Are the ideas of the Renaissance humanists a thing of the past? Renaissance humanism: man it sounds proud.

The Renaissance is an era in the history of European culture of the 13th-16th centuries, which marked the advent of the New Age. The Renaissance is one of the most striking phenomena in the history of European culture. The ideological roots of the Renaissance went back to antiquity, but also to the secular traditions of medieval culture. Here the work of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) can be considered a unique starting point. His “Divine Comedy” became the herald of a new era.

Since the XIV-XV centuries. In the countries of Western Europe, a number of changes are taking place, marking the beginning of a new era, which went down in history under the name of the Renaissance. These changes were associated primarily with the process of secularization (liberation from religion and church institutions), which took place in all areas of cultural and social life. Not only economic and political life, but also science, art, and philosophy acquire independence in relation to the church. True, this process occurs very slowly at first and proceeds differently in different European countries.

The new era recognizes itself as a revival of ancient culture, an ancient way of life, a way of thinking and feeling, which is where the name Renaissance comes from, i.e. Revival. In reality, however, the Renaissance man and the Renaissance culture and philosophy differ significantly from the ancient one. Although the Renaissance contrasts itself with medieval Christianity, it arose as a result of the development of medieval culture, and therefore bears features that were not characteristic of antiquity.

It would be wrong to assume that the Middle Ages did not know antiquity at all or rejected it completely. It has already been said what a great influence Platonism, and later Aristotelianism, had on medieval philosophy. In the Middle Ages in Western Europe people read Virgil, quoted Cicero and Pliny the Elder, and loved Seneca. But at the same time there was a strong difference in attitude towards antiquity in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages treated antiquity as an authority, the Renaissance - as an ideal. Authority is taken seriously and followed without distance; the ideal is admired, but admired aesthetically, with a constant sense of distance between it and reality.

The most important distinguishing feature of the Renaissance worldview is its orientation towards art: if the Middle Ages can be called a religious era, then the Renaissance can be called an artistic and aesthetic era par excellence. And if the focus of antiquity was natural-cosmic life, in the Middle Ages - God and the associated idea of ​​salvation, then in the Renaissance the focus is on man. Therefore, the philosophical thinking of this period can be characterized as anthropocentric.

Humanism is a moral position that expresses recognition of the value of a person as an individual, respect for his dignity, and the desire for his good as the goal of the social process.

In medieval society, corporate and class ties between people were very strong, so even outstanding people acted, as a rule, as representatives of the corporation, the system that they headed, like the heads of the feudal state and the church. In the Renaissance, on the contrary, the individual acquires much greater independence; he increasingly represents not this or that union, but himself. From here grow a person’s new self-awareness and his new social position: pride and self-affirmation, awareness of one’s own strength and talent become the distinctive qualities of a person. In contrast to the consciousness of the medieval man, who considered himself entirely indebted to tradition - even when he, as an artist, scientist or philosopher, made a significant contribution to it - the individual of the Renaissance tends to attribute all his merits to himself.

It was the Renaissance that gave the world a number of outstanding individuals who had a bright temperament, comprehensive education, and stood out from the rest with their will, determination, and enormous energy.

Versatility is the ideal of the Renaissance man. The theory of architecture, painting and sculpture, mathematics, mechanics, cartography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy - this is the range of activities, for example, of the Florentine artist and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). Unlike the medieval master, who belonged to his corporation, workshop, etc. and achieved mastery precisely in this area, the Renaissance master, freed from the corporation and forced to defend his honor and his interests, sees the highest merit precisely in the comprehensiveness of his knowledge and skills.

Here, however, it is necessary to take into account one more point. We now know well how many different practical skills and abilities any peasant must have - both in the Middle Ages and in any other era - in order to properly run his farm, and his knowledge relates not only to agriculture, but also to the masses other areas: after all, he builds his own house, puts simple equipment in order, raises livestock, plows, sews, weaves, etc. and so on. But all this knowledge and skills do not become an end in themselves for the peasant, as well as for the artisan, and therefore do not become the subject of special reflection, much less demonstration. The desire to become an outstanding master - artist, poet, scientist, etc. - the general atmosphere that surrounds gifted people with literally religious worship contributes: they are now a little like heroes in antiquity, and saints in the Middle Ages.

This atmosphere is especially characteristic of circles of so-called humanists. These circles previously arose in Italy - in Florence, Naples, Rome. Their peculiarity was their opposition to both the church and the universities, these traditional centers of medieval learning.

Let us now see how the Renaissance understanding of humanism differs from the ancient one. Let us turn to the reasoning of one of the Italian humanists, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), in his famous “Speech on the Dignity of Man.” Having created man and “placing him at the center of the world,” God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with the following words: “We do not give you, O Adam, neither a specific place, nor your own image, nor a special duty, so that both a place and You had a person and a duty of your own free will, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. You, not constrained by any limits, will determine your image according to your decision, into the power of which I leave you.”

This is not at all an ancient idea of ​​​​a person. In antiquity, man was a natural being in the sense that his boundaries were determined by nature and the only thing that depended on him was whether he would follow nature or deviate from it. Hence the intellectualistic, rationalistic character of ancient Greek ethics. Knowledge, according to Socrates, is necessary for moral action; a person must know what goodness consists of, and having known this, he will certainly follow what is good. Figuratively speaking, ancient man recognized nature as his mistress, and not himself as the master of nature.

In Pico we hear echoes of the teaching about a person to whom God has given free will and who must decide his own destiny, determine his place in the world. Man here is not just a natural being, he is the creator of himself and this distinguishes him from other natural beings. He is master over all nature. This biblical motif has now been significantly transformed: in the Renaissance, the characteristic medieval conviction in the sinfulness of man and the depravity of human nature gradually weakens, and as a result, man no longer needs divine grace for his salvation. As a person realizes himself as the creator of his own life and destiny, he also turns out to be an unlimited master over nature.

Man did not feel such strength, such power over everything that exists, including himself, either in antiquity or in the Middle Ages. He no longer needs the mercy of God, without which, due to his sinfulness, he, as was believed in the Middle Ages, could not cope with the shortcomings of his own “damaged” nature. He himself is a creator, and therefore the figure of the artist-creator becomes, as it were, a symbol of the Renaissance.

Any activity - be it the activity of a painter, sculptor, architect or engineer, navigator or poet - is now perceived differently than in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The ancient Greeks placed contemplation above activity (the only exception was government activity). This is understandable: contemplation (in Greek - “theory”) introduces a person to what is eternal, that is, to the very essence of nature, while activity immerses him in the transient, vain world of “opinion”. In the Middle Ages, attitudes towards activity changed somewhat. Christianity views labor as a kind of atonement for sins (“by the sweat of your brow you will eat your bread”) and no longer considers labor, including physical labor, to be a slave occupation. However, the highest form of activity is recognized here as that which leads to the salvation of the soul, and it is in many ways akin to contemplation: this is prayer, liturgical ritual, reading sacred books. And only in the Renaissance did creative activity acquire a kind of sacred (sacred) character. With its help, a person not only satisfies his purely earthly needs, he creates a new world, creates beauty, creates the highest thing that exists in the world - himself.

And it is no coincidence that it was during the Renaissance that for the first time the line that previously existed between science (as the comprehension of existence), practical and technical activity, which was called “art,” and artistic fantasy was blurred. An engineer and artist now is not just an “artist”, a “technician”, as he was in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but a creator. From now on, the artist imitates not just God’s creations, but divine creativity itself. In God's creation, that is, natural things, he strives to see the law of their construction.

It is clear that such an understanding of man is very far from the ancient one, although humanists recognize themselves as reviving antiquity. The watershed between the Renaissance and antiquity was drawn by Christianity, which snatched man from the cosmic element, connecting him with the transcendent Creator of the world. A personal union with the Creator, based on freedom, took the place of the former - pagan - rootedness of man in the cosmos. The human personality (“inner man”) acquired a value never before seen. But all this value of personality in the Middle Ages rested on the union of man with God, i.e. was not autonomous: in itself, in isolation from God, man had no value.

The cult of beauty characteristic of the Renaissance is associated with anthropocentrism, and it is no coincidence that painting, depicting, first of all, the beautiful human face and human body, became the dominant form of art in this era. In the great artists - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, the worldview of the Renaissance receives its highest expression. humanism renaissance man personality

During the Renaissance, the value of the individual person increased as never before. Neither in antiquity nor in the Middle Ages was there such a burning interest in the human being in all the diversity of its manifestations. The originality and uniqueness of each individual is placed above all else in this era. Refined artistic taste is able to recognize and emphasize this uniqueness everywhere; originality and difference from others becomes the most important sign of a great personality.

