary historiography). In private studies, the historiographic part is sometimes called the “history of the issue.” In addition, historiography deals with the history of the creation and publication of a particular text. Serious historiographical works allow one to see the logic of the development of scientific thought, not to mention the fact that they save the researcher’s time and effort.
3. Textual criticism is a common name for all disciplines that study text for applied purposes. A textual scholar studies the forms and methods of writing in different eras; analyzes handwriting features (this is especially true if you need to determine the authorship of the text); compares different editions of the text, choosing the so-called canonical option, i.e. the one that will later be recognized as the main one for editions and reissues; conducts a thorough and comprehensive examination of the text in order to establishing authorship or for the purpose of proving forgery. In recent years, textual analysis has become increasingly closer to literary criticism itself, so it is not surprising that textual criticism is increasingly being called not an auxiliary, but a main literary discipline. Our wonderful philologist D.S. Likhachev, who did a lot to change the status of this science, valued textology very highly.
“Lecture course I. Introduction. Literary criticism as a science. Literary criticism is a philological science about the essence, origin and development of artistic literature as an art form. ..."
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Lecture course
I. Introduction. Literary criticism as a science.
Literary criticism is a philological science about the essence, origin and
development of artistic literature as an art form. The place of literary criticism in
system of humanitarian knowledge. Its interaction with linguistics, rhetoric,
art history, aesthetics, cultural studies, social history, philosophy,
sociology, psychology, religious studies, semiotics and other sciences.
The structure of modern literary criticism. Main disciplines: history of national literatures, literary and artistic criticism, literary theory and methodology of literary studies. Auxiliary disciplines:
historiography, paleography, textual criticism, bibliography.
Literary theory is a branch of literary criticism that studies the general patterns of artistic development, a literary work in its entirety, and the system of visual and expressive means of language and style.
Systematicity and historicism as fundamental methodological principles of literary criticism. Historical movement of basic literary concepts.
II. General properties of fiction.
Topic: Literature as an art form. The aesthetic essence of literature.
Fine arts as a special form of spiritual culture, a specific form of self-awareness of humanity and artistic exploration of reality.
The origin of art from primitive syncretic creativity. Its connection with ritual, magic, mythology. Art and border areas of spiritual culture, their mutual influence.
Literature as a reflection (reproduction) of reality, a form of its artistic knowledge, comprehension, evaluation, transformation. Theory of mimesis, theory of reflection. Religious art concept.
Literature and other forms of social consciousness. The difference between artistic comprehension and scientific knowledge. The subjective nature of creativity, the anthropocentrism of literature, its value orientations. Reflection in the writer’s work of the characteristics of his personality, talent and worldview. Aesthetic, sociological, philosophical views of the writer as the source of the work. Creative reflection. Integrity of the creative process.
Literature in the system of spatial and temporal forms of art. The meaning of Lessing's treatise “Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry” (1766). Literature as a temporary art that reproduces the phenomena of life in their development. Fine-expressive and cognitive possibilities of artistic speech.
III. Literary and artistic work.
Topic: A literary work as a unity of form and content.
The integrity of a literary work as an ideological and artistic system.
Organic unity of the objective and subjective sides of the text. The concepts of “artistic semantics”, “meaning”, “literal content”, “discourse” as related to the content area of the work.
The concreteness of the form, its relative independence. Artistic form as the embodiment of figurative content. Functional consideration of form elements in their meaningful role. Form as “hardened” content. Mutual transition of content and form.
Topic: The main components of the content and form of a literary work.
The ideological and thematic basis of the work. Topic, theme, problematic. Types of issues: mythological, national-historical, social, philosophical, their relationship. Author's activity in choosing a topic. The connection between the subject of the image and the subject of cognition. The author's interpretation of the theme, artistic idea. The value aspect and emotional orientation of the idea. Artistic tendency and tendentiousness.
Artistic image, its structure. Literary hero, character. External and internal appearance, artistic detail. Means of psychological characterization of heroes. The character's speech as a subject of artistic depiction. Speech behavior.
The system of characters in the work: main, secondary, episodic. Their juxtaposition. Typification, typical image.
The plot as a form of conflict reproduction. Event and action. Aristotle on the unity of plot action. Situation, conflict, collision, intrigue - relationships between concepts. Components of the plot. Plot and extra-plot episodes. Prologue and epilogue.
Spatio-temporal organization of plot action. The concept of chronotope.
Composition of the work. Story structure. Subjective forms of narration on behalf of the hero, minor character, observer, chronicler.
The concept of plot. The problem of “redundancy” of the term.
Topic: Literary types and genres.
The historical nature of the concept of “literary genus”. The system of literary genera in Aristotle’s aesthetics, connection with the theory of mimesis. Generic and genre-specific division of literature in classicism (N. Boileau). The content principle of generic division in Hegel. “The division of poetry into genera and types” by V.G. Belinsky. Synthetic internatal formations.
Genres and types of epic. Unlimited volume, arbitrary speech structure.
Main genres and types: fairy tale, legend, heroic epic, epic, novel, story, short story, short story, essay. Universal forms of narrativity.
Genres and types of lyrical works. The concept of a lyrical hero. Combination of object and subject in one person. The originality of the lyrical situation. Lyrical meditation. Role-playing lyrics. Lyrical plot. Features of the composition.
Expressiveness of lyrical speech. Intensity of associative connections, thickening of semantics. Melody of lyric verse.
Drama and dramatic genres. Tragedy, comedy, drama itself. The principle of self-expression of heroes, its form. Space and time in drama. Correlation between plot and stage time. The severity of the conflict. Plot and extra-plot characters. Hero and
Historical changes in the genre canons of drama.
Topic: Rhythmic organization of artistic speech. Fundamentals of poetry.
The concept of verbal rhythm. The origin of rhythm in poetry and prose. The concept of a poetic system. The connection between the system of versification and the characteristics of the national language. Tonic and syllabic systems. Reform of verse in the 18th century. Syllabonic system. Basic poetic meters. Accent verse. Free verse.
Stanza as a form of organization of poetic speech. Types of stanzas. Rhyme and its role in poetry. Types of rhyme. Blank verse. Types of stanzas and methods of rhyming.
Classification of sound repetitions. Phonics.
Poetry: rhythmic prose, prose poems.
Topic: Language and style of fiction.
Language as the “primary element” of literature. Language and speech. Literary language, fiction, artistic speech. Visual and expressive functions of language. Types of linguistic figurativeness: nominative, verbal-subject, allegorical, intonation-syntactic.
Language and style. Style as the aesthetic unity and interaction of all sides, components and details of the expressive figurative form of a work of art.
Style-forming factors, their interaction. The use of the term “style” in relation to a work, the work of a writer, a group of writers. Stable signs of style.
IV Patterns of historical development of literature.
Topic: Literary process. Artistic method The concept of the literary process. The literary process in the context of cultural and historical development and the problem of its periodization. National originality of literature. International connections and influences. Literary traditions and innovation.
The concept of artistic method, literary direction and movement.
Different interpretations of these categories in science. Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism are the leading trends in European literature of the 17th – first decades of the 19th century.
The main stages of the development of realism. Classical realism of the 19th century and the creative individuality of the writer. Literary movements and trends in the twentieth century: realism, modernism, literary avant-garde.
– – –
2. Fiction as the art of words. The originality of its “material”.
The aesthetic essence of literature: artistic and scientific knowledge, commonality and differences.
3. Literature and reality. Theories of mimesis (imitation) and reflection.
Religious art concepts.
4. Literature in the system of spatial and temporal forms of art. Lessing's treatise “Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry.”
Individual student work Study fragments of works from the anthology “Introduction to Literary Studies” by: V.G.
Belinsky “A Look at Russian Literature of 1847” (on the difference between art and science); A.
I. Bugrov “Aesthetic and Artistic”; G. O. Lessing “Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry.” Additionally: G. V. F. Hegel “Lectures on Aesthetics” (on poetry).
Make a diagram reflecting the main differences between literature and science. Give a scientific explanation for combinations such as: “poetry - talking painting”, “architecture - frozen music”.
No. 2. Literary work as an artistic whole
1. A literary work as a systemic unity of elements of content and form;
their interrelation and interdependence, the convention of demarcation.
2. The ideological and thematic basis of the work: the theme is the subject of artistic depiction, the idea is an expression of the author’s position. Topic, theme, problematic.
3. Artistic image. Its functions. Typology.
4. Plot, composition, plot. Correlation of concepts.
5. Answer the questions, giving a theoretical justification for your answers: 1) What is the ideological and thematic originality of A. S. Pushkin’s story “The Captain’s Daughter”? 2) Describe the typology of artistic images in N.V. Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”. 3) How do plot, plot, and composition correlate in M. Yu. Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”?
Individual student work Study fragments of works from the anthology “Introduction to Literary Studies” by: G.V.
F. Hegel “Lectures on Aesthetics” (on the unity of form and content in art); L.N.
Tolstoy “Letters to N. N. Strakhov, April 23 and 26. 1876”; A. A. Potebnya “From notes on the theory of literature”, A. N. Veselovsky “Poetics of plot”. Using specific examples, prove the thesis: “Content is nothing more than the transition of form into content, and form is nothing more than the transition of content into form” (Hegel).
