Refers to the reforms of Alexander 2. Reforms of Alexander II

Reforms of Alexander 2:

• Peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom (1861);
• Financial reforms (since 1863);
• Educational reform (1863);
• Zemstvo reform;
• Urban reform (1864);
• Judicial reform (1864);
• Public Administration Reform (1870);
• Military reform (1874).

· The essence of the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of the state to a new type, which could more effectively build the economy along the path of industrialization and capitalism.

The main reform of this period can be called the peasant reform, which proclaimed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform had been prepared for several years and, despite the fact that the ruling classes did not want freedom for the peasants, the emperor understood that it was impossible to move further with serfdom, so the changes were nevertheless carried out. As a result of the reform, serfdom was abolished, the peasants gained independence and could be redeemed from their landowner, while receiving an allotment for running the household. To make the redemption, the peasant could take out a bank loan for 49 years. Redeemed peasants were freed from administrative and legal dependence on the landowners. In addition, free peasants received a number of civil rights and could trade and carry out real estate transactions.

Another important reform is the reform of the judicial system. The court ceased to be guided by the class principle, and all citizens of the country now had equal rights before the law. A jury also appeared, and the judicial system was completely separated from the administrative one and formed into an independent institution.

Zemstvo reform and urban reform were intended to simplify government administration and make it more efficient. According to the new laws, villages and cities could now form their own bodies of self-government and deal with economic issues without waiting for orders from above. This made it possible to develop the regional economy, as management began to focus on the real situation in a particular province.

Military reform was supposed to make the army more effective so that the situation with the Crimean War would not repeat itself. Universal conscription was introduced, the army received new weapons, and the principle of training soldiers changed. Many educational institutions for the military also opened.

Along with military schools, new regular schools and universities began to open. University rectors received more rights and could make their own decisions - this helped the country make a leap in educating society.

Press reform was also important. The principle of transparency was proclaimed and the press received the right to discuss and even criticize government decisions.

40. Liberation of peasants and implementation of land reform.

On February 19, 1861, on the fifth anniversary of his accession to the throne, Alexander II signed Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom in Russia and a number of “Provisions” that explained the conditions for the liberation of peasants. Former landowner peasants moved from the category of land users to the category of owners and acquired personal freedom. The peasant could now freely get a job, go to the city or engage in crafts. The general provision for peasants who emerged from serfdom recognized the landowner's right of ownership to all lands. Based on this, peasants were allocated estate and field land not free of charge, but for duties and then ransom. Preference was given to an “amicable” agreement between the peasants and the landowner. If it was not possible to reach such an agreement, the norms provided for by the reformers came into force. During the first two years, statutory charters were to be drawn up, defining the specific conditions for the liberation of the peasants. The peasants were transferred to the position temporarily obligated. They remained in this state until the transition to redemption. The size of peasant plots was determined by local regulations. All provinces were divided into three zones (chernozem, non-chernozem and steppe). In the chernozem and non-chernozem zones in each locality, the highest and lowest norms of allotments were determined. The peasants were supposed to be given those plots that they used before the reform. If the allotment allocated to the peasant was more than the highest norm, then the landowner had the right to cut off the “surplus” to this norm. And vice versa, if the peasant’s actual allotment was less than the lowest norm, then the landowner had to cut off the land to this norm.

The landowners tried to set standards in such a way that they could cut off part of the peasant lands for their benefit. The submission by landowners to the Editorial Commissions of underestimated data on the size of peasant plots led to the fact that even after the commissions increased the highest norms, peasants in most provinces lost part of their land. As a result, peasants received an average of 3.4 tithes per capita. Meanwhile, to ensure a living wage, a peasant in the black earth zone had to have at least 5.5 dessiatinas per capita, and in other areas - from 6 to 8 dessiatines

Temporarily obligated peasants had to perform temporary duties in favor of the landowner in the form of monetary quitrent or corvee. The period of transition from duties to ransom lasted for 20 years (from 1863 to 1883). Only in the western provinces were all peasants immediately transferred to the category of peasant owners. The quitrent was recognized as the main duty. The amount of corvee was limited to 40 men's and 30 women's days per year. After two years, peasants could switch from corvee to quitrent without the consent of the landowner.

The amount of redemption of peasant duties was determined as follows: the amount of capital was found that, if deposited in a bank paying 6% of profit per year on deposits, would bring annually the amount of quitrent received by the landowner. For example, with a quitrent amount of 10 rubles, the ransom amount was 166 rubles 66 kopecks. In other words, having deposited an amount of 166 rubles 66 kopecks in the bank, the landowner received 6% of this amount per year, which was exactly 10 rubles.

Of course, the peasants could not immediately pay the landowner the entire ransom amount. But the landowner was interested in receiving exactly the entire amount at a time. Therefore, a buyout operation was carried out with the participation of the state. The peasants received a state loan in the amount of 80% of the redemption amount. The landowners received 80% of the total ransom immediately after the conclusion of the buyout transaction. The remaining 20% ​​was to be paid by the peasants to the landowner by agreement. Then, for 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state with interest in the form of redemption payments. The amount of these payments far exceeded the state's costs.

According to the peasant reform of 1861, the community and its elected bodies became the lowest level of administrative management in the village on all categories of land. The functions of the community, which received the name rural society, the rights and responsibilities of the village assembly as a meeting of the heads of peasant households, as well as the headman elected by the village assembly.