Therefore, one can often come across the statement that it was during the Renaissance that the concept of personality as such was first formed. And in fact, if we identify the concept of personality with the concept of individuality, then such a statement will be completely legitimate. However, in reality the concept of personality and individuality should be distinguished. Individuality is an aesthetic category, while personality is a moral and ethical category. If we consider a person from the point of view of how and in what way he differs from all people, then we look at him as if from the outside, with the eye of an artist; In this case, we apply only one criterion to a person’s actions - the criterion of originality. As for personality, the main thing in it is different: the ability to distinguish between good and evil and act in accordance with such a distinction. Along with this, the second most important definition of personality appears - the ability to bear responsibility for one’s actions. And the enrichment of individuality does not always coincide with the development and deepening of personality: the aesthetic and moral and ethical aspects of development can significantly diverge from each other. Thus, the rich development of individuality in the XIV-XVI centuries. often accompanied by extremes of individualism; the intrinsic value of individuality means the absolutization of the aesthetic approach to man.

Social and philosophical thought of the Renaissance.

Natural philosophy of the Renaissance.

Literature:

1. Batkin L.M. Italian humanism: lifestyle, style of thinking. - M., 1978.

2. Batkin L.M. Leonardo da Vinci and the features of Renaissance creative thinking. - M., 1990

3. Batkin L.M. Italian humanistic dialogue of the 15th century. Expression of the style of thinking in the structure of the genre // From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1976.

4. Revyakina N.V. The doctrine of man by the Italian humanist Gianozzo Manetti... From the cultural history of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1974.

5. Khlodovsky R.I. Francesco Petrarca. Poetry of humanism. - M., 1974.

6. Retenburg V.N. Titans of the Renaissance. - L., 1976.

7. Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance. - M., 1980.

Sources:

1) Niccolo Machiavelli. Sovereign. - M., 1990.

2) Lorenzo Valla. About true and false good. About free will. - M., 1989.

3) Leonardo da Vinci. Selected natural science works. - M., 1995.

4) Copernicus N. On the rotation of the celestial spheres. - M., 1964.

5) Nikolai Kuzansky. About learned ignorance // Nikolai Kuzansky. Op. : In 2v. - M., 1979. - T.I.

6) Bruno D. Dialogues. - M., 1949.

7) Pascal B. Thoughts // Library of World Literature. - T.42.

Ideas of Renaissance humanism.

Chronologically, the Renaissance covers the period from the 14th to the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th centuries.

The term “Renaissance” (or “Renaissance”) characterizes the culture of Italy, which during this period became the center of “humanitarian knowledge” (studia humanitatis). This is where the concept " humanism", which presents ideas about respect for the rights and dignity of man, his desire for freedom and happiness. Humanism was formed on the basis of ancient Greek and Roman literature. In the works of humanists there are numerous appeals to the philosophy of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Cicero, Seneca and other philosophers.

The founder of Italian humanism is usually called Francesco Petrarca. (Francesco Petrarca (1304 – 1374) was born in Arezzo. A great poet.)

The essence of humanistic anthropology is to present the earthly world as a field of real human activity. Humanists considered the main criterion of a person’s value not to be class, but personal qualities.

God was still considered the creative principle of the world, who transferred this ability to man. Therefore, the meaning of philosophy was to reveal the harmonious unity of the Divine and human, and not in their opposition.

The meaning of human life was not in overcoming sinfulness, but in the ability to follow nature, on the principles of which human morality should be based. The idea of ​​Christian asceticism is being supplanted anti-asceticism, which is based on the ideas of pleasure, benefit and personal gain.

Two groups of problems are presented in this direction:

The doctrine of man, his structure, his general qualities, his place in the world;

The doctrine of the ideal state structure of society.

Man was viewed as the highest value, and his welfare, his happiness and development were presented as the highest goal and task of the state. Lorenzo Valla, author of the famous treatise “On True and False Goods” (in the first edition “On Pleasure”), “The very concept of high morality,” Valla believes, “is empty, absurd and very dangerous, and there is nothing more pleasant, nothing superior to pleasure ".

Renaissance figures paid great attention to human artistic creativity, the place and role of art in people's lives. They created masterpieces of art and philosophically comprehended this area of ​​creative activity. For example, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). This brilliantly gifted man did not receive a classical education and was essentially his own creator. He was well read known as an artist, architect, sculptor, engineer, scientist, writer and philosopher. In the literature of the Renaissance, he is mentioned as a pioneer of modern natural science. Leonardo’s paintings “Madonna in the Grotto”, “The Last Supper”, “Mona Lisa”, famous for its smile, and others are considered the most perfect. Leonardo brought art closer to science. The artist seemed to merge with nature, and this was the meaning of creativity.

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Task 2. Abstract presentation of the topic

ITALIAN HUMANISM OF THE RENAISSANCE

2. Early Italian humanism (F. Petrarch, G. Boccacio, C. Salutati)

4. Ethical teaching of L. Valla

1. Cultural and historical prerequisites for the formation of humanistic ideology in Italy in the 14th-16th centuries

humanism italian ideology mirandola

A powerful surge in the cultural life of many European countries, which occurred mainly in the 14th-16th centuries, and in Italy began in the 13th century, is commonly called the Renaissance.

The era of renaissance is the Renaissance, one of the brightest in the history of mankind. In the 16th century, Renaissance culture became a pan-European phenomenon - primarily Western European. This period was marked by an unprecedented creative upsurge in the spheres of art, literature, science, and socio-political thought. This is the time of brilliant creators, the time of man’s decisive emergence beyond the boundaries of traditional society, the time of the affirmation of man’s individualistic orientation, the time of sharp contrasts and contradictions. The Renaissance gave the world dozens of names that make up the glory of world culture: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Dante, Petrarch, Michel Montaigne and many others.

The revival is associated with the process of formation of secular culture and humanistic consciousness. Under similar conditions, similar processes developed in art, philosophy, science, morality, social psychology and ideology. The colossal achievements of spiritual culture in this era of the history of Italy and Europe are widely known; they have become the subject of the closest attention, admiration, study, and comprehension, bearing in mind the comprehensive progress of man reflected in this culture. The special significance of man, his originality, his creative activity is revealed. The human personality, as it were, takes over the function of God and is capable of mastering both itself and nature. Man personifies creativity, be it art, politics, religion, or even technical invention. The Renaissance man strives to expand the field of his daring as much as possible.

Also a significant event of the XIV century. in Italy there was the emergence of studia humanitatis, which translated means “humanitarian knowledge”. This is where the concept of “humanism” comes from (Latin humanist - humane), in the general sense of the word it means the desire for humanity, for creating conditions for a life worthy of a person. Humanism is defined as an ideological movement that was formed during the Renaissance and the content of which is the study and dissemination of ancient languages, literature, art and culture. Humanism embraces views and ideas that emphasize respect for human rights and dignity, his desire for self-affirmation, freedom and happiness. The significance of the humanists must be considered not only in connection with the development of philosophical thinking, but also with the research work on the study of old texts. Therefore, Italian humanism is characterized as literary, philological.

Humanists in the Renaissance were those who devoted themselves to the study and teaching of studia humanitatis. Humanists were the creators of a new system of knowledge, in the center of which stood man and his destiny. Praising the human mind, humanists saw in rational human nature the image of God, what God endowed with man so that man could perfect and improve his earthly life.

The ideology of humanism brought a new attitude towards the world and man himself. Contrary to the dominant teaching of the Church in previous centuries about earthly life as sinful and joyless, humanists discovered the multicolored world of reality in all its living, concrete diversity.

An important feature of the ideology of humanism was individualism. Humanists show a passionate interest in the inner world of man, in the individual uniqueness of his feelings and experiences. Humanism proclaimed the greatness of man, the power of his mind, and his ability for self-improvement.

Humanists showed great interest in the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. They were attracted to this culture by its secular character and life-affirming orientation. She opened the humanist world of beauty and had a huge influence on all areas of Renaissance art.

Humanists were also interested in problems of ethics. Since the new ideology meant a revaluation of all human actions, humanists were concerned with issues of human behavior in society.

The creators of humanistic ideology were scientists, doctors, lawyers, teachers, artists, sculptors, architects, and writers. They formed a new social stratum - the intelligentsia. This category of people engaged in mental work played a large role in the social life of that time. Invention in the middle of the 15th century. printing made the works of humanists accessible to a wider circle of educated people and contributed to the strengthening of the influence of the ideas of the Renaissance. New ideas embodied in the images of literature and art had a special power of influence.

A person can achieve perfection not by virtue of redemption and special divine grace, but by his own mind and will, aimed at the maximum disclosure of all his natural abilities. The desire for self-expression, the desire to go beyond the limits of the possible were characteristic of many people of the Renaissance. This massive surge of energy largely gave rise to the phenomenon of Renaissance culture.

In the humanism of Italy, two directions are distinguished: one of them gravitates in meaning to civil themes (power - ruler - citizen - man) and, because of this, can conditionally be called civil: the other takes as a basis a person as a value in itself and for this reason can be attributed to universal humanism.

Humanists were confident that a person can become better, is able to change himself and thereby influence public life as a whole.