No. 3. Literary genres and genres
1. The principle of dividing literature into genera as a theoretical problem. Aristotle, Boileau, Hegel, Belinsky on the difference between literary genres based on content and formal characteristics.
2. A. N. Veselovsky about genre-clan syncretism. The debatable nature of the concept of “literary gender” in modern literary criticism. Genre as “memory of art” (M. Bakhtin).
3. Epic and epic genres. Genesis and evolution.
4. Lyrics and lyrical genres. Genesis and evolution.
5. Drama and dramatic genres. Genesis and evolution.
6. Borderline and individual genre-clan formations. Stability and historical variability of the category “genre”.
7. Is satire the fourth type of literature? Justify your point of view.
Individual student work
Study fragments of works in the anthology “Introduction to Literary Studies”:
Aristotle “On the art of poetry”, N. Boileau “Poetic art”, G. V. F. Hegel “Lectures on aesthetics”, V. G. Belinsky “On the Russian story and the stories of Mr. Gogol”, V. V.
Kozhinov “On the principles of dividing literature into genera”, based on them, give a theoretical justification for the categories “literary genus”, “genre (type)”.
Describe the genre and generic originality of the works of A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin” and “The Captain’s Daughter”, N. V. Gogol “Dead Souls”, L. N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”.
No. 4. Analysis of the epic work
I. Generic and specific properties of the epic genre:
1. Plot-event basis, volume and principles of selection of vital material, time frame of the work.
2. Epic in revealing human character:
a) the image of the hero in the variety of his connections with the outside world. Man and environment.
Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin is a petty St. Petersburg official, a typical representative of the “humiliated and insulted”;
b) showing the hero’s inner world through actions, actions, in comparison with other characters;
The variety of emotional and semantic shades of Gogol’s word (irony, humor, satirical and accusatory tone, elements of sympathy and compassion).
3. The meaning of extra-fabular elements in the story. Lyric-dramatic beginning in epic works.
II. Features of Gogol's narrative (individual features of the writer's style) 1. “Simplicity of fiction” and “perfect truth of life” (V. G. Belinsky);
2. “Comic animation, always overcome by a deep feeling of sadness and despondency” (V. G. Belinsky), “laughter through tears.”
3. Gogol's lyricism.
4. The role of the fantastic in storytelling.
III. Non-standard interpretations of the story by Ch. Lotto. (Individual assignment).
Individual student work Read N.V. Gogol’s story “The Overcoat” and prepare its analysis, highlighting generic (epic), specific (related to the genre of the story itself) and individual (characteristic of Gogol) elements of the narrative. Show their combination and interaction.
Option II.
A.P. Chekhov's story “Vanka” as an epic work.
1. Plot-event basis, volume and principles of selection of vital material.
2. Epic in revealing human character; his attitude towards life:
a) the versatility of the outside world in Vanka’s perception (workshop, city, village);
b) the typicality of the image of the main character, the disclosure of his tragedy in the patterns of cause-and-effect relationships;
c) a variety of forms of showing Vanka’s inner world: speech, actions, attitude towards others.
3. The combination in the story of various temporal (present - past) and spatial (city - village) layers as a property of the epic kind.
5. Chekhov's detail.
Match:
L. N. Tolstoy. Childhood.
“On August 12, 18..., exactly on the third day after my birthday, on which I turned ten years old and on which I received such wonderful gifts, at seven o’clock in the morning Karl Ivanovich woke me up by hitting me over my head with a cracker - made of sugar paper on A stick can kill a fly…” M. Gorky. Childhood.
“In a dark, cramped room, on the floor, under the window, lies my father, dressed in white and unusually long; the toes of his bare feet are strangely spread out, the fingers of his gentle hands, quietly placed on his chest, are also crooked; his cheerful eyes are tightly covered with black circles of copper coins, his kind face is dark and scares me with his badly bared teeth...” Individual student work Read A. P. Chekhov’s story “Vanka” and prepare its analysis, highlighting generic (epic), specific (related to the genre story) and individual (characteristic of A.P. Chekhov) elements of the narrative. Show their combination and interaction. Compare Chekhov's principles of embodying children's perception with the principles of other authors - L. N. Tolstoy and M. Gorky. Prepare a message “Short story genre today” (individual assignment).
No. 5. Basics of versification. Russian verse.
1. The difference between poetic speech and prosaic speech. Its specific features. The concept of verbal rhythm.
2. The concept of a poetic system. The connection between versification systems and the characteristics of the national language. Tonic, syllabic-tonic and syllabic systems in the historical aspect (based on the material of Russian poetry).
3. Rhyme in poetry. Its main functions. Types of rhymes. Methods of rhyming. Blank verse.
4. Stanza and its types. Superstrophes. Sonnet and wreath of sonnets. Onegin stanza: structure, genesis, artistic functions.
Individual student work Study the fundamental features of the tonic, syllabic and syllabonic systems of versification. Practice your meter skills by chanting. Give an analysis of the poetic text (optional) taking into account the peculiarities of rhythm, rhyme, and stanza. Comment on the statements: “I think that over time we will turn to blank verse. There are too few rhymes in the Russian language” (A.S.
Pushkin); “...For heroic or majestic programs, you need to take long meters with a large number of syllables, and for funny ones, short ones” (V.V. Mayakovsky).
No. 6. Analysis of a lyrical work
1. Dialectics of objective and subjective in lyrics. The significance of “external” factors (biographical, historical, social, literary, etc.) in the creation of this poem.
2. Principles of genre systematization of lyrical texts. Genre of the poem.
3. Theme and idea of the lyrical work. Features of their expression.
4. The lyrical image as an image-experience. The relationship between the author’s “I” (narrator) and the lyrical hero (character) in a poetic text.
5. Compositional and plot organization of the poem: the presence of a timeline, parallelisms, repetitions, comparisons, contrasts, etc. as plot-forming factors.
6. The problem of the poetic word. Verbal and figurative leitmotifs.
7. Rhythmic-intonation structure. Stanza, meter and rhythms, rhyme and meaning. Sound recording.
8. This poem is in a comparative aspect (traditional and innovative in lyrics).
Individual student work Take notes from the article by V. G. Belinsky “The division of poetry into genera and types”, the section “Lyrical poetry”. Study in the anthology fragments of works on the specifics of lyrics: A. N. Veselovsky “From the history of the epithet”, “Psychological parallelism and its forms in the reflection of poetic style”; L. Ya. Ginzburg “On Lyrics”. Give a holistic analysis of one or two (as assigned by the teacher) poems below according to the proposed plan.
Texts Pushkin A.S. To sea. K *** (I remember a wonderful moment...). Winter morning. Prophet. Anchar.
Do I wander among the noisy streets? I visited again... Lermontov M.Yu. Sail. Borodino.
Clouds. Homeland. I go out alone onto the road... Nekrasov N.A. Troika. Homeland. In memory of Dobrolyubov. Uncompressed strip. Tyutchev F.I. Spring thunderstorm. Insomnia. Fet A.A. I came to you with greetings. I won't tell you anything. Blok A.A. Stranger. On the railway. Yesenin S.A. the golden grove dissuaded me... I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry... Mayakovsky V.V. Listen, if the stars light up..., as well as poems by A. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva, B. L. Pasternak. etc. (optional).
No. 7. Analysis of a dramatic work
1. Genre and generic characteristics of comedy. Moral and social content of the conflict in the comedy “Woe from Wit”.
2. Arrangement of characters in a dramatic work. The principle of ideological polarization of characters in Griboyedov’s play.
3. Features of revealing human character in drama. The main means of his “self-revelation” (M. Gorky): a remark, a verbal gesture, dialogue, monologue, action, a system of actions, self-characterization, the opinion and attitude of other characters towards him.
5. The function of off-stage and extra-plot characters. Off-stage images in the comedy “Woe from Wit”.
6. The plot and compositional structure of a dramatic work. The relationship between Chatsky's personal and social drama. The main stages of plot development.
7. Elements of epic and lyricism in drama. Lyrical and psychological plan of Griboedov's play.
8. Is this a comedy? Disputes about the genre nature of “Woe from Wit”.
9. Play and stage. Features of the stage embodiment of A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”.
Individual student work Reveal the specifics of the dramatic genre in the process of analyzing the comedy of A.S.
Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”. Pay attention to the essence of the dramatic conflict in the play, the originality of its development, the principles of constructing a dramatic character, and the methods of the author’s “interference” in the course of events. Prepare a summary report on the topic: “Features of the stage embodiment of A. S. Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” (individual task).
No. 8. Classicism and its fate in Russian literature
1. General concept of the creative method. Its relationship with the concepts of “literary movement (direction)”, “school”, “writer’s style”.
2. Social and historical conditions for the emergence and formation of classicism in Russia.
3. Genres of Russian classicism, their specificity. Principles of character portrayal.
The theory of “three styles”.
4. Normativity of theory and literary criticism: deviations from the canons of classicism in the works of Russian writers.
5. Features of classicism in the method of educational realism. The concept of “enlightenment realism” is debatable.
A. P. Sumarokov. Epistle about poetry.
Composing poetry is not as easy as many people think.