Preparation of reforms
Preparations for the zemstvo reform began in 1859, when work on the peasant reform of 1861 was in full swing. The leader in this legislative activity of the government was N.A. Milyutin. The basic principles of land reform - election, all-class, self-government in matters of local economic needs - were included in the project even before Milyutin's resignation in April 1861. The Minister of Internal Affairs, P. A. Valuev (Milyutin's opponent), who then headed the preparatory work, was forced to reckon with this project and accept it as a basis.
Formation of local bodies
The “Regulations of January 1, 1864” provided for the creation of zemstvos in 34 provinces of the European part of Russia. The zemstvo reform did not apply to Siberia, Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where there was almost no noble land ownership, as well as to the national outskirts of Russia - the Baltic states, Poland, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia. In 1911-13, zemstvo institutions, in addition to 34 provinces, were introduced in 9 more.
According to the “Regulations,” zemstvo institutions were created in the district and province, consisting of zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils. The electoral system was built on a combination of class and property principles. Every three years, residents of the county of different classes elected from 14 to more than 100 vowels - deputies to the county zemstvo assemblies. Elections were held in curiae (parts), into which the entire district population was divided. The first curia consisted of landowners who had 200 dessiatines or more of land (including allotment land ownership of peasants who had not yet transferred to the redemption) or other real estate worth 15 thousand rubles, or an annual income of 6 thousand rubles. The tone in this curia was set by the nobles (landowners), but over time, representatives of other classes began to play an increasingly important role - merchants who bought up noble lands, rich peasants who acquired land as their own. The second curia consisted of townspeople who owned merchant certificates, trade and industrial enterprises with an annual income of at least 6 thousand rubles, and owners of city real estate worth at least 500 rubles. - in small ones and 2 thousand rubles. in large cities. The third curia mainly consisted of representatives of rural societies, peasants, for whom no special property qualification was required. The creation of class peasant self-government (rural and volost) made it possible to give peasants access to all-class zemstvo institutions. As a result of the first zemstvo elections of 1865-66, nobles made up 42% of the district and 74% of the provincial councilors, peasants - 38.5% and 10.6%, respectively, merchants - 10.4% and 11%. Voters of district zemstvos were elected in curiae, and of provincial zemstvos - in district zemstvo assemblies. The chairmen of the district and provincial zemstvo assemblies were the district and provincial leaders of the nobility. Zemstvo assemblies were administrative bodies; they elected executive power - provincial and district zemstvo councils (three, five people).
Rights of land
The zemstvo's competence was limited to local economic affairs (medicine, public education, agronomy, veterinary service, construction of local roads, organization of statistics, etc.). Zemstvo fees provided the financial basis for the activities of zemstvo institutions. The budget was approved by the zemstvo assembly. It consisted mainly of taxes on real estate, primarily on land, with the main burden falling on the estates of peasants. Within the limits of their competence, zemstvos had relative independence. The chairman of the provincial zemstvo government was approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs.
In the structure of zemstvo institutions there was no “small zemstvo unit,” i.e., an all-class volost zemstvo that was closest to the needs of the local population, and there was no provision for an all-Russian body that could coordinate the activities of local zemstvos. As a result, the zemstvos turned out to be “a building without a foundation or a roof.” The government also prevented zemstvos from communicating with each other, fearing constitutional trends. The zemstvos did not have their own enforcement authorities, which forced them to turn to the administration and the police. All this put the zemstvo from the first steps in opposition to the autocratic power and at the same time made it vulnerable, not protected from the pressure of the powerful state machine. A general revision of the zemstvo reform was carried out during the reign of Alexander III. In 1890, the zemstvo counter-reform was adopted, which significantly limited the rights of zemstvos.
The importance of zemstvo reform
The zemstvo reform created a new, modern institution of local self-government in Russia, introduced the previously completely disenfranchised peasantry into civil life, and contributed to the development of local improvement. The zemstvo intellectual described by A.P. Chekhov - a doctor and teacher, a selfless ascetic and an expert in his field - became the personification of the best features of the Russian intelligentsia

See No. 39 and 40

4. Zemstvo and city reforms, carried out in 1864 and 1870 respectively, formed elected local government bodies based on the right to vote curial system (with different standards of representation for different classes) and property qualifications. In the cities they became city ​​councils, whose executive bodies served city ​​councils and who led them mayor, and in rural areas - district and provincial zemstvo assemblies(or simply zemstvos) with executive bodies represented by zemstvo councils.

Despite the limitation of their powers to issues of economy, health care and education (power still remained in the hands of government-appointed governors), zemstvos and city dumas gave the liberal intelligentsia their first experience organizations. The best forces of the intelligentsia came to them, thanks to which education and medical care were significantly improved, especially in rural areas.

5. Educational reforms consisted of the introduction of elected self-government of universities (1863), equality of classes upon admission to educational institutions (with the exception of certain elite ones) - while maintaining, however, high tuition fees. The main types of secondary schools were gymnasiums with a humanitarian bias and real schools who provided predominantly technical education. The first women's gymnasiums and higher women's courses were created, which marked the beginning of women's education in Russia.

6. In a row military reforms the main thing was the replacement of Peter’s recruiting system for recruiting the army universal conscription(1874), which made it possible to deploy a mass army from trained reserves during the war (following the example of advanced European countries). From now on, they were subject to conscription into the army all classes (except the clergy), not excluding and nobles. Those with secondary or higher education were conscripted on preferential terms and with a reduced service life as volunteer. From now on, the conditions for exemption from military service were not class origin, but marital status (the only breadwinner in the family) or a socially significant profession (teachers, doctors, etc.).

In addition, the service life of soldiers and sailors was reduced from 25 to 6 years (later - 3 years in the army and 5 years in the navy), and corporal punishment for them, which had been widely used before, was abolished (1863). The territory of the country was divided into military districts. The army was equipped with rifled weapons, the navy with steam and then armored ships.