2. Early Italian humanism (F. Petrarch, G. Boccaccio, C. Salutati)

The culture of the Italian Renaissance gave the world a poet, a humanist Francesco Petrarch(1304-1374). The great poet and thinker, the first humanist and the first man of the Renaissance, Francesco Petrarch, was born far from his hometown of Florence in the city of Arezzo, since his father, a wealthy Florentine notary who belonged to the White Guelph party, was expelled from Florence in 1302 and was forced to seek shelter in a foreign land. In 1312, Petrarch and his family came to Provence and settled near Avignon, which, as is known, was the papal capital at that time. It so happened that Petrarch himself spent the best years of his life in Avignon and moved to his homeland in Italy only at the end. Petrarch studied at two universities - in Montpellier and Bologna, where he studied law, but did not intend to become a lawyer.

Petrarch spent many years in the south of France (in Avignon from 1326) and Vaucluse (a picturesque valley near Avignon), where he spent four years in complete solitude, indulging in reading ancient authors. Vaucluse is the heyday of his work; almost all of his works were written here, such as, for example, “The Lives of Famous Men” - biographies of heroes of Antiquity, starting with Romulus; Latin poem "Africa", for which on April 8, 1341 on Capitol Hill he was declared "Great Poet and Historian of Italy."

The ideological dominant of Petrarch’s work was his love for the ancients; Petrarch was the best expert on ancient literature, poetry, philosophy, history and mythology among his contemporaries. He sought to liken his life to the ancient image, considering himself the successor of the poets of antiquity and finding his age spoiled, he sought refuge in antiquity. Studies in antiquity absorbed the lion's share of his time. He managed to collect a very valuable library of ancient manuscripts (it included many works by more than thirty ancient authors), he was also their first textual critic and commentator and was able to lay the foundations of Renaissance classical philology. In general, Petrarch’s efforts laid the foundation for the process of restoring continuous ties with antiquity, characteristic of the culture of the Renaissance.

Petrarch was the first to express the basic principles of humanism and the first to almost completely subordinate his life to the pursuit of literature and philosophy; he was engaged exclusively in mental work. He laid the foundations of a new humanistic ethics, the main principle of which was the achievement of a moral ideal through self-knowledge, as well as education, the meaning of which Petrarch saw in the broad mastery of the cultural experience of mankind. In his ethics, one of the main concepts was the term “humanitas” (human nature, spiritual culture). It was he who formed the basis for the construction of a new humanistic culture.

Petrarch believed that the main dignity that elevates a person above the crowd is not his noble origin, but high education, studies in science, poetry, which gives a person his “humanity.” In one of his letters, he wrote that “The Lord created many very amazing things... but the most amazing thing of all that he created on earth was man.” This idea of ​​a person possessing a powerful mind formed the basis of humanism.

Petrarch's younger contemporary was Giovanni Boccaccio. Together with him, he became the great founder of the humanistic culture of the European Renaissance.

GiovanniBoccaccio(1313-1375) outstanding Italian humanist, philologist, poet, prose writer. He was born in Paris, but throughout his adult life he was associated with such cultural centers of the Italian Renaissance as Naples and Florence. He spent the best years of his life in Naples, here he studied canon law and commerce, but his main hobby was poetry.

The most famous and significant work of Boccaccio, the pinnacle of his work is the collection of short stories “Decameron” (translated into Russian means “Ten Days”; the Greek name of this work was essentially a tribute to the Greek language, which Boccaccio mastered one of the first among humanists) created at the end 40s early 50s The short stories were popular among contemporaries and had enormous success. In his short stories, Giovanni Boccaccio came up with a bold secular concept of man and expressed a number of purely humanistic ideas. The nobility of a person (according to Giovanni) is rooted not in nobility and wealth, but in moral perfection and valor.

Along with the outstanding poets of antiquity, Boccaccio revered Dante, who truly brought dead poetry back to life, and highly valued Petrarch’s book of songs. He saw in Dante and Petrarch the creators of the national Italian language and literature, the development of which he himself contributed to with the short stories of the Decameron.

Boccaccio boldly proclaimed a break with hypocritical church morality, rehabilitated the sensual principle of human nature, emphasized the value of individuality, the importance of valiant deeds of the individual as opposed to the inherited nobility of the family.

Boccaccio was also known as a philologist. An important contribution of Boccaccio to the formation of the culture of the Renaissance was his Latin work “Genealogy of the Pagan Gods” - a philological work, which was a kind of collection of ancient myths, in which the author built a kind of pantheon of gods and heroes of ancient mythology. In general, Boccaccio’s “Genealogy” became the beginning of a humanistic understanding of ancient mythology from the position of new philology.

Petrarch and Boccaccio were more than contemporaries: they were united by belonging to almost the same social and cultural environment, common philological hobbies and artistic interests, numerous analogies in their biography and work, and in the second half of their lives - deep friendship, accompanied by a very strong influence of Petrarch on Boccaccio , who loved and honored the founder of Italian humanism as a teacher and elder brother.

The work of the founders of the new culture was continued by their younger contemporary and follower ColuccioFireworkati(1331-1406). A representative of an ancient Tuscan knightly family, a lawyer by training (graduated from the faculty in Bologna), Salutati, from 1375 until the end of his days, served as Chancellor of the Florentine Republic. Follower of Petrarch. The author of numerous works - treatises, poems, letters, in which he developed the program of Renaissance culture. He believed that true knowledge comes not from scholasticism, but from ancient wisdom.

Salutati's main merit is in establishing humanistic education as the basis for the development of a new culture. He brought to the fore a complex of humanitarian disciplines: philology, history, pedagogy, rhetoric, ethics, designed to form a new person with humanism, which he interpreted as the ability to act virtuously and achieve learning. Humanism is not inherent in a person from birth; this property is acquired as a result of hard work. According to Salutati, although earthly life is given to people by God, their own task is to build it in accordance with the natural laws of goodness and justice.

Salutati made a significant contribution to the development of humanistic ethics; his essays “On the River, Fate and Chance,” “On Life in the World and Monasticism,” “On the Labors of Hercules” and many letters are devoted to moral problems. Considering, in accordance with the Christian tradition, the earthly vale to be the kingdom of the devil, he at the same time called for an active struggle against evil, and saw the main purpose of man in building the kingdom of goodness and justice on earth through his own efforts.

3. “Civic humanism” by L. Bruni

The founder of civil humanism was Leonardo Bruni, or, as he was often called after his place of birth, Leonardo Aretino (1370 or 1374-1444), a student of Salutati, like him, chancellor of the Florentine Republic. He developed the concept of republicanism, which was based on the principles of equality, freedom and democracy. Freedom and equality meant freedom from tyranny, equality of all before the law. Bruni believed that only in conditions of freedom, equality, and justice can a perfect citizen be formed.

An excellent expert in ancient languages, he translated the works of Aristotle from Greek to Latin. He wrote a number of works on moral and pedagogical topics, as well as an extensive, document-based “History of the Florentine People,” which laid the foundations of Renaissance historiography. Bruni left an extensive creative legacy, covering history, moral philosophy, political theory, pedagogy, and philology.

A staunch supporter of the republican system, a passionate patriot of Florence, Bruni became a prominent exponent of the ideas of civil humanism and a prominent theorist of humanistic ethics and pedagogy. His political views are characterized by a certain evolution. In one of his early essays - “In Praise of the City of Florence” - he substantiates the strength of the republican order of Florence, making it the center of republicanism in modern Italy.

Leonardo Bruni proceeded from the thesis of ancient philosophy about man as a social being who reveals himself most fully in interaction with other people. Hence the humanist’s special attention to the problem of relations between the individual and society. Bruni solves it unambiguously; social harmony requires the subordination of personal interest to the common good.

He considered the best government system to be a republic based on the principles of freedom, equality and justice.

The moral behavior of the individual and various social groups should be based on the interests of society as a whole - this is the leitmotif of Bruni’s ethical teaching, and later of the entire direction of civil humanism.

Civil humanism, which began its journey in Florence at the end of the 14th century - the first decades of the 15th century, unconditionally proclaimed a new ideal of man; Florentine humanists put forward the ideal of a citizen of the republic, full of social activity, which rose very widely - from family economic affairs to participation in government. This was the ideal of secular ethics, based on the philosophical tradition of antiquity.

Bruni is considered one of the most prominent theorists of humanistic pedagogy. Science - philosophy, ethics and especially politics - must serve society. This is how Bruni understood the duty of a scientist and the meaning of all humanistic education.

4. Ethical teaching of L. Valla

The most famous humanist philosopher after Petrarch can be called Lorenzo Vallu (1407-1457). A bright thinker who made an invaluable contribution to the humanistic science of his time. Italian humanist, founder of historical and philological criticism, representative of the historical school of scholars. A remarkable philologist, one of the founders of the method of comparative analysis. Considering natural everything that serves self-preservation and human happiness.