Those who don’t know enough will get tired of rhyme.
It should not be that she takes our thought captive, But that she should be our slave... Know the difference between genders in poetry And, when you begin, look for decent words for it,
Without annoying the muses with your bad success:
Thalia with tears, and Melpomene with laughter...
Let's consider the property and power of epigrams:
They then live, rich in their beauty, When they are composed sharp and knotty;
They must be short, and their entire strength lies in uttering something mockingly about someone.
The style of fables should be playful, but noble, And the low spirit in it is suitable for simple words, As de La Fontaine wisely showed And became famous in the world for fable verses, Filled all parables from head to toe with jokes And, singing fairy tales, played with the same with a whistle... Sonnet, rondo, ballads - playing is poetic, But one must play them intelligently and quickly.
In the sonnet they demand that the warehouse be very clean... If the lines have rhymes, then they call it poetry.
Poems flow according to the rules of the wise muses.
The style of the songs should be pleasant, simple and clear.
There is no need for flair - it is beautiful in itself... Try to measure the clock for me in the game by the hour, So that I, having forgotten myself, can believe you, That it is not a game of yours, But the very existence that happened... The property of comedy is to rule the temper with mockery;
Mix and use is its direct charter.
Imagine the soulless clerk in the order, the Judge, who will not understand what is written in the decree.
Imagine to me a dandy who raises his nose, Who thinks for a whole century about the beauty of hair, Who was born, as he thinks, for cupid, To win over the same fool somewhere.
Imagine a Latin speaker at his debate, Who won’t lie without “ergo” anything.
Imagine to me a proud one, bloated like a frog, Stingy, who is ready to be strangled for half a ruble.
Imagine a gambler who, having taken off his cross, shouts from behind his hand, with his figure sitting: “Rest!” Follow Boal and correct people.
Are you laughing, passions are in vain, present them to me as an example And, presenting them, follow Moliere.
When you have a proud spirit, a flying mind, And suddenly, swiftly running from thought to thought, Leave idyll, elegy, satire And drama for others: take the thundering lyre And fly to the sky with a magnificent Pindar, Or lift up a loud voice with Lomonosov... Everything is praiseworthy: is it a drama? , eclogue or ode - Compose what your nature leads you to;
Only enlightenment, writer, give to the mind:
Our beautiful language is capable of everything (1747).
V.K. Trediakovsky. Raven and Fox.
There was nowhere for the Crow to take away the cheese, part of it happened:
He flew up into a tree with something he liked.
This Fox wanted to eat;
In order to get home, I would think of such flattery:
Having cleaned the color of the raven’s feathers, and also praising his belongings, she directly said: “The ancestors of Zeus will honor you as a bird, your voice will be for myself, and I will hear the song of all your kindnesses worthy.”
The raven, arrogant with his praise, thought himself decent, began to croak and shout as loudly as possible, so that the last praise would receive a seal for himself.
But at the same time, that cheese fell out of his nose and fell onto the ground. Fox, encouraged
With this selfishness, he says to him to laugh:
“You are kind to everyone, my Raven; only you are fur without a heart.”
I. A. Krylov. A Crow and a fox.
How many times have they told the world that flattery is vile and harmful; but everything is not for the future, And the flatterer will always find a corner in the heart.
Somewhere God sent a piece of cheese to a crow;
Crow perched on a spruce tree, she was just about ready to have breakfast, but she was lost in thought, but she had the cheese in her mouth.
To that misfortune, the Fox ran quickly;
Suddenly the cheese spirit stopped the Fox:
The fox sees the cheese, the fox is captivated by the cheese.
The cheat approaches the tree on tiptoes, twirls his tail, does not take his eyes off the Crow
And he says so sweetly, barely breathing:
“My dear, how beautiful!
What a neck, what eyes!
Telling fairy tales, really!
What feathers! what a sock!
Sing, little light, don’t be ashamed! What if, sister, With such beauty, you are a master at singing, After all, you would be our king bird!” Veshunin's head was spinning with praise, Joy stole the breath from his goiter, and Lisitsyn's friendly words
The crow croaked at the top of her lungs:
The cheese fell out - such was the trick with it.
No. 9. Romanticism and realism in Russian literature
1. Historical and typological features of romanticism: philosophical and aesthetic subjectivism, romantic dual worlds, antagonism between ideal and reality, romantic maximalism. The closeness of the author to the hero, the lyrical coloring of the author's speech.
2. The essence of the realistic method: reconstruction of reality in its objective laws, historicism, depiction of typical characters in typical circumstances. A variety of means of the author's characterization of the hero.
3. Aesthetic criticism of romantic individualism by Russian realist writers.
Individual student work Formulate the main features of classicism as an artistic method, based on the recommendations of A.P. Sumarokov (“Epistole on Poetry”). Summarize the material, give examples from Russian and foreign literature. Compare the fable of V.K.
Trediakovsky “The Raven and the Fox” with I. A. Krylov’s fable “The Crow and the Fox”. Find commonalities and differences. Consider how the principles of classicism are implemented in Trediakovsky’s work and how they are either transformed (or destroyed) in Krylov’s text.
“Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov in the interpretation of modern researchers (the problem of the creative method) K. N. Grigoryan: “...It is difficult not to notice, to ignore the most characteristic features of the romantic aesthetic system, the romantic style, clearly expressed in Lermontov’s novel” (Grigoryan K. N. On modern trends in the study of “The Hero of Our Time.” On the problem of romanticism // Russian literature – 1973. – No. 1. P. 59).
V. M. Markovich: in Lermontov’s novel “critical realism of the mid-century in its classically pure and complete form” (Markovich V. M. “Hero of Our Time” and the formation of realism in the Russian novel // Russian Literature. - 1967. - No. 4 . P. 56).
K. N. Grigoryan: “As for the novel “A Hero of Our Time,” realistic tendencies were reflected in the depiction of pictures of the everyday life of highlanders, Russian warriors, the “water” society, in subtle, apt observations ... but the whole point is that they did not result into the aesthetic system" (Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of “The Hero of Our Time.” On the problem of romanticism // Russian literature. - 1973.
– No. 1. P. 78).
D. D. Blagoy: “... by the method of typification, by the vision and reconstruction of objective reality, and finally, by its style... “Hero of Our Time” ... continues, develops, deepens and strengthens the traditions of Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” to “Hero of Our Time” (Problems of romanticism. Collection of articles. - M., 1967. P. 315).
K. N. Grigoryan: “Images, general coloring, method of expression - everything is borrowed from the poetics of romanticism, the language of early Pushkin, and even more Zhukovsky” (Grigoryan K. N. On modern trends in the study of “Hero of Our Time.” On the problem romanticism // Russian literature. – 1973. – No. 1. P. 60).
K.N. Grigoryan: “Pechorin, by the nature of his worldview and life position, is all about romanticism. His individualism, sharply emphasized proud independence is a means of asserting personality, self-defense, and marking a clear line between himself and a hostile environment. It is absurd to demand from Pechorin the clarity of the ideal; the author of the novel did not have this clarity either. Therefore, the ideal is romantic” (Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of “The Hero of Our Time.” On the problem of romanticism // Russian literature. – 1973. – No. 1. P. 68).
D. D. Blagoy: “...To separate oneself from such a hero in the creative act of creating a novel, to place oneself next to him and essentially above him was the most important moment in the formation of the method of realistic typification in Lermontov’s work, the greatest triumph of Lermontov as a realist artist” ( Problems of Romanticism.
Sat. articles. – M., 1967. P. 312).
K. N. Grigoryan: “Yes, the critical principle in “A Hero of Our Time” is very significant, but what is the quality of this criticism? What is the author’s attitude towards Pechorin’s “self-exposures”? One thing, in any case, is clear - the author does not judge him from the outside, he is vitally interested in the fate of the hero, and if he is putting Pechorin on trial, he is also bringing judgment on himself. It’s not about realism, but about Lermontov’s personality” (Grigoryan K.N. On modern trends in the study of “A Hero of Our Time.” On the problem of romanticism // Russian literature. – 1973. – No. 1. P. 61).
B.I. Bursov: Lermontov “is at the same time a romantic and a realist... His largest work in prose - the novel “A Hero of Our Time” - is predominantly realistic” (Bursov B.I. National originality of Russian literature. - L., 1967. P. 175).
D. E. Maksimov: “A Hero of Our Time” stands on the verge of the romantic and realistic periods in the history of Russian literature and combines the characteristic features of both of these periods” (Maksimov D. E. Lermontov’s Poetry. - M.; Leningrad, 1964. P. 107).
B. T. Udodov: “Lermontov’s creative method opened up new perspectives for literature in the artistic exploration of the complex nature of man in several dimensions at once. This is a kind of “realism in the highest sense” (Dostoevsky’s expression), going beyond the usual definitions, synthesized the achievements of realism and romanticism of its time” (Lermontov Encyclopedia. - M., 1981. P. 108).
No. 10. Techniques and skills of literary criticism.
Notes and note-taking rules.
Abstract and abstracting rules.
Abstract and rules for writing it.
Review and rules for its creation.
The main stages of working with critical literature.
Rules for keeping a reader's diary.