The level of military education increased significantly: a network of military academies was founded (before that there was one Academy of the General Staff, founded under Nicholas I) and schools, separated from the senior classes of the cadet corps. Access to military educational institutions (except for the most elite, like the Corps of Pages) was opened again for all classes . Thanks to this, if in the era of serfdom the officers of the Russian army were almost entirely from the nobility, now access to the officer rank was open to almost everyone, and by the beginning of the First World War more than half of the officers (with the exception of the guard) did not have a noble origin.

The general significance of the Great Reforms as the second modernization of Russia can be formulated in three main directions :

1. Transition to a liberal, humanistic path political development without revolution (characteristic difference from most Western countries ).

2. Transition to a more efficient, market-capitalist path of development economy, based not on coercion, but on incentives such as freedom of hired labor, competition and unemployment.

3. B social relations - the weakening of the class system, which was a relic of feudal society.

42. The growth of the social movement and opposition to autocracy. Activities of underground and terrorist organizations (“Land and Freedom”, “People’s Will”, “Black Redistribution”).

“Land and freedom”, the society (the first) was born at the end of 1861. N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. N. Obruchev (author of revolutionary proclamations, under Alexander III - chief of the general staff) took part in it. A. A. Sleptsov, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovyevich, P. I. Bokov, N. I. Utin and others. M. I. Mikhailov did not participate in “Land and Freedom”: he was arrested before it occurred. The society was associated with A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev. At the end of 1863, after the suppression of the Polish uprising and the triumph of reaction, “Land and Freedom” was liquidated by its participants.

The party's main task was to work among the masses to prepare for the uprising. Within the “Land and Freedom” party, two movements were formed: the Land Volunteers - “villagers” and the Land Volunteers - “city dwellers”. The former worked among the peasantry, preparing the ground for future revolutionary activity in the countryside, while the latter gathered in the cities, turning their attention to the workers, as the most revolutionary layer of the population. The most important point of the society’s program was “the transfer of all land into the hands of the rural working class,” and a number of democratic demands were put forward, which could be achieved “only through a violent revolution.”

People's will- a revolutionary populist organization that arose in 1879 after the split of the Land and Freedom organization, with the main goal of forcing the government to democratic reforms, after which it would be possible to fight for the social transformation of society. Terror became one of the main methods of political struggle of Narodnaya Volya. In particular, members of the terrorist Narodnaya Volya faction hoped to push for political change with the assassination of Emperor Alexander II. The name of its participants is derived from the name of the organization - Narodnaya Volya. A small party, relying on the sympathy of part of the intelligentsia and having no basis among the broad masses, showed such energy that it believed in its own strength and made people believe in it. Due to the policies of Count M. T. Loris-Melikov, a part of society that had previously sympathized with Narodnaya Volya was pushed away from it. When the party, not softened by concessions, assassinated Emperor Alexander II on March 1, 1881, this murder caused not only a government reaction, but also a public reaction on a much wider scale than the People's Will expected. Nevertheless, in the following years the party continued its activities.

Black Redistribution- a secret society associated with the magazine of the same name. “Black Redistribution” was formed during the collapse of the “Land and Freedom” society in 1879; the terrorist wing of the latter formed Narodnaya Volya, and the wing that remained faithful to purely populist tendencies formed the “Black Redistribution” society. Chernoperedel's immediate task was to organize a broad popular militant party, but the conditions and situation of revolutionary activity in Russia by the end of 1879 had changed so much that the accomplishment of this task under the given political conditions became completely impossible. The former landowner settlements in the villages completely disintegrated; attempts to restore them failed, and the Black Peredelites had to concentrate all their activities in the cities on promoting populist ideas among the intelligentsia and workers. But even here they were not successful; the call to action among the people had by this time lost its former charm. The party-organizational work of the “Black Redistribution” was also extremely unsuccessful. Among the people included in the “Black Redistribution” (the printing group) was the worker Zhirnov, who turned out to be a traitor and soon betrayed all members of the group. The organization suffered an irreparable blow. At the beginning of 1880, the main members of the “Black Redistribution” - Plekhanov, Zasudit Stefanovich, Deitch - went abroad and formed the Social Democratic Party there in 1883. group "Liberation of Labor".

43. The reign of Alexander III: the state of the economy, the development of capitalist relations. Foreign policy.

The domestic policy of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) was consistent. It was based on a set of very specific ideas about what Russia should become. Alexander III was a conservative by nature, upbringing, and life experience. His beliefs were formed under the influence of the bitter experience of the struggle between the government and the populist revolutionaries, which he witnessed and of which his father, Alexander II, became a victim. The instructions of K. P. Pobedonostsev, a prominent ideologist of Russian conservatism, were found in the new monarch as a grateful student, ready to follow them.

Having removed liberal ministers from power (D.N. Milyutin, M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Abazu, etc.), executing the First March members by court verdict, the tsar firmly announced his intention to establish and protect autocracy. Alexander III believed in the historical mission of Russia, in autocracy, called upon to lead it along the path of victories, in Orthodoxy, the spiritual support of the people and power. Autocratic power, the tsar believed, should help a confused society find ground under its feet, surround it with care and guardianship, and strictly punish for disobedience. Alexander III felt like the father of a large family that needed his firm hand.

Politics in the peasant question. In 1881, a law was passed on the mandatory purchase by peasants of their plots.

Labor politics. Laws of 1882-1886 the foundations of labor legislation were laid: the labor of children under twelve years of age was prohibited; Night work for women and minors is prohibited; the terms of employment and the procedure for terminating contracts between workers and entrepreneurs have been determined.

Police activities. The Order on “Strengthened Security” (1881) allowed the introduction of a special situation in unreliable provinces.

Events in the field of press and education. The new “Temporary Rules on the Press” (1882) established the most severe censorship and made it possible to freely close objectionable publications.