Lorenzo Valla belongs to a generation of Italian humanists who entered creative life during the period of humanism’s exploration of ever new spheres of ideological life.

Valla's youth was spent near the Roman Curia. At the age of 24, Valla tried to get a seat in the papal Curia, but due to his youth his candidacy was rejected. In 1431 Valla accepted the chair of rhetoric at the University of Pavia, where, in addition to teaching, he began systematic research in the field of philology, rhetoric, and philosophy.

The central place in his philosophy is occupied by the doctrine of man. The philosophy of Lorenzo Valla sees its ideal in the figure of Epicurus. Developing the teachings of Epicurus, Valla tries to substantiate the fullness of human life, the spiritual content of which, in his opinion, is impossible without bodily well-being. In his teaching, Valla saw support for the substantiation of a new humanistic ethics, which contains the principle of pleasure, which Valla reduces to the pleasures of the soul and body.

Valla understands pleasure differently than the historical Epicurus, who was not an Epicurean in the modern sense of the word. Valla understands Epicureanism precisely as a preference for pleasure over all other human values, and sometimes even regrets that a person has only five senses, and not 50 or 500, in order to receive pleasure in a much larger volume.

Valla became the founder of ethical teaching, the source of which was the ethics of Epicurus. The basis of all Lorenzo Valla’s thoughts on ethical topics is the idea of ​​the desire of all living things for self-preservation and the elimination of suffering. Life is the highest value, and therefore the entire process of life should be a desire for pleasure and good, as a feeling of joy. Valla refuses to consider man in the spirit of the Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition, according to which man was considered to participate in God through the dual character of the soul as unreasonable and rational, mortal and immortal. Valla believes that the soul is something unified, although he singles out its functions such as memory, reason, and will. All the faculties of the soul are recognized in the senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Wallas is a sensualist; he considers sensations the only source of knowledge of the world and moral activity. Sensations are of fundamental importance in his ethical teaching. He tries to comprehend such feelings as gratitude, affection for a person, pleasure, anger, greed, fear, vindictiveness, cruelty, etc. Pleasure is defined by Valla as “a good that is strived for everywhere and which consists in the pleasure of soul and body,” and it is pleasure that is declared to be the “highest good.” For Valla, the highest good is any pleasure received by a person in his life, if it is his life goal. In Valla’s works, concepts such as “personal benefit” and “personal interest” are encountered. It is on them that relationships between people in society are built.

Valla is a true representative of the era of humanism. With his critical works, Valla made a significant contribution to the rethinking of the medieval worldview and the creation of the prerequisites for New European knowledge and self-awareness. In his work, he embodied the ideal of a free thinker, for whom the main authority is his own mind, and the stimulus for creativity is the inquisitiveness of a restless mind.

5. Humanistic concept of L.B. Alberti

Italian scientist, humanist, writer, one of the founders of new European architecture and a leading theorist of Renaissance art.

Born in Genoa, he came from a noble Florentine family that found itself in exile in Genoa. He studied humanities in Padua and law in Bologna. In 1428 He graduated from the University of Bologna, after which he received the position of secretary to Cardinal Albergati, and in 1432 - a place in the papal office, where he served for more than thirty years. In 1462 Alberti left his service in the Curia and lived in Rome until his death.

Leon Batista is a shining example of the universality of Renaissance man's interests. Multi-talented and educated, he made major contributions to the theory of art and architecture, literature and architecture, was interested in problems of ethics and pedagogy, and studied mathematics and cartography. The central place in Alberti’s aesthetics belongs to the doctrine of harmony as an important natural law, which a person must not only take into account in all his activities, but also extend through his own creativity to different spheres of his existence. An outstanding thinker and talented writer created a humanistic teaching about man.

The ideal person, according to Alberti, harmoniously combines the powers of reason and will, creative activity and peace of mind. He is wise, guided in his actions by the principles of moderation, and has a consciousness of his dignity. All these qualities give the image created by Alberti features of Greatness. His ideal of a harmonious personality influenced both the development of humanistic ethics and Renaissance art, including the genre of portraiture. It is this type of person that is embodied in the images of painting, graphics and sculpture in Italy of that time, in the masterpieces of Antonello da Messina, Piero della Francesca and other major masters.

The starting premise of Alberti’s humanistic concept is man’s inalienable belonging to the natural world. The harmony of man and nature is determined by his ability to understand the world, to a prudent existence striving for good. The choice between good and evil depends on the free will of man. The humanist saw the main purpose of the individual in creativity.

Alberti especially highly valued the work of the architect who organized people’s lives, the creator of excellent conditions for their existence. The humanist saw in the creative ability of man his main difference from the animal world. For Alberti, work is a source of elation, material wealth and fame. Only life practice itself reveals the great possibilities inherent in a person. It is in the power of a person to reveal these natural abilities and become a full-fledged creator of his own destiny. A person’s abilities—his mind, will, and courage—help him survive the fight against the goddess Fortune. Alberti's ethical concept is full of faith in man's ability to rationally organize his life, family, society, and state. Alberti combined all potential human abilities with the concept VIRTU (VALOR; ABILITY).

6. The doctrine of human dignity by D. Pico della Mirandola

Pico della Mirandola Giovanni (1463-94) Italian thinker of the Renaissance, representative of early humanism, handsome young aristocrat. Contemporaries called Pico “divine” and saw in him the embodiment of the high aspirations of humanistic culture. He struck the imagination of his contemporaries and descendants with his extraordinary early talent and learning.

Pico studied new and ancient languages ​​(in addition to Latin and Greek, also Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldean), trying to embrace all the most important and hidden things that had been accumulated by the spiritual experience of different times and peoples.

While studying at the University of Paris in 1485-86, he became familiar with numerous texts by Greek, Arab and Jewish philosophers. Working with these texts served as the starting point for his development of his own philosophical system.

Pico's philosophical anthropology substantiates the dignity and freedom of man as the sovereign creator of his own self. By absorbing into himself, a person is capable of becoming anything, he is always the result of his own efforts; preserving the possibility of a new choice, he can never be exhausted by any form of his existing existence in the world.

In 1486, the 23-year-old philosopher compiled “900 theses on dialectics, morality, physics, mathematics for public discussion,” expecting to defend them at a scientific debate in Rome, to participate in which, according to the author, it was necessary to invite scientists from all over Europe. A commission of theologians specially created by order of Pope Innocent XIII classified some of Pico’s theses as heretical, and after the author’s refusal to admit the correctness of these accusations, which caused sharp discontent of the pope, all theses were declared heretical. Pico was summoned to the court of the Inquisition, from the harsh consequences of which he was saved only by the intercession of Lorenzo de' Medici (Ruler of Florence). The debate did not take place, but the Oration on the Dignity of Man, written for its opening address, made the name of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola widely known in Italy and beyond. Pico's “Speech” became the programmatic one in the humanistic movement of the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Pico's work provides a philosophical justification for the dignity of human nature in its new humanistic understanding.

The Father gave the born man the seeds and embryos of a diverse life, and according to how each person cultivates them, they will grow and bear fruit in him.”

Pico wrote about the immense creative potential of man, about the value and uniqueness of the individual, defending the right to free thought, calling for the spiritual development of all people, regardless of origin and social status. Destroying the divine determinism of the Middle Ages, Mirandola freed the will of man, rewarding it with freedom worthy of an earthly god.

Task 1. Complete the definition with the appropriate concepts.

1) A broad anti-Catholic and anti-feudal movement in Europe in the 16th century, which laid the foundation for Protestantism - ...

2) The system of the world, according to which the motionless Earth is the center of the universe (developed in the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy) - ...

3) The idealistic view, according to which all nature is animated and has a psyche, - ...

4) The area of ​​philosophical knowledge, the peculiarity of which is a predominantly speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity, - ...

5) Worldview, philosophical thinking of the Renaissance, placing the center of attention and reasoning on man, his social life and activities aimed at achieving happiness in earthly life - ...

1). A broad anti-Catholic and anti-feudal movement in Europe in the 16th century, which laid the foundation for Protestantism, is the Reformation (from the Latin reformatio transformation) - a socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th century, which took the religious form of struggle against Catholic teachings and the church. This is the first, still immature bourgeois revolution in history.

2) . The system of the world, according to which the motionless Earth is the center of the universe (developed in the works of Aristotle and Ptolemy), is the Geocentric system of the world. An anthropocentric idea of ​​the central position of the Earth in the Universe arose in ancient Greek science and survived until the late Middle Ages. According to the geocentric system of the world, the planets, the sun and other celestial bodies revolve around the Earth in orbits that represent a complex combination of circular orbits.

3) . The idealistic view, according to which all nature is animated and has a psyche, is Panpsychism (Greek pan - everything and psyche - soul) - the idea of ​​​​the universal animation of nature. The forms of panpsychism are different: from the animism of primitive beliefs to developed teachings about the soul and psychic reality as the true essence of the world.