Individual student work Copy 3-4 annotations from books; get acquainted with the procedure for preparing the book's imprint; give an example of a reader's diary; draw up a plan for an essay on the topic: “Reading activity of a primary school student.”
No. 11. Reading activity of a primary school student
1. Children's book and its specifics.
2. The reading range of the modern primary school student. Parameters for systematizing the reading range of a primary school student.
3. Fiction for primary schoolchildren. Criteria for selecting educational material for reading and literary education of children of this age category.
4. Principles of organizing the reading activity of primary school students.
Individual student work Select 3-4 books addressed to junior schoolchildren that are of the greatest interest, from your point of view, and check how strictly they comply with the sanitary and hygienic requirements for printing; what is the “golden fund” of literature for children and how can it be presented; model a fragment of the organization of reading activity of junior schoolchildren.
Organizational recommendations: the student needs to know the full name of the discipline, become familiar with the place of the discipline in the schedule grid, determine the reporting of the discipline: test or exam, become familiar with the rating scale and the course program.
Recommendations for mastering the content of the discipline. In the process of studying the discipline, it is important for the student to form an idea of the methodological foundations of literary criticism, get acquainted with the scientific concepts of scientists, highlight the subject, object, and understand the basic scientific concepts of this discipline.
The student must understand that this discipline covers the problems of interpreting a literary text in the unity of theory and practice. Classroom classes are held in the form of lectures and practical exercises. The task of students during lectures is to work on mastering new material (listening, understanding, recording, analyzing, comparing with previously studied material). In practical classes, the student must demonstrate the acquired knowledge on the selected topic, for this he must familiarize himself with the questions put forward for discussion, read a recorded lecture, and then, in the process of independently reading the recommended literature, supplement the missing material, formulate differences in the concepts and views of textbook authors, master terminology and be sure to prepare for a free, confident answer in class. The answer to any question must be accompanied by examples from literary texts, which the student must find on his own.
After each lesson, it is necessary to additionally collect information on the topic covered from various sources: additional literature offered by the teacher, Internet sites, dissertations, abstracts, articles from journals, and compile a personal card index on this discipline, monthly monitor articles in journals that present new scientific , practical developments, as well as perform various types of independent work, which are included in the rating criteria.
An important component of a student's education at a higher educational institution is independent work (SWS). It includes both preparation for classes and exams, and work on creating educational products in the form of abstracts, presentations, reports, notes, essays, development and solution of pedagogical problems related to the organization of children's reading. Most of these tasks are aimed at developing creative thinking, as well as developing the skills to create and implement educational and scientific student projects, design the educational process and analyze the results of their activities.
Identification of the most complex issues that require in-depth study, preparation of presentations on them in the POWER POINT program and systematic presentations to colleagues with reports will help a deeper understanding of the material and will become a factor in increasing the effectiveness of the student’s educational and professional activities.
Based on the results of processing and interpretation of scientific data, it is advisable for the student to prepare a scientific article or include the processed material in his educational or research work. Active involvement in research work and mastered material of this subject will help in future professional activities.
As a result of mastering the course, the student must first of all learn to analyze literary texts according to the following approximate plan for analyzing a work of art.
1. History of the creation of the work:
time of creation, life circumstances directly related to its creation.
2. Genre-genre features.
3. Topics, problems. Idea. Features of their expression.
4. The plot and its features.
5. Composition and its features.
6. System of images-characters. The image of a lyrical hero.
7. Ways to characterize characters or a lyrical hero.
8. Features of the speech organization of the work:
the narrator's speech, the characters' speech, lexical composition, syntax features, means of expression.
9. Rhythmic-intonation structure:
meter and size, rhymes, stanzas.
10. The meaning of the name, its connection with all elements of the literary text.
Work algorithm: prepare answers to each of the proposed points and emphasize the interdependence of all elements and aspects of the analyzed work of art.
– – –
terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets. M., 1999 and later editions.
Introduction to Literary Studies/Ed. G.N. Pospelov. M.: Publishing house. Moscow State University, 1992.
Volkov I.F. Theory of literature: A textbook for students and teachers. M., 1995.
Zhirmunsky V.M. Theory of literature. Poetics. Stylistics.L., 1977.
Kvyatkovsky A. Poetic dictionary. M., 1966.
Kormilov S.I. Basic concepts of literary theory. Literary work.
Prose and verse: To help teachers, high school students and applicants. M.: Publishing house.
Literary encyclopedic dictionary / Ed. V.M. Kozhevnikov and P.A.
Nikolaev. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1987.
Fundamentals of literary criticism: a textbook for philological faculties of pedagogy. un-tov/Meshcheryakov V.P., Kozlov A.S., Kubareva N.P., Serbul M.N.; Under general ed.
V.P. Meshcheryakova - M.: Moscow Lyceum, 2000.
Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.
Encyclopedic dictionary of a young literary critic. M., 1988.
Section 2. A literary work as an integral structure.
Topic 2.1.
The image as the basic unit of artistic form.
1. Define artistic image.
2. The difference between an artistic image and concrete sensory images (illustrative, factual, informational and journalistic).
3. Comment on the features of the artistic image: combination of general and special, emotionality, expressiveness (expression of the author’s ideological and emotional attitude to the subject), self-sufficiency, associativity, ambiguity, careful selection of details.
4. Typology of artistic images.
5. The image of a person is the main image of fiction. Image-character, character, -hero, -character, -type.
6. Typification and its forms (methods).
7. Means and techniques for creating images. Image and figurative details.
9. Distinctive features of epic, lyrical and dramatic images and methods of creating them.
Literature:
1. Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: Basic concepts and terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets. M., 1999. P.209-220.
2. Vinogradov I.A. Image and means of representation // Vinogradov I.A. Questions of Marxist poetics. Selected works. M., 1972.
3. Volkov I.F. Theory of literature. M., 1995. P.68-76.
4. Khrapchenko M.B. Horizons of the artistic image. M., 1982.
5. Epshtein M.N. Artistic image // LES. M., 1987.
Topic 2.2.
The theme and idea of a literary work.
1. Theme of a literary work. The difference between life material and the theme of a work of art.
2. Aesthetic credo, aesthetic ideal and aesthetic intentions of the author.
3. Main topic and private topics. Subject. Thematic integrity of a work of art.
4. Idea, ideological content of a work of art.
4. Theme and idea, their relationship in the work.
5. Ambiguity in the interpretation of the idea of a work of art (objective and subjective idea).
Literature:
1. Introduction to literary criticism: Reader, M., 1988.
2. Soviet children's literature / Ed. V.D. One-time. M., 1978. P.7-25.
3. Literary encyclopedic dictionary / Ed. V.M. Kozhevnikov and P.A.
Nikolaev. M., 1987.
4. Relevant chapters in textbooks on literary criticism and literary theory.
Topic 2.3.
Plot and composition.
Lesson No. 1. The plot of a literary work.
1. The concept of plot. The plots are chronicle, concentric, multilinear.
Stray stories.
2. Extra-plot elements.
3. The relationship between plot and plot.
4. The concept of motive.
5. The connection between the plot and the theme and idea of the work of art.
6. Conflict, its originality in epic, lyricism and drama.
7. Exposition, its role and place in the work.
8. The plot, its role and place in the work.
9. Development of action. Peripeteia.
10. Climax, its meaning.
11. Denouement, its role and place in the work.
12. Prologue and epilogue.
13. Plot in epic and dramatic works. Features of the plot in a lyrical work. Show with the example of A.S.’s comedy. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, one of the stories by I.S. Turgenev, poems by A.A. Feta "Butterfly".
14. Plot dynamism is a distinctive feature of works for children.
Literature:
1. Introduction to literary criticism / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. M., 1988. S. 197-215.
2. Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: Basic concepts and terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets. M., 1999. P.202-209 (motive); 381-393 (plot).
4. Kozhinov V.V. Plot, plot, composition // Theory of literature. The main problems in historical coverage. Vol. 2. M., 1964.
6. Lotman Yu.M. The structure of a literary text. M., 1970. S. 282-288.
7. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of literature. Poetics. M., 1996. P. 176-209 (plot construction); With. 230-243 (about the lyrical plot).
8. Epshtein M.N. Fable // Brief literary encyclopedia. T.7. M., 1972.
Lesson No. 2. Composition of a literary work.
1. The concept of the composition of a literary work. Types of composition: simple and complex. The composition is conditioned by the ideological concept.
2. External composition (architectonics): the relationship between the whole and its constituent elements: chapters, parts, stanzas.
3. Composition and plot. Extra-plot elements.
4. Various ways of constructing a plot (montage, inversions, omissions, inserted short stories, plot framing, etc.).
5. Composition of individual images. The role of portrait, interior, speech characterization, internal monologue, dialogue, mutual characterization of characters, diaries, letters and other means.
6. Composition of non-plot works. The role in it of poetic meters and rhythm, figurative and expressive means of language, etc.
Literature:
1. Introduction to literary criticism / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. M., 1988. S. 188–215.
2. Introduction to literary criticism. Literary work: basic concepts and terms / Ed. L.V. Chernets; M., 1999 (See relevant concepts in the Consolidated Index of Terms).