Counter-reforms. 1889-1892 Law 1889 established the position of zemstvo chief. Zemstvo chiefs received administrative and judicial powers, could remove village elders from office, subject peasants to corporal punishment, fines, and arrest. They were appointed by the government from among the local hereditary nobles.

The law of 1890 actually deprived peasants of the right to nominate representatives to district and provincial zemstvo institutions. Now they were appointed by the governor.

The law of 1892 introduced a high property qualification, and artisans and small traders were excluded from elections to the city duma.

In the 80s the government gained the opportunity to remove judges at its discretion, removed political cases from jury trials, and fired many prosecutors who served in the 60s and 70s.

Historians call these events counter-reforms to emphasize: they were directed against the reforms of the reign of Alexander II.

The assessment of the reign of Alexander III cannot be unambiguous. The government, on the one hand, ensured internal stability, industry developed rapidly, and foreign capital flowed into the country. On the other hand, the tsar’s attempts to reverse the processes begun during the years of the “great reforms” did not meet the needs of a rapidly changing society. The economic modernization that began in post-reform Russia gave rise to acute, qualitatively new problems and conflicts. The government, which saw its purpose as restraining society and protecting it from change, could not cope with the new problems. The results were immediate: the revolution, which shook the foundations of the old system, occurred ten years after the death of Alexander III.

44. Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century: characteristics of economic potential. The crisis of the political system of autocracy. Formation of illegal political parties. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905

The calm policy of Alexander III, as defined by Foreign Minister N.K. Girs, was continued in the first decade of the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917). “Calmness” consisted of maintaining friendly relations with France, respectful but lacking trust with Germany, aimed at maintaining the current situation in Balkan affairs with Austria-Hungary, friendly and not too warm with Great Britain.

Nicholas II’s “calm policy” in European affairs was determined by the need to provide favorable external conditions for the economic development of Russia, which was solving the painful tasks of modernization, on the one hand, and to strengthen Russian influence in the Far East, on the other. It was in the Far East that the most important foreign policy event in Russian history at the beginning of the 20th century took place. - Russian-Japanese war 1904-1905.

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. The situation that arose in the Far East required active action from Russia. China, weakened by a protracted crisis, has attracted the selfish attention of all major participants in world politics: Great Britain, France, Germany, the USA, Japan, Russia. There was a fierce struggle for the division of spheres of influence in China. Japan in 1894 sent troops to Korea, entered into a war with China, and imposed humiliating peace terms on it (they were partially revised under pressure from Russia, France and Germany). Russia began construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1891, considering it as the beginning of the vigorous development of its Siberian and Far Eastern outskirts. In 1896, China granted Russia a concession for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), and in 1898 it obtained the right to lease the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress-port of Port Arthur and the port of Dalniy. The Boxer Rebellion in China gave foreign powers an opportunity to openly interfere in Chinese internal affairs. Russia sent troops into Manchuria and, despite protests from Japan, which had secured the support of Germany and Great Britain, refused to withdraw them (although the Russian-Japanese treaty provided for the withdrawal of troops by the fall of 1904). Japan, in turn, imposed on Russia the terms of the agreement on Korea that were unacceptable to it. Things were heading towards an open conflict.

On the night of January 27, 1904, Japanese destroyers attacked Russian ships stationed in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur, as well as the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. The war has begun.

Progress of military operations. On land, Russian troops (A.N. Kuropatkin, who was deprived of any significant military talents, was appointed commander-in-chief) were defeated in the battles of Laoyang (August 1904), the Shahe River (October 1904), and Mukden (February 1905). In all battles, the Russian armies had numerical superiority. The Japanese turned out to be stronger in military-technical terms, their generals were better at mastering the art of modern warfare. In December, Port Arthur fell, besieged in July - it was surrendered by the ignorant and cowardly general A. M. Stessel.

Reasons for Russia's defeat. Unpreparedness of top management for war; military-technical lag; incompetent command; extended communications, remoteness of the theater of military operations; foreign policy isolation (Russia was not supported by any major state, which feared its strengthening in the Far East).

Results and consequences of the war. The peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth, in the United States, which acted as mediators in the negotiations. Despite the extremely unsuccessful course of the war, S. Yu. Witte managed to conclude a profitable (taking into account the current situation) peace: Russia ceded South Sakhalin and Port Arthur to Japan, recognized Korea as a zone of Japanese interests, but avoided paying indemnities. Both countries pledged to withdraw troops from Manchuria.

The consequences of the military defeat for Russia were significant: the authority of the authorities in the eyes of society was catastrophically undermined; Opposition and revolutionary sentiments intensified. The war, perceived as a national disgrace, which claimed tens of thousands of lives, played a role in the development of the revolution of 1905-1907.

As a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, Japan became the leading power in the Far East. Russia's foreign policy positions were seriously undermined. The defeat also exposed the defects of its military organization (the technical backwardness of the fleet, the weakness of the senior command staff, the shortcomings of the management and supply system) and contributed to the deepening of the crisis of the monarchical system.

Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. (conservative, liberal, radical)

Events of 1905-1907 created favorable conditions for the formation of many political parties - both all-Russian and local, of which there were up to 50. All these parties belonged to three main directions: conservative-monarchical; liberal opposition; revolutionary-democratic (radical).

During the revolution, monarchical and nationalist parties emerged - “Russian Monarchist Party” (spring 1905), “Union of the Russian People” (November 1905), etc. The leaders of the right were V.M. Purishkevich, A.I. Dubrovin, N.E. Markov 2nd, I.I. Vostorgov, G.G. Rosen and others. The social basis of these parties was the aristocracy, officials, Orthodox clergy, small merchants and townspeople, part of the monarchist-minded peasants and intelligentsia. "

In October 1905, liberal parties emerged. On October 12-18, the First Congress of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets), which since 1906 was also called the “People's Freedom Party,” was held.