4) The area of ​​philosophical knowledge, the peculiarity of which is a predominantly speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity, is Natural Philosophy - a direction of science, scientific thought, philosophy. The name itself speaks for itself: natura - nature and fiieo and sofia - love of wisdom. Natural philosophy understands the world around us as an indivisible whole, a single organism that develops and is enveloped in a network of logical relationships.

5) . Worldview, philosophical thinking of the Renaissance, placing the center of attention and reasoning on man, his social life and activities aimed at achieving happiness in earthly life - Anthropocentrism (from Greek - man and Latin - centrum - center). Anthropocentrism is one of the most consistent expressions of the point of view of teleology, that is, the attribution of goals to the world beyond natural ones, external to it. Man was opposed to all other creatures on earth and it was taken for granted that only the interests and needs of man are important, all other creatures have no independent value. This worldview conveys the catchphrase: “Everything for man.”

Task 3. Fill out the table. 9

The doctrine of God in the history of philosophy

Task 4. Exercises, comments

ShEstablish what principles of organizing the life of society are common to the social utopias of T. More, T. Campanella, and Plato.

One of the forms of socio-political modification of the Renaissance was utopianism. Utopianism was not as striking a phenomenon as Machiavelli's doctrine. However, the features of Renaissance self-denial are quite noticeable here. The mere fact that the creation of an ideal society was attributed to very distant and uncertain times quite clearly testified to the disbelief of the authors of such a utopia in the possibility of creating an ideal person immediately and as a result of the elementary efforts of people of the current time. There is almost nothing here from the Renaissance spontaneous human artistry, which brought such incredible joy to the Renaissance man and forced him to find ideal features already in the state of the society of that time.

The greatest thing that has existed in this area so far is confidence in the liberal reforms of the current and immediate present, which inspired the illusion of the spontaneous dedication of the real person of that time. The Utopians, on the other hand, pushed all this into an indefinite future and thereby revealed their complete disbelief in the ideal artistry of modern man.

a) The first utopian of the Renaissance is Thomas More (1478-1535), a very liberal-minded English statesman, a supporter of the sciences and arts, a promoter of religious tolerance and a prominent critic of the then feudal and emerging capitalist orders. But he remained a faithful Catholic, opposed Protestantism, and after Henry XIII's defection from the Catholic Church, he was mercilessly executed for his Catholic beliefs. In general, his activities relate to either civil history or literary history. We may be interested here in only one of his works, which was published in 1516. entitled “The Golden Book, as useful as it is funny, on the best structure of the state and on the new island of Utopia,” since the entire aesthetics of the Renaissance is based on the spontaneous self-affirmation of the human personality in the state that More himself considered ideal.

In fact, More's image of the utopian man is a bizarre mixture of all kinds of old and new views, often liberal, often quite reactionary, but, apparently, with one main difference: from the bright Renaissance artistry in More's utopian state, one might say, exactly nothing left. A person is depicted as a rather gray type, apparently governed by a state that is still quite absolutist. Everyone must engage in physical labor according to state distribution, although the sciences and arts are not at all denied, but are even extolled by More, especially music. Society is divided into families, but these families are understood rather industrially, due to which belonging to one or another family is determined not only by the natural origin of family members, but primarily also by state decrees, by virtue of which family members can be transferred from one family to another for production or other government purposes. More's state also intervenes in marriage matters in the most significant way, and much of it is determined simply by state decree. Generally speaking, any religion is allowed, including pagan worship of heavenly bodies. Total religious tolerance is required. Priests must be elected by the people. The activities of atheists are very limited, since the lack of religious faith interferes with the moral state of society. In any case, open speeches by atheists are prohibited. In addition, Christianity or monotheism in general is still recognized as the highest religion.

The family is recommended to eat not separately, but in common dining rooms. Except for some isolated cases, everyone should have the same clothes. In this ideal state, slaves also play an important role. Not only is the very institution of slavery affirmed, but it is even shown to be very beneficial both for the state, which receives cheap labor in the form of slaves, and for the entire population of the country, for which slaves turn out to be an example of what not to do. Material pleasures are recognized. However, in More we read: “The Utopians especially value spiritual pleasures, they consider them first and dominant, the predominant part of them comes, in their opinion, from the exercise of virtue and the consciousness of an immaculate life.” In other words, the bright and brilliant artistic aesthetics of the Renaissance are reduced here only to moralism, which is declared to be the highest “spiritual pleasure.” The glorification of production over consumption is striking. At the same time, More brings to the fore the equalization of work and responsibilities, as well as the primacy of the state over any social organizations and over the family. It is clear that all such features of More's utopianism were associated with the childhood state of the then bourgeois-capitalist society. But what is more important for us is that this is a modified Renaissance and this modification is directed by More towards the elimination of the spontaneous-personal and artistic-subjective individualism of the classical Renaissance.

b) another representative of Renaissance utopianism - Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639). This is a major writer and public figure of his time, who suffered for preparing an anti-Spanish conspiracy in Naples and spent 27 years in prison, a monk and a convinced communist of the early utopian type. The features of early utopian communism appear much more clearly in Campanella than in More. In his treatise of 1602. Under the title “City of the Sun,” Campanella highlights the doctrine of labor, the abolition of private property and the community of wives and children, i.e. on the elimination of the family as the original social unit. More had none of this in vivid form. They talked about the influence of the ideas of early Christianity on Campanella. However, a careful study of Campanella's ideas suggests that this influence is almost zero. And what undoubtedly influenced Campanella was, of course, the teaching of Plato in his Republic.

In Campanella’s ideal State of the Sun, like Plato’s, the leaders are philosophers and sages, contemplatives of eternal ideas and, on this basis, who govern the entire state are not so much secular rulers as real priests and clergy. They are the absolute rulers of the entire state and society, down to the smallest everyday regulation. Marriages are carried out only by state decrees, and children, after breastfeeding, are immediately taken away from their mother by the state and raised in special institutions not only without any communication with their parents, but even without any acquaintance with them. Husbands and wives do not exist at all as current ones. They are such only in moments of decreed cohabitation. They shouldn't even know each other, just as they shouldn't know their own children. In antiquity, this weakened sense of personality was generally a natural phenomenon, and Plato only took it to its limit. As for the Renaissance, the human personality was immediately in first place. And therefore, what we find in Campanella is, of course, a rejection of the ideas of the Renaissance.

However, it is also impossible to say that Campanella has nothing to do with the Renaissance. He is not only a preacher of positively understood work; his entire utopia undoubtedly bears traces of revivalist views. Therefore, it would be more accurate to say that what we have here is precisely a modified Renaissance and precisely a Renaissance that criticizes itself in a socio-political sense.

As for individual details, Campanella’s utopians mock those rulers who, when breeding horses and dogs, are very careful about their breed, but when breeding people, they do not pay any attention to this breed. In other words, from Campanella's point of view, human society should be transformed into an ideal stud farm. The “Chief of Childbirth,” subordinate to the ruler of Love, is obliged to enter into such intimacies of sexual life, which we do not consider necessary to talk about here, and astrology is used in sexual matters in the first place. It is pure naivety to indicate that people should wear white clothes during the day, and red ones, woolen or silk, at night and outside the city, and the color black is completely prohibited. The same kind of advice about work, trade, swimming, games, treatment, about getting up in the morning, about astrological techniques for founding cities and many others. When carrying out the death penalty, there are no executioners, so as not to desecrate the state, but the people themselves, and first of all the accuser and witnesses, stone the criminal. The sun is revered in an almost pagan manner, although the true deity is still considered superior. Copernicanism is rejected and heaven is accepted in the medieval sense.

Campanella is striking in his mixture of pagan, Christian, Renaissance, scientific, mythological and entirely superstitious views. Thus, the aesthetically modified Renaissance is depicted in this utopia with its most striking features. The main thing is to ignore that spontaneously human and artistic individualism that distinguished the aesthetics of the Renaissance from the very beginning. If we say that here we find self-criticism and even self-denial of the Renaissance, then we are hardly mistaken.

Engels attributes the “City of the Sun” to utopian communism. But still not very accurate, and therefore, mostly researchers consider More and Campanella to be the founders of utopian socialism. But Campanella can also be considered to belong to the humanistic movement, to utopian humanism, which gave this humanism an unprecedented democratic coloring and genuine universal breadth.

“City of the Sun” bore the stamp of time, and if some humanist prejudices do not allow this work to be classified as “straightforward communist theories,” nevertheless, Campanella’s merits in the dissemination of communist teachings are great. But while paying tribute to this remarkable thinker, who saw the only deliverance from the cruelties of his time in the destruction of private property and the humanistic-philosophical transformation of society, we should not exaggerate the historical significance of the utopia he created. Of course, both More and Campanella were forerunners of scientific socialism. But they cannot be combined with the utopians of the 19th century - Saint-Simon and Owen - under the common heading of “utopian socialism”.