3. Zhirmunsky V.M. Composition of lyrical poems // V.M. Zhirmunsky Theory of verse. L., 1975.
4. Kozhinov V.V. Plot, plot, composition // Theory of literature. The main problems in historical coverage. Book 2. M., 1964.
7. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of literature. Poetics. M., 1996.
8. Khalizev V.E. Composition // Literary encyclopedic dictionary. M.,
Topic 2.4.
Genus and types of literature.
1. Primitive syncretic creativity as the source of the origin of literary genera.
2. Signs of generic division of literature: the subject of the image, speech structure, ways of organizing artistic time and space.
3. Specific features of lyrics as a type of literature. The relationship between objective and subjective in a lyrical work. The image of a lyrical hero.
The division of lyrics as a genus into types (genres). Main lyrical genres: ode, epistle, elegy, lyric poem, etc.
4. Specific features of the epic as a type of literature. The predominance of the objective principle in the narrative. The image of the narrator. Main epic genres:
novel, story, short story, poem, epic, fairy tale, fable, etc.
5. Specific features of drama as a type of literature. Drama and theater.
The main genres of drama: tragedy, drama, comedy, vaudeville, melodrama, etc.
6. Intergenre and intergeneric formations. Possibilities for synthesizing elements of lyricism, epic and drama within one work of art.
Give characteristics of genders and genres based on works of children's literature. Make a diagram of literary types and genres. Indicate 4-5 works of fiction for children and adults, each belonging to a particular genre.
Literature:
1. Belinsky V.G. Division of poetry into genera and types // Belinsky V.G. Full personal
Op. T.5. M., 1954. (Make a brief summary of the article).
2. Veselovsky A.N. Three chapters from historical poetics (1899) (Syncretism of ancient poetry and the beginnings of differentiation of poetic genera) // Introduction to literary criticism. Reader / Ed. P. Nikolaeva. M., 1997. P.296-297. (You can use other anthologies that contain fragments from the work of A.N.
Veselovsky "Historical poetics").
3. Volkov I.F. Theory of literature. M., 1995.
4. Timofeev L.I. Fundamentals of literary theory. M., 1976.
5. Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of literature. Poetics. M., 1996.
6. Kozhinov V.V. On the problem of literary genres and genres // Theory of literature.
The main problems in historical coverage. Book 2. M., 1964.
7. Chernets L.V. Literary genres: Problems of typology and poetics. M., 1982.
Corresponding articles in dictionaries and reference books.
Topic 2.5. Poetic language.
1. Literary language and the language of a literary work, their features, interrelation and interdependence.
2. Language as “the primary element of literature” (M. Gorky). Language and style.
4. Common words as the basis of poetic vocabulary.
5. Archaisms, their role in children's books. Show with the example of a poem by S.Ya.
Marshak "Fairy tale".
6. Neologisms, their role in children's books. Show by example the works of K.I.
Chukovsky and V.V. Mayakovsky.
7. Dialectisms, their role in children's books. Show with the example of M.A.’s story.
Sholokhov “Nakhalenok”, tales by P.P. Bazhova.
8. Vulgarisms, their role in children's books. Show with the example of a story by A.P.
Gaidar "Timur and his team".
9. Artistic functions of homonyms, synonyms and antonyms.
Paths and their role in literary text.
1. Polysemy of the word in an artistic context. The concept of a path.
2. Epithets, their types, ideological and artistic role. Give examples.
3. Comparisons, their types, ideological and artistic role. Give examples.
4. Metaphors and their meaning in a work of art. Deployment and implementation of metaphor. Give examples.
5. Personification. Give examples.
6. Allegory. Give examples.
7. Metonymy, its types, ideological and artistic role. Synecdoche. Give examples.
8. Periphrase and its functions, ideological and artistic role. Give examples.
9. Functions of hyperbole and litotes in a literary text. Examples.
10. Irony, its meaning.
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Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.
Literary studies dates back to ancient times. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his book “Poetics,” was the first to give a theory of genres and types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry).
In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “The Art of Poetry”, based on the earlier work of Horace (“The Science of Poetry”). It isolates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.
In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).
At the beginning of the 19th century in Germany, the Grimm brothers created their theory.
In Russia, the science of literature as an independent discipline, as a specific system of knowledge and a tool for analyzing literary phenomena with its own concepts, theory and methodology was established by the middle of the 19th century.
Modern literary criticism consists of three independent, but closely related main disciplines:
- literary theory
- history of literature
- literary criticism.
Literary theory explores the nature of verbal creativity, develops and systematizes laws, general concepts of fiction, patterns of development of genders and genres. Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader.
The theory of literature develops in the process of philosophical and aesthetic comprehension of the entire set of facts of the historical and literary process.
^ The history of literature explores the uniqueness of various national literatures, studies the history of the emergence, change, and development of literary movements and trends, literary periods, artistic methods and styles in different eras and among different peoples, as well as the creativity of individual writers as a naturally determined process.
The history of literature examines any literary phenomenon in historical development. Neither a literary work nor a writer’s creativity can be understood without connection with time, with the unified process of literary movement.
The history and theory of literature are closely interconnected. However, their means and techniques are different: literary theory seeks to determine the essence of the developing aesthetic system, gives a general perspective of the artistic process, and the history of literature characterizes specific forms and their specific manifestations.
^ Literary criticism (from the Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging) deals with the analysis and interpretation of works of art, evaluating them from the point of view of aesthetic value, identifying and approving the creative principles of a particular literary movement.
Literary criticism is based on the general methodology of the science of literature and is based on the history of literature. Unlike literary history, it illuminates the processes occurring primarily in the literary movement of our time, or interprets the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic problems. Literary criticism is closely connected both with life, social struggle, and with the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of the era.
Criticism shows the writer the merits and shortcomings of his work. Addressing the reader, the critic not only explains the work to him, but involves him in a living process of joint comprehension of what he has read at a new level of understanding. An important advantage of criticism is the ability to consider a work as an artistic whole and recognize it in the general process of literary development.
In modern literary criticism, various genres are cultivated - article, review, review, essay, literary portrait, polemical remark, bibliographic note.
The source study base for the theory and history of literature, literary criticism are auxiliary literary disciplines:
- textual criticism
- historiography
- bibliography
Textual criticism studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing. Studying the history of a text at all stages of its existence gives an idea of the sequence of the history of its creation (the “material” embodiment of the creative process - sketches, drafts, notes, variants, etc.). Textual criticism also deals with establishing authorship (attribution).
Historiography is devoted to the study of the specific historical conditions for the appearance of a particular work.
Bibliography is a branch of scientific description and systematization of information about published works. This is an auxiliary discipline of any science (scientific literature on a particular subject), based on two principles: thematic and chronological. There is a bibliography for individual periods and stages, for personalities (authors), as well as a bibliography of fiction and literary criticism. Bibliographies can be scientific auxiliary (with explanatory annotations and brief comments) and recommendatory (containing lists of main publications on certain sections and topics).
Modern literary criticism is a very complex and moving system of disciplines, which is characterized by the close interdependence of all its branches. Thus, literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines; criticism is based on data from the history and theory of literature, and the latter takes into account and comprehends the experience of criticism, while criticism itself over time becomes the material of the history of literature, etc.
Modern literary criticism is developing in close connection with history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, linguistics, and psychology.
2. SPECIFICITY OF FICTION AS A FORM OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS. LITERATURE AND SCIENCE
The term “literature” refers to any works of human thought that are enshrined in the written word and have social significance. There are technical, scientific, journalistic, reference literature, etc. However, in a more strict sense, literature is usually called works of fiction, which in turn is a type of artistic creativity, i.e. art.
Art is a type of spiritual exploration of reality by a social person, with the goal of forming and developing his ability to creatively transform the world around him and himself. A work of art is the result (product) of artistic creativity. It embodies the artist’s spiritual and meaningful plan in a sensory and material form and is the main keeper and source of information in the field of artistic culture.
Works of art are a necessary accessory to the life of both an individual and human society as a whole.
Ancient forms of world exploration were based on syncretism. Over the course of centuries of human life and activity, various types of art arose. the boundaries of which were not clearly defined for a long time. Gradually, an understanding of the need to distinguish between artistic means and images characteristic of different arts came.
All types of art spiritually enrich and ennoble a person, imparting to him a lot of different knowledge and emotions. Outside of man and his emotions, art does not and cannot exist. The subject of art, and therefore literature, is a person, his internal and external life and everything that is somehow connected with him.
The general properties of art find a specific manifestation in its different types, which at different times were divided into visual (epic and dramatic literature, painting, sculpture and pantomime) and expressive (lyrical literature, music, choreography, architecture); then into spatial and temporal, etc. Their modern classification involves the division of classical types of art into spatial (architecture), temporal (literature), visual (painting, graphics, sculpture); expressive (music), presentational (theater, cinema); Recently, many arts have appeared that have a synthetic character.
Literature and science
There is a close connection between literature and science, since they are designed to understand nature and society. Fiction, like science, has enormous educational power. But science and literature each have their own subject of knowledge, and special means of presentation, and their own goals.