The second major liberal party was the Union of October 17 (Octobrists), which arose in October 1905 - February 1906. The leaders of the party were famous entrepreneurs and financiers A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, brothers P.P. and V.P. Ryabushinsky, N.S. Avdakov, as well as representatives of the intelligentsia L.N. Benoit, prof. IN AND. Guerrier. The Octobrists were the party of big capital. They advocated strengthening a constitutional monarchy of a non-parliamentary type; their program included the implementation of civil liberties, but while maintaining a “united and indivisible Russia.” The program proclaimed the need for social reforms - social insurance for workers and limiting the working day, transferring state lands and lands of the imperial family to peasants. An intermediate position between the Cadets and the Octobrists was occupied by the Peaceful Renewal Party and its successor, the Progressists Party.

During the revolution, the Socialist Revolutionary Party reached its maximum number of 50-60 thousand people, with the majority of its members being peasants, although the intelligentsia predominated in the leadership. The main goal of the Social Revolutionaries in the revolution was to overthrow the autocracy and establish a democratic republic, so they boycotted the elections to the First State Duma. The Social Revolutionaries took part in almost all armed uprisings and uprisings and carried out acts of terror. February 4, 1905 I.P. Kalyaev killed the emperor's uncle, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich (Governor General of Moscow).

Representatives of the Labor People's Socialist Party (ENES), created in September-November 1906, also adhered to the neo-populist ideology.

The Socialist Revolutionaries and Socialist Revolutionaries had a great influence on the peasantry and its representatives in the State Duma, who formed the “Labor Group”. In addition, peasant organizations also emerged in 1905, the largest of which was the All-Russian Peasant Union, numbering up to 200 thousand members (leaders: S.V. Kurnin, V.F. Krasnov, SP. and V.P. Mazurenko) .

During the revolution, the Social Democrats remained divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, which greatly complicated their actions.

The largest political parties in Russia took part in the main events of the revolution, including the activities of the First and Second State Dumas. But one should not exaggerate the degree of their influence on the population of the empire: in 1906-1907. the total number of members of all parties was only about 0.5% of the total population of Russia.

45. Revolution of 1905–1907: causes, course of the protest movement, growing political crisis. Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and its influence on the revolutionary movement.

Short description

1. Educational: Apply knowledge of history about the personality of Alexander II and find out how the features of his development influenced the reforms being carried out; Using the knowledge gained and using additional material, characterize the liberal reforms of the 60-70s.

Description

Lesson type: Studying new material using RCMCP methods.

Basic Concepts: temporarily obligated, segments, redemption payments, mutual responsibility, statutory charter, amicable mediator.

Equipment: Study guide, additional literature, interactive whiteboard.
Problematic question: Can Russia, after the reforms carried out, be considered an industrially developed state? (justify your answer).
Lesson plan:
1. Organizational start of the lesson, updating of knowledge.
Call("Basket" method) ………
- What do we know about the personality of Alexander II (students name ideas, concepts, names associated with the personality of Alexander Nikolaevich).
Answers: (tsar liberator, abolished serfdom, carried out liberal reforms, was killed by Narodnaya Volya, etc.)
- What would we like to know about Alexander II? (students' answers).
Answers: Who influenced the formation of the king’s personality? How did you prepare for the reforms? What qualities did Alexander II have?
Report on the personality of Alexander II
- What have we learned new about Alexander II? (students answer the question).
Answers: Alexander’s formation was influenced by educators and teachers: Zhukovsky, Speransky, Kankrin and others. Preparation for the reforms was open and transparent; 46 counties of Russia took part in the development of the document. Alexander the second fulfilled his father's will.
- What do we know from the material we studied about the abolition of serfdom? ?
- How did the preparation and abolition of serfdom go?
Slide presentation.
Reasons for the abolition of serfdom (textbook p. 377).
1. Defeat in the Crimean War
2. The crisis of the feudal serf system.
3. Peasant performances.
Preparations for the abolition of serfdom.
1859 Creation of an editorial commission, under the leadership of Rostovtsev...
February 19, 1861 year the king signed the Manifesto on the liberation of the peasants.
- What did the peasants get and what did they not get?
- The peasants received freedom and civil rights, the land remained with the landowners. The peasants bought the land plot, the state helped them buy the land, but as long as they were obliged to bear duties in favor of the landowner, this situation was called – temporarily obliged.
The land payment was called – redemption payments. The land cut off for the benefit of the landowner was called – in segments. Unrest broke out in some areas (the village of Bezdna, Kazan province, the village of Kandeevka, Penza province).
Historical significance of the abolition of serfdom: Elimination of humiliating serfdom, the path to the capitalist path is opened
.
Physical education just a minute.

2. Understanding.
Work in groups on liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s.
Group assignment. “Fishbone” The class is divided into groups and given tasks:
Read the text (paragraph 31 p. 383-384), highlight the problem “fish head”, find ways to solve “fish skeleton”, conclude “fish tail” (format in a table).

1 group – Zemstvo reform
Group 2 – Military reform
Group 3 – Urban reform
Group 4 – Judicial reform
Group 5 – education reform
Table “Liberal reforms of the 60s – 70s”.

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Open lesson 10th grade..doc

History lesson 10th grade (profile).

Topic: "Reforms of Alexander II."

History teacher: Shcherbinina Elena Vladimirovna.

Purpose of the lesson: 1. Educational: - Apply knowledge of history about the personality of Alexander II and find out how the features of his development influenced the ongoing reforms,

Using the knowledge gained and using additional material, characterize the liberal reforms of the 60-70s.

2. Developing: Contribute to increasing the level of personal development through information (working with a table, the ability to select material, summarize, compose messages, tables) and communicative competencies (answer problematic questions).