“The City of the Sun” represents a utopian-socialist teaching in the history of humanism, and this allows us to consider it as an integral part of Renaissance culture and see in the great Calabrian one of the great sons of the Renaissance.

ShBased on his biography, determine the name of the thinker.

Born in 1469 in Florence, where since 1498 and was in public service. When in 1512 The republican government was replaced by the tyranny of the Medici, he was expelled from Florence. Experienced imprisonment and torture. Describing his knowledge, he called himself a historian, comedian, and tragedian. Traditionally he is considered a philosopher of politics. In 1559 all of his works were included in the first “Index of Banned Books.” Machiavelli Niccolo.

Niccolo Machiavelli - public figure, historian, outstanding political thinker. He came from an old noble family. In his youth he mastered the Latin language and read ancient authors fluently. In the original, at the same time, Alighieri highly valued Dante, Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio - the pedantry of humanists and their admiration for antiquity were alien to him.

He entered the history of political and legal thought as the author of a number of: “The Sovereign” (1513), “Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy” (1519), “History of Florence” (first edition - 1532), etc. His writings laid the foundation for the political- legal ideology of modern times.

The main object of study of Machiavelli was the state. It was he who first introduced the term “state”. Before him, thinkers relied on terms such as city, empire, kingdom, republic, principality, etc.

Niccolo Machiavelli appeared on the political arena of Florence at the age of about 30, when in the spring of 1498. elected to the post of Secretary of the Second Chancellery, and then Secretary of the Council of Ten - the Government of the Republic. For 14 years, he has carried out many important political assignments for the Florentine Signoria. Takes part in embassies to Rome, France, Germany, writes reports, memos, “Discussions”, in which he touches on important issues of the foreign and domestic policy of the republic. His “business” writings of this time testify to a deep understanding of the political situation in Italy and Europe, extraordinary observation, and a witty, analytical approach to contemporary events. This political experience served as the basis for his later works in the field of political theory.

Machiavelli was not satisfied with religious ideas about the ideal man as a humble person, averted from real life. He approved of active people, especially generals and rulers of states.

Machiavelli develops a new concept of the state in contrast to the dominant theocratic concept of the state at that time. He proceeds from the fact that the most powerful stimulus for human action is interest. Its manifestations are varied, but most of all it manifests itself in the desire of people to preserve their property, their property. In this regard, Machiavelli gives recommendations to the ruler: “In order to avoid hatred, the sovereign must refrain from encroaching on the property of citizens and subjects, and their women. The sovereign must beware of encroaching on other people’s property, for people would rather forgive the death of a father than the loss of property.”

Machiavelli gives politicians practical advice to achieve real results. The quality of people must be taken into account. According to Machiavelli, almost all civilized people are unprincipled egoists. "People are more prone to evil than to good."

The actual political reality leaves no room for beautiful dreams. It is necessary to clearly distinguish between what is real and what should be, to see that in life there is both good and evil.

Politics, according to Machiavelli, is a symbol of a person’s faith, and therefore occupies a dominant position in the worldview.

Machiavelli argues that power, whatever it is, must be firm and unshakable. He based politics on will, strength, cunning and experience.

Politics for Machiavelli is the result of the struggle of social forces, groups, individuals. Human interest plays the main role in it. Machiavelli saw the basis of his political teaching in the inner nature of man, its basic properties. Hence the content of Machiavellianism.

Task 5. Knowledge test

a) “City of the Sun” 4) Tomaso Campanella

b) “The Prince” 1) Niccolo Machiavli

c) “Experiments” 2) Michel Montaigne

d) “Praise of Stupidity” 3) Erasmus of Rotterdam

2. The last Italian humanist of the Renaissance is,

hell. Boccaccio,

b) T. Campanella,

c) L. Valla,

d) M. Ficino.

3. The philosophical doctrine according to which everything is contained in God is called

a) Theism

b) Panpsychism,

c) Panontheism,

d) Deism.

4. The idea of ​​the absence of a single, stable, strictly fixed center in the Universe was first put forward by

a) Galileo Galilei,

b) Nicolaus Copernicus,

c) Johannes Kepler,

d) Nikolai Kuzansky.

5. The central idea of ​​natural philosophy of the Renaissance is,

a) the ideal of creationism,

b) the idea of ​​a divine first impulse,

c) the idea of ​​matter passivity,

d) the idea of ​​spontaneous activity of matter.

6. The words: “Better a worthy and heroic death than an unworthy and vile triumph,” belong to

A)D. Bruno,

b) L. Bruni,

c) G. Galileo,

d) B. Telesio.

7. The foundations of the philosophy of Nicholas of Cusa are,

a) Neoplatonism,

b) Aristotelianism,

c) Stoicism,

d) Atomistics.

8. A theologian and public figure of the Reformation era, the founder of German Protestantism, who opposed the Catholic doctrine of justification by “good works” with the idea of ​​justification by “personal faith”, this

a) J. Calvin,

b) M. Luther,

d) y. Zwingli.

9. Renaissance culture was born

a) in Germany,

b) England,

c) Italy,

d) Russia.

10. Was not an ideologist of the Reformation

a) I. Loyola,

b) J. Calvin,

c) W. Zwingli,

d) M. Luther.

Literature

1. Strelnik O.N. Philosophy: A short course of lectures. M.: Yurayt-Izat, 2002-240 p.

2. Fundamentals of philosophy in questions and answers. Textbook for higher educational institutions. Publishing house "Phoenix". 1997. 448 p.

3. Man: Thinkers of the past and present about his life, death and immortality. The ancient world - the era of Enlightenment / Editorial team: I.T. Frolov and others; Comp. P.S. Gurevich. M.: Politizdat. 1991.

4. Radugin A.A. Philosophy: Course of lectures. M., 1996.

5. Bragina L.M. Italian humanism of the Renaissance. Ideals and practices of culture. M., 2002.

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The catchphrase “man sounds proud” became part of the Russian language thanks to Maxim Gorky’s play “At the Lower Depths,” written in 1902. These words are part of the famous monologue of Satin, the key character of the play. However, approximately 400-500 years before the premiere of “At the Lower Depths,” numerous figures of the Renaissance would happily subscribe to these words. Renaissance humanism focused precisely on the idea of ​​the dignity, greatness and almost limitless power of the human person. So the humanists of the Renaissance actually believed that a person sounds proud, majestic and beautiful.

Human improvement is the work of man himself

The term “humanism” is one of the most frequently used to this day. However, its modern meaning, which includes endowing a person with a complex of inalienable rights and freedoms and their protection, does not coincide with the original humanism of the Renaissance. Humanists of that time spoke primarily about the knowledge of the human personality in the fullness of its nature. From their point of view, during more than a thousand years of the Middle Ages, the human personality was virtually forgotten and humiliated. At the center of the picture of the world was God; it was the knowledge of His will, His hypostases and His “functions” that was devoted to the work of philosophical thought, the creative potential of artists, the direction of education and science, and so on.

Humanists believed that the natural dignity of human nature was thereby infringed upon, as a result of which man was not able to fully demonstrate his abilities and talents.

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From interest in antiquity to real politics

Renaissance humanism can be divided into three main stages:

Renaissance man - the ideal of humanists

The principles of Renaissance humanism had a huge impact on the further development of European civilization and the whole world, primarily because a new ideal of man was formed, completely different from the medieval one. The somewhat misinterpreted Catholic ideal of man considered humility before God's will and submission to it to be the main virtue. Man, feeling his sinfulness and the deservingness of numerous trials and disasters, had to patiently endure all hardships and thereby “earn” for himself the posthumous Kingdom of God. Humanists decisively rejected this understanding of human nature.

Based on ancient philosophical ideas, they declared that man is the highest and most perfect creation, standing at the center of the world and being the king of nature.

Initially, these ideas were largely based on Christian theology, in which man is also called the crown of creation, God's beloved creation, created in His image and likeness. Consequently, humanists argued, a person cannot and should not be a constantly downtrodden creature who does not think about anything other than humility. It contains intelligence and enormous creative abilities, which is what distinguishes man from all other living creatures. And he must make full use of his mind and creative talents to understand the world, strive for truth and remake the world in accordance with the comprehended laws of perfection and harmony.

Subsequently, humanists went quite far from the Christian roots of their philosophy, but their boundless attention to man remained. But the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance are not only and not so much a praise of man, but a statement of the need to realize his enormous potential. To do this, humanists believed, you need to develop your intellectual abilities, explore the world through learning all available useful knowledge, try your hand at various areas of creativity and activity in order to find out what the individual abilities of a particular person are.

And finally, a person who has a developed mind, extensive knowledge and has discovered his talents must certainly put them into practice, constantly moving towards knowledge of the truth, helping others move along the same path, using his abilities for the benefit of people. Humanists believed that a direct consequence of revealing the capabilities of the human personality would be its moral improvement - that is, a comprehensively developed person cannot but also be kind, courageous, compassionate, moderate, and so on.