The distinctive character of poetic thought is that it appears before us in a living, concrete image. A scientist operates with a system of evidence and concepts, and an artist recreates a living picture of the world. Science, observing a mass of homogeneous phenomena, establishes their patterns and formulates them in logical concepts. In this case, the scientist is distracted from the individual characteristics of the object, from its concrete sensory form. When abstracting, individual facts seem to lose their objectivity and are absorbed into a general concept.
In art, the process of understanding the world is different. An artist, like a scientist, when observing life, goes from individual facts to generalizations, but expresses his generalizations in concrete sensory images.
The main difference between a scientific definition and an artistic image is that we can only understand a scientific logical definition, while we seem to see, imagine, hear, feel an artistic image refracted through our feelings.
Topic 1 Literary criticism as a science. Its tasks and goals.
This is a science that studies the essence and specifics of literature, the origin and history of the development of verbal art. creativity, literary works in the unity of their content and form, as well as the laws of the literary process. There are 3 sections:
1) Theory of literature. This is the originality of literature as a special form of aesthetic and spiritual reality, as well as the specificity of the creative method of writing. It is engaged in the development of methodology and terminology, i.e. it ensures the scientific nature of literary criticism.
2) History of literature. Explores the process of development of world and scientific literature, as well as the creativity of individual writers. The history of literature examines the literary process over time, as well as changes in eras.
3) Literary criticism. Interprets and evaluates the advantages of a modern work, determining their aesthetic significance and role in current literary and social life.
There are 3 auxiliary disciplines:
1) Historiography - collects and studies materials that introduce the historical development of the theory and history of literature and literary criticism
3) Bibliography - an index of literary works - helps to navigate a huge number of theoretical (historical or critical) literary books or articles
The subject of literary criticism is fiction, presented in various forms, recorded using signs, sounds and other methods of recording words. The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also all the artistic literature of the world - written and oral.
Objectives of literary criticism – the study of fiction, the most general laws of its development, specificity, social function, determination of its nature, establishment of principles for the analysis and evaluation of works.
Literary criticism contributes to a deeper understanding of works of art, the literary process, and the specifics of the writer’s creativity.
Ticket 2. Literature as an art form.
Fiction is a multifaceted phenomenon. There are two main sides in its composition. 1) fictitious objectivity, images of “non-verbal” reality, 2) Second - speech constructions, verbal structures.
The dual aspect of literary works has given scientists reason to say that literary literature combines two different arts: the art of fiction (manifested mainly in fictional prose, which is relatively easily translated into other languages) and the art of words as such (which determines the appearance of poetry, which is losing its translations are perhaps the most important thing). In our opinion, fiction and the actual verbal principle would be more accurately characterized not as two different arts, but as two inseparable facets of one phenomenon: artistic literature.
The actual verbal aspect of literature, in turn, is two-dimensional. Speech here appears, firstly, as a means of representation (a material carrier of imagery), as a way of evaluative illumination of non-verbal reality; and, secondly, as the subject of the image - statements belonging to someone and characterizing someone. Literature, in other words, is capable of recreating the speech activity of people, and this particularly sharply distinguishes it from all other types of art.
Literature is part of the historical process of mastering reality, but this mastery is often associated with the conscious isolation of the author from topical problems, an attempt to depict the general laws of the human phenomenon. And in this case, the illusion of the presence in the work of a world recognizable to the reader will not only not be broken, but will also be convincing.
The definitions of literary creativity are varied: the creation of new, socially significant artistic values, the self-directed play of human forces and abilities, leading to the emergence of new completed systems or hypothetical projects. Creativity is the transformation of natural and social reality, the creation of a new reality in accordance with the writer’s subjective ideas about the laws of the world, which is changing and being recreated. This is also the mystical ability of a person to extract the phenomenal from the empirics of reality, using the most provocative methods to comprehend the random properties of a person and the general laws of life.
Literary creativity is processual, it records and understands the dynamics of transformation of natural and social reality, reveals the contradictory essence of phenomena or mystifies them, and then the reality of existence becomes a problem requiring the search for new solutions, as a result, a person’s ideas about himself expand.
Fiction in this sense contributes to the understanding of life and social relations, allows one to avoid worries or, on the contrary, becomes a source of change in the surrounding physical and mental environment. The social and psychological metamorphoses of the characters, discovered or suggested by the authors, encourage the reader to create new connections with the world, expand the range of the reader's participation in life, elevate the random to the degree of the universal, and attach the reader's personality to the human family tree.
3. Auxiliary literary disciplines and their significance.
Auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism are those that are not directly aimed at interpreting the text, but help in this. In other cases, the analysis is carried out, but is of an applied nature (for example, you need to understand the writer’s drafts).
1. Bibliography- the science of publishing. Any research begins with the study of bibliography - accumulated material on a given problem. There are two main types of literary bibliography - scientific and auxiliary And recommendation, and within them the types of pointers: are common(dedicated to individual literatures), personal(dedicated to one writer), thematic and individual writers).
2. Historiography. Historiography describes the history of the study of literature. In addition, historiography deals with the history of the creation and publication of a particular text. Serious historiographical works allow us to see the logic of the development of scientific thought.
3. Textual criticism is a common name for all disciplines that study text for applied purposes. A textual scholar studies the forms and methods of writing in different eras; analyzes the features of handwriting, compares different editions of the text, choosing the so-called canonical version, i.e. the one that will later be recognized as the main one for editions and reprints; conducts a thorough and comprehensive examination of the text in order to establish authorship or to prove forgery. In recent years, textual analysis has become increasingly closer to literary criticism itself, so it is not surprising that textual criticism is increasingly being called not an auxiliary, but a main literary discipline. Our wonderful philologist D.S. Likhachev, who did a lot to change the status of this science, valued textology very highly.
4. Paleography- literally means “description of antiquities.” Before the advent of printing, works were copied by hand. It was carried out by scribes, often people of clergy rank. The works existed in a relatively small number of copies - "lists", many of which were made on the basis of other lists. At the same time, the connection with the original work was often lost; copyists often freely handled the text of the work, introducing their own amendments, additions, and abbreviations to it; Special errors could also not be excluded. The study of ancient literature is a very difficult matter. It requires finding manuscripts in ancient book depositories and archives, comparing different lists and editions of works, and dating them. Determining the time of creation of a work and, based on them, lists occurs by examining the material on which they are written, the manner of writing and handwriting, the peculiarities of the language of the author and the scribes themselves, the composition of facts, persons, events depicted or mentioned in the work, etc. Linguistics comes to the aid of literary studies, giving it knowledge of the history of certain languages, deciphering certain systems of signs and writing.
5. Attribution(from Latin attributio - attribution) - establishing the author of a work of art or the time and place of its creation (along with the term attribution is used heuristic). Often, for one reason or another, works could not appear in print. They remained in manuscripts, archives of magazines, publishing houses, or were published without the names of the authors (anonymously). Attribution is very important when studying, for example, ancient Russian literature, the works of which were anonymous until the 17th century. In modern science, attribution is carried out in the following directions: – searches for documentary and factual evidence (autographs of writers, their correspondence, memoirs of contemporaries, archival materials, etc.); – disclosure of the ideological and figurative content of the text (a specific comparison of the ideas of an anonymous composition and those undoubtedly belonging to the alleged author of the texts); – analysis of the language and style of the work.
4. Textual criticism as a branch of literary criticism.
Textual criticism(from text and...logy), a branch of philology that studies works of writing, literature and folklore.
The most important task of Textual Studies is the establishment, that is, a diachronic, historically meaningful and critical reading of the text based on delving into its history, studying the sources of the text (manuscripts, printed publications, various historical evidence), establishing their genealogy, classification and interpretation of the author's processing of the text, as well as its distortion
Textual research also acts as a part of the literary method, as a way of studying literature. The patterns of development of literature and various social trends are reflected in changes in texts, the observation of which helps to understand literature as a process and a work as a product of its time. Comparative historical and typological studies are difficult without delving into the history of the text. Diachronic reading of the synchronic “final” text increases the number of observable objects-moments, gives an idea of the dynamics of the text and allows us to understand it more fully and correctly. Based on the history of the text, a reconstruction of the creative process and a study of creative history are also carried out, which gives a lot for studying the psychology of literary creativity, the laws of perception, and for historical and functional illumination of the “life” of works. in different eras. Textual criticism contributes to the philological and historical-literary interpretation of a work.
As part of literary criticism, Textual criticism consists in a mutual and interpenetrating connection with its other sides - the history and theory of literature, and constitutes the source base of these sciences. On the other hand, Textual criticism uses the entire arsenal of literary criticism and all social sciences. The following auxiliary disciplines are involved: bibliography, source studies, paleography, hermeneutics, historical poetics, stylistics.
Narration and description.
Description And narration used to depict the surrounding reality.
In modern literary criticism narration understood as speaking in general And How story (message) about one-time actions and events occurring in a literary work.
Reading “Buran”, we learn about the events that happened to the characters. The author tells (narrates) how Grinev, his servant Savelich and the coachman rode in the wagon; what they were worried about when the storm started; how they met the stranger and with his help headed towards the inn.
Description- listing in a certain order the individual characteristics of an object, natural phenomenon, person or other living creature.