3. Educational: To promote the development of a value-based attitude towards Russian history, the formation of a sense of patriotism.

Lesson type: Studying new material using RCMCP methods.

Basic Concepts: temporarily obligated, segments, redemption payments, mutual responsibility, statutory charter, amicable mediator.

Equipment: Study guide, additional literature, interactive whiteboard.

Problematic question: Can Russia, after the reforms carried out, be considered an industrially developed state? (justify your answer).

Lesson plan:

1. Organizational start of the lesson, updating of knowledge.

Call("Basket" method) ………

What do we know about the personality of Alexander II (students name ideas, concepts, names associated with the personality of Alexander Nikolaevich).

Answers: (tsar liberator, abolished serfdom, carried out liberal reforms, was killed by Narodnaya Volya, etc.)

What would we like to know about Alexander II? (students' answers).

Answers: Who influenced the formation of the king’s personality? How did you prepare for the reforms? What qualities did Alexander II have?

Report on the personality of Alexander II

What have we learned new about Alexander II? (students answer the question).

Answers: Alexander’s formation was influenced by educators and teachers: Zhukovsky, Speransky, Kankrin and others. Preparation for the reforms was open and transparent; 46 counties of Russia took part in the development of the document. Alexander the second fulfilled his father's will.

What do we know from the material we have studied about the abolition of serfdom? ?

How did the preparation and abolition of serfdom take place?

Slide presentation.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom (textbook p. 377).

1. Defeat in the Crimean War

2. The crisis of the feudal serf system.

3. Peasant performances.

Preparations for the abolition of serfdom.

1859 Creation of an editorial commission, under the leadership of Rostovtsev..

What did the peasants get and what did they not get?

The peasants received freedom and civil rights, the land remained with the landowners. The peasants bought the land plot, the state helped them buy the land, but as long as they were obliged to bear duties in favor of the landowner, this situation was called – temporarily obliged.

The land payment was called – redemption payments. The land cut off for the benefit of the landowner was called – in segments. Unrest broke out in some areas (the village of Bezdna, Kazan province, the village of Kandeevka, Penza province).

Historical significance of the abolition of serfdom: Elimination of humiliating serfdom, the path to the capitalist path is opened

Physical education just a minute.

2. Understanding.

Work in groups on liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s.

Group assignment. “Fishbone” The class is divided into groups and given tasks:

1 group – Zemstvo reform

Group 2 – Military reform

Group 3 – Urban reform

Group 4 – Judicial reform

Group 5 – education reform

Table “Liberal reforms of the 60s – 70s”.

3.Reflection. Presentation in groups, filling out the table.

Conclusion: The reforms of the 60-70s were progressive in nature, but feudal remnants remained. Russia has embarked on the path of an industrial society.

Syncwine (information synthesis).

1. Reforms.

2. progressive, half.

3. prepared, carried out, discussed.

4. Russia has embarked on the path of capitalism.

5. Progress.

Homework. Paragraph 31, answer the question “In whose interests were the reforms carried out more, peasants or landowners and why?”

The economic process and the further development of social life in Russia were seriously hampered by the low educational level of the population and the absence of a system of mass training of specialists. In 1864, a new provision was introduced about primary public schools, according to which the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to be jointly involved in the education of the people. In the same year it was approved regulations of gymnasiums, which proclaimed the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions. Was accepted a year earlier university charter, which returned autonomy to universities: the election of rector, deans, and professors was introduced; The university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. The results were immediate: by 1870, there were 17.7 thousand primary schools of all types, with about 600 thousand students; the number of students at universities increased by 1.5 times. This was, of course, little, but incomparably more than in pre-reform times. Internal unity and liberal orientation of the entire complex of reforms 60s - 70s allowed Russia to take an important step towards bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state mechanism; gave impetus to the formation of civil society and caused social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.

Military reforms (60s - 70s)

By revising military reform one should take into account its dependence not only on the socio-economic situation in the country, but also on the realities of the international situation of those years. Second half of the 19th century. characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to the rapid build-up of the military potential of all powers. Appeared in the middle of the 19th century. the decomposition of the Russian state system affected the state of the army. Fermentation in the army was clearly evident, there were cases of revolutionary uprisings, and there was a decline in military discipline. The first changes were made in the army already in the late 50s - early 60s. Military settlements were finally abolished.

WITH 1862 A gradual reform of local military administration was begun based on the creation of military districts. A new system of military command and control was created that eliminated excessive centralization and contributed to the rapid deployment of the army in the event of war. The War Ministry and the General Staff were reorganized.

IN 1865 began to be carried out military judicial reform. Its foundations were built on the principles of transparency and competitiveness of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three courts have been established: regimental, military district and main military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.

The development of the army largely depended on the presence of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-60s, more than half of the officers had no education at all. It was necessary to resolve two important issues: significantly improve the training of officers and open access to officer ranks not only for nobles and distinguished non-commissioned officers, but also for representatives of other classes. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short period of study - 2 years, which accepted persons who graduated from secondary educational institutions.

On January 1, 1874, the charter on military service was approved. The entire male population over 21 years of age was subject to conscription. For the army, a 6-year period of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve was generally established (for the navy - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits were established. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempt from active service. The new system made it possible to have a relatively small peacetime army and significant reserves in case of war. The army became modern - in structure, weapons, and education.

High school student

The reforms carried out by Alexander II were not called “great” for nothing. They touched upon and solved a number of socio-economic problems and expanded the boundaries of the rule of law. Unfortunately, not all of them were completed or were limited (judicial and zemstvo).

University reform

The university reform was carried out in 1862-1863. The university charter, adopted on June 18, 1863, was the most liberal of the university charters of pre-revolutionary Russia and consisted of 12 chapters.