Alexander Babitsky

Plan

Purpose of work………………………………………………………………………………… 3

Introduction…………………………………………………………... 4

Chapter 1. The concept of cultural heritage. Universal

and national cultural heritage. …………..................................7

Chapter 2. Humanism of the Renaissance. ……………………………………20

§ 2.1. Foundations of the humanistic Italian Renaissance. …………..20

§ 2.2. Humanism of the Italian Renaissance. ……………………………28

§ 2.3. The emergence of humanism beyond the borders of Italy. ……………………………..31

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….34

Bibliography. …………………………………………………………. 39

Goal of the work

Carrying out a test on the course “Culturology”. The purpose of the test is an in-depth study of the problems specified in the assignment, as well as developing the skills of independent study and searching for answers to the questions posed. Open and review the tasks.

The purpose of this work is to try to reflect the views of leading humanists of the second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th centuries. about God, fame, wealth, civic duty, virtues, sciences, earthly joys, dignity. Since it was these questions that most often stood in the spotlight and ultimately led to a change in the general idea of ​​a person, which in turn changed the idea of ​​a person’s place in the world.

The implementation of this goal necessitated the formulation and solution of the following tasks:

Describe the main features of the Italian Renaissance;

Reveal the originality of humanism during the Renaissance in Italy.

The object of our work is the humanism of the Renaissance in Italy.

The subject of the work is to identify the ideas of humanism in Italian culture.

Introduction

The problem of man has not lost its significance throughout the history of civilization. In any era, man tried to understand his own nature, his purpose in this world, his relationship with everything that surrounded him. This problem became especially relevant during periods when, under the influence of changing living conditions, one era was replaced by another.

XIV-XVI centuries - a time when everything is in the cycle of passions, universal human motivations and calculations. In different situations, people get out of things with their intelligence and personal acumen. Skill is valued above all: laughter is aroused by the inept hypocrisy of a monk or the naivety of a spouse. The ideal of luck reigns over everything. The worship of custom is replaced by the cult of luck.

XIV-XVI centuries - a transitional era from feudalism to capitalism, this is a time of manufacture of geographical discoveries, trade, personal enterprise, and the liberation of man from class restrictions. All this gives rise to a new quality of culture in Italy, known as humanism and renaissance.

The destruction of the guild-corporate structure contributed to the emergence of a secular intelligentsia. It consists of merchants, nobles, lawyers, teachers, even artisans and peasants. This is how circles of humanists not associated with universities, where scholasticism predominated, appeared. Humanist intellectuals are not bound by a specific profession. They represent a new aristocracy - “the aristocracy of the spirit”; their ethical-philosophical dominant is the desire for a synthesis of spirituality. They are all aimed at studying classical ancient (Greek and Latin) literature and philosophy, which become the standard of cultural activity.

When the creative spirit of the Renaissance faded, the concept of humanism remained in culture as a designation of scientific disciplines engaged in understanding the inner world of man. This is how the term humanities appears.

The thought of the Renaissance was aimed at understanding man himself in his relationship with the world. The Divinity was not denied, but the earthly overshadowed it. And this was most clearly manifested in painting. Thus, in “Baptism” by A. Verrocchio, according to art critic Wölfflin, Christ looks like a modest teacher. “Flight to Egypt” is both an escape and a journey to unknown lands. The Last Supper is a solemn meal during which the betrayal of one of those present is revealed. The constant subjects of the paintings “Crucifixion”, “Descent from the Cross”, “Mourning” are the inexorable cruelty of death, its constant presence in life, the grief of loved ones, the tender compassion of women.

A specific feature of Renaissance philosophy is the depersonalization of God. Either he is dissolved in nature (“nature is God in things,” repeated G. Bruno), or the world is immersed in God (N. Kuzansky). Such pantheism and hylozoism endowed nature with the ability for unconscious creativity, its own “language,” the understanding of which gave hope for knowledge and change of this world. This is where “natural magic” comes from; astrology and alchemy are very popular.

Pantheism and the call to experimental knowledge, sensationalism and magic, the deification of nature and psychologism are features of a single tradition of Renaissance philosophy.

In the Middle Ages, a holistic picture of the world was developed, in which earthly life was perceived as punishment. Man on earth was assigned the role of a contemplator, engaged in the salvation of his own soul. The body was declared a source of vices, and therefore all types of earthly pleasures were condemned. All evidence was based on the statements of authoritative individuals.

New political and economic conditions could not get along with medieval ideas about man. There is an urgent need in society to change these views and their philosophical justification. During the second half of the XIV - first half of the XV centuries. the emergence and formation of a humanistic movement took place.

This work is based on an analysis of the works of the most prominent humanists of the second half of the 14th – first half of the 15th centuries.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, historiography and a list of references.

1. The concept of cultural heritage. Universal and national cultural heritage.

Cultural heritage is an invaluable treasure of the people, which is necessary for the education and development of the younger generation, the formation of a new statehood. 1

However, in the cultural heritage, along with priceless masterpieces that have turned into universal human values, there are also historically obsolete phenomena, norms and principles that do not meet the requirements of the new highly developed enlightened society. Today, much of this heritage has become an anachronism that does not represent true national value.

At the same time, the cultural heritage must be treated very carefully, preserved and used fruitfully for the development of national spirituality, because it accumulates the centuries-old development of the people, its history, social and cultural ties, life response, millennia of achievements that it has achieved in science , art, production.

Cultural heritage ensures continuity between generations, both in cultural and social development.

Cultural heritage, being a powerful tool in the formation of national self-awareness and national pride, is ultimately a universal spiritual basis for strengthening independence. It concentrates morality, law, customs, traditions, literature, art, and history lessons - everything that makes up the unshakable values ​​of modern man.

Cultural heritage is a very broad concept. It includes a huge variety of objects of material and spiritual culture. TO

Vedenin Yu.A.

Formation of a new cultural-ecological approach to heritage conservation // Ecology of culture: Almanac of the Heritage Institute “Territory”. - M.: Heritage Institute, 2000.

These primarily include archaeological monuments, i.e. everything that is found in excavations, from works of art (for example, figurines, sculptures, decorative arts and jewelry, wall frescoes, etc.) to household items and tools. Naturally, the excavation complex itself is also an archaeological monument, being an integral part of the cultural heritage.

In recent years, material and spiritual production has achieved significant development, which predetermined the expansion of the concept of “cultural heritage”. New sciences and technologies have appeared. Only in the second half of the 20th century did such concepts as cybernetics, astronautics, molecular genetics, biotechnology, etc. come into common use. Even modern production technologies and teaching methods for specific subjects have become science, and works created in this direction have become an integral part of the cultural heritage. In the cultural heritage there may be non-updated, i.e. unknown to the people, not reflected in their consciousness, but having high potential and values. These are works, scientific discoveries or ideas hidden from the people for one or another socio-political or ideological reasons. Some of them are irretrievably lost (manuscripts, works of art, etc.). However, there are many that have already been found or there is hope of their discovery. They should be classified as part of our cultural heritage that has not been developed by us.

Thus, the concept of cultural heritage includes, firstly, monuments that have come down to us from ancient times and assimilated by us, secondly, hidden from wider public knowledge for various reasons or undistributed monuments, thirdly, all cultural products created by our contemporaries and used today. In the cultural heritage, along with real masterpieces and genuine values, there are many that have historically outlived their usefulness and can only be of interest from the point of view of cultural history. It also contains imaginary values.

Therefore, cultural heritage should be viewed critically, but not in the same way as it was during the Soviet period, i.e. in Bolshevik - “we will destroy everything to the ground...”. 2

The criteria for a scientific approach to cultural heritage are humanism, nationality, patriotism and progressiveness. They have a universal human character. When assessing cultural heritage, the main criterion is its ability to serve the needs of man, to cultivate in him the good and the beautiful, purity and love, and other high, truly human feelings and qualities, to instill intolerance towards evil, baseness, immorality, uncompromisingness towards humiliation and violence against people, i.e. .e. the opportunity to form, as the French enlighteners said, a spiritually free, but socially responsible personality.

Humanism is the result of the service of culture for the formation of the human in man, as well as an active civic position. It is from this aspect that cultural heritage (including religious) must be subjected to a comprehensive assessment. Humanism is a concrete historical concept. It is not a frozen phenomenon: it changes historically, is updated, and develops. Humanism does not conflict with historical necessity or the demands of progress. Taking into account the requirements of a critical approach when analyzing cultural heritage, especially religious, one can see in it not only values ​​that correspond to the principle of humanism, but also a lot of the fact that

2 Lyubichankovsky A.V. Analysis of the concept of “cultural heritage” // Bulletin of the Orenburg State University. - 2006. - No. 12. - Application. Ch.l. - P.83-90.

contradicts him. Thus, religious thinking, due to its exclusive normativity, the inability to abandon its fundamental dogmas, principles, even myths, has significantly lost its creative potential. It is more prone to stagnation than to progress.