The subject of the description, firstly, is a part of the artistic space, correlated with a certain background. The portrait may be preceded by an interior: this is how the appearance of Count B* before the narrator in Pushkin’s “The Shot” is prepared.
The landscape as an image of a certain part of space can be given against the background of reporting information about this space as a whole: “The Belogorsk fortress was located forty miles from Orenburg. The road went along the steep bank of the Yaik. The river had not yet frozen, and its leaden waves sadly blackened in the monotonous banks covered with white snow. Behind them stretched the Kyrgyz steppes.”
Secondly, the structure of the description is created by the movement of the observer’s gaze or a change in his position as a result of movement in space of either himself or the object of observation. In our example, the gaze is first directed downward, then it seems to rise and go to the side, into the distance. In the central phase of this process, the gaze gives the “object” a certain psychological coloring (“sadly blackened”).
Literary character name
According to Pavel Florensky, “names are the essence of categories of personal cognition.” Names are not just named, but actually declare the spiritual and physical essence of a person. They form special models of personal existence, which become common to each bearer of a certain name. Names predetermine a person’s spiritual qualities, actions and even fate.
The name is part of the hero's character. It creates an unforgettable image that the reader wants to latch onto.
There are several principles for creating a name:
1. Ethnographic principle
It is necessary to create a harmonious combination of the name with the society in which the hero lives. In his name he carries the character and image of his people. Thanks to this, the reader gets a complete impression of both the hero and the people as a whole.
2. Geographical feature People settled all over the world, and in every corner their own microworld was created. As they grew apart, the names also changed. The same people, separated by a mountain range, can differ significantly in name formation. To add a touch of unusualness, you can successfully apply this principle.
3. The principle of racial and national characteristics Each people is unique in its own way. Everyone has their own strength and weakness. Each has a unique character, which is directly reflected in the name.
4. The principle of name formation by sound/spelling.
It's great to express a character's personality in a name. If you need a hero fighter, you need a short name with a tough sound. The name of the hero was heard and it became clear to everyone who was in front of them. Such examples could be: Dick, Borg, Yarg. If you need to add mystery and mystery then: Saruman, Cthulhu, Fragonda, Anahit. You can find a name that matches any character.
5. The principle of speaking names
This principle can be clearly seen in classical Russian literature. From school we remember such heroes as Dostoevsky's Prince Myshkin or Gogol's judge Lyapkin-Tyapkin. An unsurpassed master of this principle, A.P. Chekhov with his official Chervyakov, policeman Ochumelov, actor Unylov. Using this principle, you can describe not only the character of the hero, but also some of his external features. An example is Tugoukhovsky from the play by A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit".
7.Associative principle
This principle is based on appealing to the reader’s perception of a certain associative series. Each name carries with it a whole trail of them. For example, our Russian name is Ivan. Everyone evokes associations - a fool.
For love stories, the use of such names as Romeo, Juliet, Alphonse helps to apply this principle. Each name, selected for the author’s specific task, has an associative load that helps to better understand the author’s intent.
Portrait
Evolution in literature can be defined as a gradual transition from the abstract to the concrete, from the conventional to the individual. Until romanticism, the conventional form of the portrait prevailed. It is characterized by: staticity, picturesqueness, and verbosity.
A characteristic feature of the conventional description of appearance is the listing of emotions that the characters evoke in others
The portrait is given against the backdrop of nature in the literature of sentimentalism - a flowering meadow or field, a river bank or a pond, romantics replace a meadow with a forest, mountains, a calm river with a wild sea, native nature with an exotic one. The ruddy freshness of the face and the pallor of the brow.
In Russian literature of the 19th century
Types of portraits
1) exposure
Based on a detailed listing of details of clothing, gestures (most often on behalf of the narrator). The first such portraits are associated with romanticism (W. Scott)
A more complex modification of the portrait is a psychological portrait, in which appearance features predominate, which speak about the character traits and the external world of the characters.
2) dynamic
They talk about a dynamic portrait when the work does not contain a detailed description of the hero’s appearance; it consists of individual details “scattered” throughout the text. These details often change (for example, facial expression), which allows us to talk about the revelation of character. Such portraits are often found in Tolstoy's works. Instead of a detailed listing of physical features, the writer uses vivid details that “accompany” the character throughout the entire work. These are the “radiant eyes” of Princess Marya, the naive childish smile of Pierre, the antique shoulders of Helen. The same detail can be filled with different content, depending on the feelings that the character experiences. The little princess's sponge with a mustache gives her pretty face a special charm when she is in society. During her quarrel with Prince Andrei, this same sponge takes on a “brutal, squirrel expression.”
Psychologism and its types.
Psychologism in literature –
In width sense - the common property of literature and art to recreate human life and characters.
In a narrow one there is a special technique, a form that allows one to accurately and vividly depict emotional movements.
In order for psychologism to arise in literature, a sufficiently high level of development of the culture of society as a whole is necessary, but, most importantly, it is necessary that in this culture the unique human personality is recognized as a value.
According to Esin, there are main forms of psychological image:
· (I.V. Strakhov) depiction of characters “from the inside” - that is, through artistic knowledge of the inner world of the characters, expressed through inner speech, images of memory and imagination; or DIRECT
· to psychological analysis “from the outside,” expressed in the writer’s psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of external manifestation of the psyche.” OR INDIRECT
· summary-designating - the author’s direct naming of the feelings and experiences occurring in the hero’s soul.
The narrative-compositional form is of great importance when creating psychologism:
· 1st person narration - focused on the hero’s reflection, psychological. assessment and psychological self-analysis.
· narration from the 3rd person (author's narration) - allows the author to introduce the reader into the inner world of the character, show it in the most detail and depth, and at the same time can interpret the behavior of the characters, give him an assessment and commentary.
According to Esin, the most common compositional and narrative forms are:
T internal monologue
Unconscious and semi-conscious (dreams and visions) forms of inner life are depicted as psychological states and are correlated primarily not with the plot and external actions, but with the inner world of the hero, with his other psychological states.
Literary dreams, according to I.V. Strakhov, are the writer’s analysis of “the psychological states and characters of the characters.”
*** another technique of psychologism
- default. It arises at a time when the reader begins to look in a work not for external plot entertainment, but for images of complex and interesting mental states. Then the writer at some point could omit the description of the hero’s psychological state, allowing the reader to independently carry out a psychological analysis and figure out what the hero is experiencing at the moment.
Conclusions: Psychologism is a special technique, a form that allows you to accurately and vividly depict mental movements. There are three main forms of psychological image: direct, indirect and summary-designating. Psychologism has its own internal structure, that is, it consists of techniques and methods of representation, the most common of which are internal monologue and psychological author’s narration. In addition to them, there is the use of dreams and visions, double heroes and the technique of silence.
Epic
(from the Greek word meaning speech)
The organizing principle in the epic is the narration of the actions, persons, their destinies and actions that make up the plot. It is always a story about what happened earlier. The epic makes full use of the entire arsenal of all available artistic means; it knows no limitations. The narrative form promotes deep penetration into the inner world of the individual.
The word epic is firmly associated with the idea of the artistic reproduction of life and its integrity, the scale of the creative act, and the revelation of the essence of an era.
In the epic, the presence of the narrator is especially significant; he can be a witness or interpreter of the events shown. The epic text does not contain information about the fate of the author, but expresses his vision of the world.
Gukovsky (1940): “every image in art forms an idea not only of the image, but also of the image of the image bearer.”
Literature has different methods of storytelling, the most deeply rooted type is when there is an absolute distance between the narrator and the characters. The narrator has the gift of all-seeing.
Schelling: “The epic needs a narrator whose equanimity in his story will constantly distract us from paying too much attention to the characters and directing our attention to the net result.”
Scheling: “The narrator is alien to the characters, he not only brings the listeners with his balanced contemplation and sets his story in this mood, but, as it were, takes the place of necessity.
Schelling + Hegel argued that the epic genre of literature has a special worldview, which is marked by a broad view of the world and its calm, joyful acceptance.
Thomas Mann expressed similar thoughts about the nature of the epic; he saw in the epic the embodiment of the spirit of irony, which is not cold mockery, but full of cordiality and love. "
The narrator can act as a certain “I” and then we call him a storyteller. He may be a character in a work. ("The Captain's Daughter" Grinev) Authors can be close to the characters with the facts of their lives. Characteristic of autobiographical prose (D. Defoe "Robinson Crusoe")
Often the narrator speaks in a manner not typical of the author (epics, fairy tales)
Lyrics
Lyrics are one of the three (along with epic and drama) main literary genres, the subject of which is the inner world of the poet, his attitude towards something. Unlike epic, lyric poetry is most often plotless. In lyric poetry, any phenomenon and event of life that can influence the spiritual world of a person is reproduced in the form of a subjective, direct experience, that is, a holistic individual manifestation of the poet’s personality, a certain state of his character. This type of literature is capable of fully expressing the most complex problems of existence.