Each university in the Russian Empire was supposed to have 4 faculties: history and philology, physics and mathematics, law and medicine. Only in St. Petersburg, instead of the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Oriental Studies was established. The university was governed by the rector, and the faculty by the dean. The rector was elected every 4 years by the University Council. The duties of the rector included monitoring the educational process and order.

University professors were elected.

A student could be a young man who had reached the age of 17 and graduated from a gymnasium or passed an exam there and received a certificate, as well as graduated from a higher or secondary educational institution. Studying at the Faculty of Medicine lasted 5 years, and at other faculties - 4 academic years.

All faculties (except medicine) had the following academic degrees: candidate, master and doctor. Both Russians and foreigners could receive an academic degree.

The new charter gave universities more independence in internal management matters, created more favorable conditions for scientific and educational activities, increased the attractiveness of teaching work at universities for young people and contributed to the establishment of qualified teachers in university departments in the future.

St. Petersburg University

In the first years of the reign of Alexander II, an optimistic but calm mood prevailed in universities, which corresponded to the mood of the entire Russian society in these years.

But by the beginning of the 60s, opposition sentiments intensified in the country and, accordingly, in universities. The publication of its own newspapers and magazines was published without any censorship; Universities were freely visited by outsiders, including at lectures. Young people sought to participate in public life. Various demands began to be placed on professors.

The new charter restored the autonomy of universities. Access to the university for outsiders was sharply limited. The system of self-government of the council and faculties deprived students of any legal opportunity to organize their own social and comradely life.

In the first years after the introduction of the statute, a certain calm prevailed in the universities, thanks largely to the liberal attitude of the Ministry of Public Education itself, while A.V. was at its head. Golovnin.

To limit the need for students to travel to European universities and prevent the spread of the “revolutionary contagion” from Europe, efforts were made to create and equip research laboratories in Russian universities.

Reform of secondary education (1871)

The reform of secondary education was carried out in 1871 by the Minister of Public Education, Count Dmitry Andreevich Tolstoy.

Count D. A. Tolstoy, Minister of Public Education in 1866-1880. Author: unknown russian pre-revolutionary Photograph - Book: Managerial elite of the Russian Empire (1802-1917). Faces of Russia. St. Petersburg 2008. From Wikipedia

The reform was aimed at introducing large volumes of mathematics and ancient languages ​​(Latin and Greek) into the curriculum and reducing literature. This, according to Count Tolstoy, was supposed to “prepare the mind and feelings for proper work” and distract from “superficial freethinking.” Thus, a course was set for a classical education system that would protect young people from superficial radical views leading to nihilism and superficial intellectualism, popular among young people, especially developed by liberal literature teachers.

In his activities, Tolstoy relied on the views of well-known publicists at that time M. N. Katkov and P. M. Leontyev, editors and publishers of the Russky Vestnik and Moskovskie Vedomosti. Katkov was an enemy of the nihilistic trend, which developed and largely continued to operate in the late 60s. Nihilism then meant the spread of a materialistic worldview, which was associated with the latest findings of natural science.

High school student of the Russian Empire

Only pupils of classical gymnasiums had the right to enter the university. The former real (technical) gymnasiums were transformed in 1872 into real schools, in which mathematics and drawing were taught in an expanded form, but the humanities were reduced. Graduates of real schools were prepared for admission to higher technical schools. Classical gymnasiums and real schools were supposed to provide completed secondary education.

Progress of reform

The reform was difficult, because there were not sufficient funds to carry it out, and there were also not enough teachers of Latin and especially Greek who could immediately take over teaching in the changed gymnasiums. In addition, not everyone understood and accepted the need for this reform - there was opposition, even in the State Council. Therefore, Tolstoy got down to business very carefully and gradually: first, he formed a new higher educational institution - the Philological Institute, which was supposed to provide well-trained teachers of ancient languages, and also invited teachers of ancient languages ​​from abroad to Russia.

For five years the Ministry of Education worked on the Charter, which was adopted in 1871.

Thus, the reform of secondary school education boiled down to the introduction of a new type of classical gymnasium, in which Latin and Greek languages ​​were included in a huge volume, the mathematics course was greatly increased and natural science was excluded, and the number of lessons in the Russian language, literature and history was sharply reduced.

Along with this, the educational system in gymnasiums also changed, which was aimed at strengthening discipline and unquestioning obedience.

Female secondary education

N. Yaroshenko "Student"

Before the accession of Alexander II to the throne, there were no open public secondary schools for women in Russia. Girls from wealthy families were raised at home or in closed educational institutions - institutes for noble maidens, of which there were not enough. In addition, these educational institutions were organized under Catherine, when the question of women’s emancipation had not yet arisen.

At the end of the 50s, a social upsurge began, and in its wake, in the capitals and large university centers, as well as in all provincial provincial cities, donations began to be collected for the opening of women's schools. In 1859, the opening of women's schools and gymnasiums began. At first these were 4-grade, then 6-grade female secondary educational institutions. Empress Maria Alexandrovna took these institutions under her patronage, and their management was concentrated not in the Ministry of Public Education, but in the department of institutions of the empress.

F. Winterhalter “Portrait of Empress Maria Alexandrovna” (1857)

The leadership of women's educational institutions was carried out by the famous teacher of that time N.A. Vyshnegradsky. The program of women's gymnasiums corresponded to a somewhat shortened course of real schools.

ON THE. Vyshnegradsky

Vyshnegradsky established “pedagogical courses for women” in 1863.

E. Zarudnaya “Portrait of K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumina" (1889)

With the assistance of Professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, “higher women’s courses” were opened in St. Petersburg in 1878, which were called “Bestuzhev courses”. Then, following the example of St. Petersburg, they began to appear in other university cities.