There are different forms of expression of the experiences and thoughts of the lyrical subject. This can be an internal monologue, thinking alone with oneself (“I remember a wonderful moment...” by A. S. Pushkin, “About valor, about exploits, about glory...” by A. A. Blok); monologue on behalf of a character introduced into the text (“Borodino” by M. Yu. Lermontov); an appeal to a specific person, which allows you to create the impression of a direct response to some phenomenon of life (“Winter Morning” by A. S. Pushkin, “The Sitting Ones” by V. V. Mayakovsky); an appeal to nature, helping to reveal the unity of the spiritual world of the lyrical hero and the world of nature (“To the Sea” by A. S. Pushkin, “The Forest” by A. V. Koltsov, “In the Garden” by A. A. Fet). In lyrical works, which are based on acute conflicts, the poet expresses himself in a passionate dispute with time, friends and enemies, with himself (“The Poet and the Citizen” by N. A. Nekrasov). From a thematic point of view, lyrics can be civil, philosophical, love, landscape, etc.
There are various genres of lyrical works. The predominant form of lyric poetry of the 19th-20th centuries is a poem: a work written in verse of a small volume, compared to a poem, which allows one to embody in words the inner life of the soul in its changeable and multifaceted manifestations (sometimes in literature there are small works of a lyrical nature in prose that use means of expressiveness characteristic of poetic speech: “Poems in prose” by I. S. Turgenev). Message is a lyrical genre in poetic form in the form of a letter or appeal to a specific person or group of persons of a friendly, loving, panegyric or satirical nature (“To Chaadaev,” “Message to Siberia” by A. S. Pushkin, “Letter to Mother” by S. A. . Yesenin). Elegy is a poem of sad content, which expresses the motives of personal experiences: loneliness, disappointment, suffering, frailty of earthly existence (“Confession” by E. A. Baratynsky, “The flying ridge of clouds is thinning...” by A. S. Pushkin, “Elegy” N. A. Nekrasova, “I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry...” S. A. Yesenina). A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines, forming two quatrains and two tercets.
The main means of creating a lyrical image is language, the poetic word. The use of various tropes in the poem (metaphor, personification, synecdoche, parallelism, hyperbole, epithet) expands the meaning of the lyrical statement. The word in the verse has multiple meanings. In a poetic context, the word acquires additional semantic and emotional shades. Thanks to its internal connections (rhythmic, syntactic, sound, intonation), the word in poetic speech becomes capacious, condensed, emotionally charged, and maximally expressive. It tends towards generalization and symbolism. Isolation of a word, especially significant in revealing the figurative content of a poem, in a poetic text is carried out in different ways (inversion, transfer, repetition, anaphora, contrast). For example, in the poem “I loved you: love is still, perhaps...” by A. S. Pushkin, the leitmotif of the work is created by the key words “loved” (repeated three times), “love,” “beloved.”
Drama
Drama- one of the main types of fiction. In the broadest sense of the word, drama is any literary work written in the form of a conversation between the characters, without the author’s speech.
The author of a novel, story, story, essay, in order for the reader to imagine the picture of life or the characters in it, tells about the situation in which they act, about their actions and experiences; the author of a lyrical work conveys a person’s experiences, thoughts and feelings; the author of a dramatic work shows all this in action, in the actions, speeches and experiences of his characters, and also has the opportunity to show the characters of his work on stage. Dramatic works are mostly intended for performance in the theater.
Dramatic works come in various types: tragedies, dramas, comedies, vaudevilles, theatrical reviews, etc.
In the narrow sense of the word, drama, unlike other types of dramatic works, is a literary work that depicts a complex and serious conflict, an intense struggle between the characters.
21. The novel and ways to study it.(Works by M. M. Bakhtin)
The study of the novel as a genre is characterized by special difficulties. This is due to the uniqueness of the object itself: the novel is the only emerging and not yet ready genre. Genre-forming forces act before our eyes: the birth and development of the novel genre takes place in the full light of historical day. The genre backbone of the novel is far from solidified, and we cannot yet predict all its plastic possibilities.
We know the remaining genres as genres, that is, as certain solid forms for casting artistic experience, in a ready-made form. The ancient process of their formation lies beyond historically documented observation. We find the epic not only a long-prepared, but already deeply aged genre. The same can be said, with some reservations, about other major genres, even about tragedy. Their historical life known to us is their life as ready-made genres with a solid and already low-plastic backbone. Each of them has a canon that acts in literature as a real historical force.
All these genres, or at least their basic elements, are much older than writing and books, and they retain their original oral and loud nature to a greater or lesser extent even to this day. Of the large genres, one novel is younger than writing and the book, and it alone is organically adapted to new forms of silent perception, that is, to reading. But the main thing is that the novel does not have such a canon as other genres: only individual examples of the novel are historically effective, but not the genre canon as such. Learning other genres is similar to learning dead languages; the study of the novel is the study of living languages, and young ones at that.
This creates an extraordinary difficulty for the theory of the novel. After all, this theory has, in essence, a completely different object of study than the theory of other genres. The novel is not just a genre among genres. This is the only emerging genre among long-ready and partly already dead genres. This is the only genre born and nurtured by the new era of world history and therefore deeply akin to it, while other great genres were inherited by it in a ready-made form and only adapt - some better, others worse - to the new conditions of existence. Compared to them, the novel seems to be a creature of a different breed. It doesn't fit well with other genres. He fights for his dominance in literature, and where he wins, other, old, genres decay. It is not without reason that the best book on the history of the ancient novel - the book by Erwin Rohde - not so much tells its history as depicts the process of decomposition of all great high genres on ancient soil.
Particularly interesting phenomena are observed in those eras when the novel becomes the leading genre. All literature is then embraced by the process of formation and a kind of “genre criticism.” This took place in some periods of Hellenism, in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, but especially strongly and vividly from the second half of the 18th century. In the era of the dominance of the novel, almost all other genres are “romanized” to a greater or lesser extent: drama is novelized (for example, the drama of Ibsen, Hauptmann, all naturalistic drama), the poem (for example, “Childe Harold” and especially “Don Juan” by Byron), even lyrics (a sharp example is Heine's lyrics). The same genres that stubbornly retain their old canonicity acquire the character of stylization. In general, any strict consistency of the genre, in addition to the artistic will of the author, begins to respond with stylization, or even parodic stylization. In the presence of the novel, as the dominant genre, the conventional languages of strict canonical genres begin to sound in a new way, differently than they sounded in eras when the novel did not exist in great literature.
The novel is the only genre that is becoming, therefore it more deeply, significantly, sensitively and quickly reflects the formation of reality itself. Only the one who becomes can understand becoming. The novel has become the leading hero of the drama of literary development of modern times precisely because it best expresses the trends in the formation of a new world, because it is the only genre born of this new world and in every way natural to it. The novel in many ways anticipated and anticipates the future development of all literature. Therefore, coming to dominance, he contributes to the renewal of all other genres, he infects them with formation and incompleteness. He imperiously draws them into his orbit precisely because this orbit coincides with the main direction of development of all literature. This is the exceptional importance of the novel both as an object of study for theory and for the history of literature.
Literary theory reveals its complete helplessness in relation to the novel. She works with other genres confidently and accurately - it is a ready-made and established object, definite and clear. Throughout all the classical eras of their development, these genres retain their stability and canonicity; their variations across eras, trends and schools are peripheral and do not affect their hardened genre backbone. In essence, the theory of these ready-made genres, to this day, has been able to add almost nothing significant to what was already done by Aristotle. His poetics remains the unshakable foundation of the theory of genres (although sometimes it lies so deep that you cannot see it). Everything is going well until the affair comes to the novel. But even novelized genres put the theory at a dead end. On the problem of the novel, the theory of genres faces the need for a radical restructuring.
The following requirements for a novel are characteristic: 1) the novel should not be “poetic” in the sense in which other genres of fiction are poetic; 2) the hero of the novel should not be “heroic” either in the epic or in the tragic sense of the word: he must combine both positive and negative traits, both low and high, both funny and serious; 3) the hero should be shown not as ready-made and unchanging, but as becoming, changing, educated by life; 4) the novel should become for the modern world what the epic was for the ancient world (this idea was clearly expressed by Blankenburg and then repeated by Hegel).
three main features that fundamentally distinguish the novel from all other genres: 1) the stylistic three-dimensionality of the novel, associated with the multilingual consciousness realized in it; 2) a radical change in the time coordinates of the literary image in the novel; 3) a new zone for constructing a literary image in a novel, namely the zone of maximum contact with the present (modernity) in its incompleteness.
The novel comes into contact with the element of the unfinished present, which does not allow this genre to freeze. The novelist gravitates towards everything that is not yet ready. He can appear in the image field in any author’s pose, he can depict real moments of his life or make allusions to them, he can interfere in the conversation of the characters, he can openly polemicize with his literary enemies, etc. It’s not just about the appearance of the author’s image in the field image - the fact is that the genuine, formal, primary author (the author of the author's image) finds himself in a new relationship with the depicted world: they are now in the same value-time dimensions, the depicting author's word lies in the same plane with the depicted word of the hero and can enter into dialogical relationships and hybrid combinations with him (more precisely: he cannot help but enter into them).
It is this new position of the primary, formal author in the zone of contact with the depicted world that makes it possible for the author’s image to appear in the image field. This new production by the author is one of the most important results