Public education

Public education under Alexander II was also actively reformed. Secular primary schools, which were under the care of zemstvos, were added to the already existing parochial schools.

Zemstvo school

By the end of the reign of Alexander II, there were already several tens of thousands of public schools.

1861 It is best known as the abolition of serfdom in Russia. The serfs were given freedom. Everything they had (houses, livestock, etc.) became their personal property. They also received the right to local self-government, which was exercised through elections. The landowners retained their lands, but were obliged to rent out plots of them to the peasants. The “rent” was corvée or quitrent. Farmers could buy the land; for this purpose the state gave them a loan for 49 and a half years. The peasants received freedom, but did not receive land.

The terms of the ransom were extremely unfavorable and drove farmers into new bondage. A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country. However, over time, the freedom of the former serfs took on real shape, especially for the hardworking and enterprising. The reform of 1861 was a turning point, the line between two eras - feudalism and capitalism, creating the conditions for the establishment of capitalism as the dominant formation. The personal emancipation of the peasants eliminated the landowners' monopoly on the exploitation of peasant labor and contributed to a more rapid growth of the labor market for developing capitalism in both industry and agriculture.

Education reform. 1863-1864. The reforms of public education of Alexander 2 (otherwise called educational reforms) affected primarily universities (the university charter gave them greater independence in internal affairs), gymnasiums (their charter provided the opportunity to receive secondary education for all segments of the population of the Russian Empire, regardless of class and religion) and primary schools (the regulation on primary public schools entrusted concerns about the basic literacy of the population to the state, the clergy and city and zemstvo governments).

The results and significance of the educational reforms of Alexander 2 cannot be overestimated: in less than a decade after their implementation, the number of schools in Russia grew to almost 20 thousand, and the number of students in universities increased by one and a half times. The level of literacy among the people has increased significantly.

Zemstvo reform. 1864 Zemstvo and district institutions were introduced: assemblies and councils. They became elements of local government. These were elected bodies. Moreover, all classes took part in the voting (albeit to varying degrees). Meetings, usually convened annually, gave orders to the councils. The authorities carried them out and reported. Their staff consisted of six people and dealt with economic needs: they were in charge of local education and medicine, they contributed to the development of trade, agriculture, industry, etc. in their areas.

The zemstvos were subordinate to the governors. Zemstvo institutions were not introduced in all provinces. Zemstvos played a significant role in spreading literacy among the Russian peasantry. Zemstvo institutions contributed to the opening of many schools, as well as hospitals in the countryside, thus raising the level of medical care for peasants (for example, the number of doctors in zemstvo provinces increased 5 times from 1870 to 1910).

Judicial reform. On November 20, 1864, judicial statutes were introduced, which provided for the independence of judges and courts, the independence and irremovability of judges, the separation of prosecutors and judges, and the equality of all classes in Russia before the courts. The judicial reform of Alexander 2 provided that a sentence could now be passed only by a court and established a jury trial, and also introduced the institution of the legal profession (at that time lawyers were called sworn attorneys).

The reform also ensured the transparency of judicial proceedings. The judicial reform of 1964 was very progressive. It partially separated the court from the government and formed a system of judicial authorities. This reform (albeit not much) reduced arbitrariness and made court decisions fairer.

Urban reform. 1870 The city reform of Alexander 2 introduced new elements of city government: electoral assemblies, dumas (elected once every 4 years, voting rights were greatly limited by the size of property) and councils (responsible for fire safety, landscaping, food, construction of public buildings (for example, marinas) and so on.). It was strongly reminiscent of the zemstvo reform, adjusted for urban conditions and characteristics. The result of the urban management reform of Alexander 2 was the rapid development of cities, especially in the field of trade and industry, as well as the strengthening of the role of society in the process of city management.

However, there were some downsides. In connection with the introduction of the new order, small towns experienced significant difficulties, since according to the law, most of the money was spent on maintaining government agencies (police, etc.). Some cities couldn't handle it. Overall, the reform had a positive impact on the economic situation in Russia and made the economy less centralized.

Military reform. The main creator of the military reform of Alexander 2 was Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. What was done: the army and navy received more modern weapons, military factories were reconstructed, the overwhelming number of corporal punishment in the army was abolished, the creation of the General Staff, the introduction of military educational institutions, and a significant reduction in the size of the army. But the main element of the military reform was the replacement of conscription with universal conscription.

As a result of the military reform of Alexander 2, the Russian army was significantly reduced, but received a huge reserve in case of war, consisting of men trained in military affairs, but living an ordinary peaceful life. In addition, the army was better armed and equipped compared to the pre-reform period. Among the shortcomings, the weak organization of the rear should be noted.

Currency reform. The founder of the reforms was V.A. Tatarinov. The reform began on May 22, 1862. All government departments were now required to draw up annual estimates in a specially established form and indicate in detail all items of expenditure in different paragraphs. In 1864-1868, all state revenues were concentrated in the coffers of the state treasury, subordinate to the Ministry of Finance. In 1865, local bodies of state financial control - control chambers - were created.

In addition, there were a number of changes in trade. The wine tax was now replaced by the excise stamps that still exist today, and the same thing happened with tobacco in 1866. Local excise departments were created to regulate the sale of alcohol and tobacco and issue excise taxes. Taxation was divided into two parts - non-salary fees (indirect taxes) and salary fees (direct taxes), and corresponding government bodies were created.

Thanks to the measures taken, the state financial system became more transparent and efficient - strict accounting of all funds was kept, money was not spent on unnecessary things, and officials were responsible for every ruble spent. This allowed the state to begin to get out of the crisis and reduce the negative consequences of the emancipation of the peasants and the implementation of other reforms.