Religious humanism is often characterized by abstractness, vagueness, and sometimes mutually exclusive opposition. Hadiths, on the one hand, call for mercy towards non-believers and prisoners of war, on the other hand, Muslim authorities gave fatwa on mass punishment even of their co-religionists, not to mention their enemies. Islam sometimes encouraged labor and social activity, sometimes obedience, social humility, i.e. to passivity. Therefore, cultural heritage, including religious heritage, requires a critical attitude from the standpoint of humanism.

Cultural heritage serves not only individual individuals, but also the entire society, the entire people. When assessing cultural heritage, they take into account not only the interests of today, an individual person or social group, but also the interests of the people, national interests. Therefore, in relation to cultural heritage, it is necessary to adhere, along with humanism, to such criteria as nationality and patriotism.

Nationality is a system of artistic images, means and moral ideas that reflect and strengthen the unity of the worldview and attitude of the people, their psychology, way of life, traditions and customs, and their democratic aspirations.

The issue of popular, mass and elite culture should not be confused with nationality. Nationality is not limited to the accessibility or mass character of culture, it does not even deny some aspects of the so-called “mass culture”, for example, its superficial content, “primitive” form, imitation, etc. The people do not ignore the “elite” culture. It covers all its diversity. The nationality of culture connects the nation more deeply and strongly with its historical roots, helps it get rid of the feeling of national inferiority, helplessness, and realize its uniqueness and fundamental spiritual interests.

Nationality serves to preserve and improve the national image of culture, and through this the nation itself. It rejects in culture that which contradicts national psychology and interests. In the content and form of culture, and spirituality in general, it plays the role of a kind of filter.

True nationality does not deny the enrichment of national culture through borrowing from other cultures, but adapts the borrowed values, both in form and content, to the needs of its nation. Consequently, truly popular culture serves the needs of the development and progress of the nation.

If we evaluate the cultural heritage from the point of view of the above criterion, then we cannot help but notice that it also contains phenomena that do not correspond to the democratic aspirations of the people, their psychology, fundamental interests, and national consolidation. Under the influence of both external and internal factors, they tried to instill imaginary values ​​in the people. As a rule, such ideas were dressed up in the toga of the people, as Islamic fundamentalism does today. Therefore, nationality must always be considered in close connection with content. Genuine nationality should be distinguished from imaginary ones.

All this, in a broad sense, also applies to the criterion of patriotism. Both of these concepts are very close to each other, because the interests of the people form a single whole with the interests of the Motherland. But at the same time, patriotism determines conscious social activity and devotion to one’s civic duty. If we use the criterion of patriotism, it will become clear to what extent this or that cultural phenomenon can serve to strengthen the independence of Uzbekistan. The application of this criterion will reveal individual subtle national-nihilistic motives and ideas contained in the cultural heritage. At one time, the Arabs, in order to extinguish the patriotism of the local population, widely used the culture formed on the basis of a new religion and value system. Religious unity in Islam was placed above patriotism and national interests. Therefore, the roots of national nihilism go deep into history. When Alisher Navoi called on his fellow tribesmen to create in the Turkic (Old Uzbek) language, proved that it was in no way inferior to Arabic and Farsi, and even surpassed them in expressing some concepts, then this was his fight against national nihilism, a manifestation of his patriotism.

Patriotism, undoubtedly, determines the readiness for self-sacrifice in the interests of the Motherland, asceticism, and the presence of sufficient will to defend its independence and prosperity. In the cultural heritage there are works that preach submission, humility, the desire for compromise, the direction of all one’s energy not on external creation, but on internal self-improvement, etc. Naturally, such works cannot serve the tasks of the modern era, the era of independence. And finally, the criterion of progressiveness, which, like humanism, is fundamental. A cultural phenomenon, for example, a work of art, no matter how dedicated it is to the feelings of nationality and patriotism, if it is oriented not to the future, but to the past, if it idealizes the patriarchal way of life, calls for national narrow-mindedness and nationalism, represents a dubious contribution to the modern concept of cultural heritage. His nationality and patriotism will be external, formal in nature. Therefore, when assessing the cultural heritage, when relying on it in the process of creating a new democratic, fair, legal society, the requirements of progressiveness should be taken into account.

At the present stage of development of science, in our opinion, the greatest interest in the problem of classifying cultural heritage is the approach that is based on an understanding of the culture itself (its essential specificity). This is the source cell for both the analysis of cultural heritage and its classification.

Types of cultural heritage from a cultural point of view are presented in Fig. 1.

____________________________________________

Fig.1. Types of cultural heritage from a cultural point of view

Cultural heritage has a complex and hierarchical organization. It can be divided into three levels. Isolating them makes sense only

in relation to the culture of certain past eras, i.e. to a culture closed to a certain space and time.

The first level is the fragments of past eras (in relation to the eras of cultural heritage under consideration) - these are behavioral programs that developed in earlier eras, most often in the primitive era, and which have lost their value. Ensuring the success of practical actions (for example, superstitions that exist not only now, but also existed before, and therefore are an integral element of cultural heritage).

The second level is a layer of programs of behavior, activity, communication that ensured the reproduction of a particular type of society in a certain space and time.

The third level is the programs of social life of a certain era (a certain space and time), addressed to the future: this is theoretical knowledge developed in science, causing a revolution in the technique and technology of subsequent eras. Ideals of the future social order that have not yet become the dominant ideology; new moral principles developed in the field of philosophical and ethical teachings and often ahead of their time.

E
these are samples of programs for future activities, a prerequisite for changes in the forms of social life that existed in a certain space and time.

LEVELS OF SPIRITUAL CULTURAL HERITAGE,
ASSIGNED TO A SPECIFIC
SPACE AND TIME

Relic

programs

(programs of behavior that developed in earlier eras, most often in the primitive era, and which have lost their value as a regulator ensuring the success of practical actions, for example, superstition)

A layer of programs of behavior, activity, communication that ensure the reproduction of a particular type of society in a certain space and time

Social life programs

a certain era,

addressed to the future

(theoretical knowledge developed in science, causing a revolution in the technique and technology of subsequent eras; ideals of the future social order, which have not yet become the dominant ideology; new moral principles

Fig. 2. Levels of spiritual cultural heritage

This type of classification of cultural heritage, of course, applies only to spiritual heritage. He deepens the analysis grid of the spiritual heritage of different ethnic groups in different time intervals of their existence. This approach allows us to better understand the modern spiritual culture of ethnic groups living in different spatial boundaries.

If we approach cultural heritage objects as objects of cultural geography, then several different approaches to their classification emerge.

Firstly, it is possible to divide cultural heritage according to the main areas of cultural geography. So, A.G. Druzhinin, in his doctoral dissertation “Theoretics - methodological foundations of geographical studies of culture,” identifies 14 main areas of cultural geography: 1) geocultural synthesis; 2) geography of quality of life; 3) geography of pathology; 4) geography of research into the patterns of cultural self-development of the territory; 5) geography of research into the influence of culture on geosystems; 6) technological geography (geography of lifestyle); 7) geoethnoculturology; 8) geography of studying the perception of territory through the “prism” of culture; 9) geography of traditions and norms of behavior, 1 O) geography of language; 11) geography of cultural phenomena and values; 12) geography of religions; 13) geography of studying the “humanity” of LLP (social efficiency of the teze - territorial socio-economic system); 14) geography of cultural infrastructure. 3

It is clear that the list of these areas is not exhausted by the examples given. It will inevitably be refined in the process of developing the geography of culture. But each of the directions of cultural geography can neither exist nor develop unless it is based on specific examples of cultural heritage (each direction has its own samples), moreover, material, material-

3Druzhinin A.G. Theoretical and methodological foundations of geographical studies of culture. Author's abstract. diss....d.g.s. - St. Petersburg, 1995. - S.ll.

spiritual and spiritual cultural heritage. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that all the identified areas of cultural geography are connected and interact with each other.

Secondly, within the framework of cultural geography, cultural heritage can be classified into separate blocks:

1)ecological culture;

2) political culture;

3) economic culture;

4) artistic culture;

5) natural science culture;

6) ethical culture;

7) legal culture, etc.

It is clear that the number of such search directions, relatively isolated within the framework of the geography of culture, is not a constant value: it can change in the process of development of the geography of culture itself (presumably, in the direction of increase). As in the first case, each of these directions is based on its own cultural heritage specific to the direction. In addition, all these areas are interconnected and interact.

Thirdly, within the framework of cultural geography, cultural heritage can be classified based on the concept of territorial organization

culture (TOK).

“Essentially, the TOK concept is a tool for focusing attention on the most significant aspects, processes and phenomena of geocultural reality from the point of view of geographical science, a combination of generalizing ideas about the features and patterns of cultural-territorial dynamics, the principles of its research, and an adequate conceptual and categorical apparatus.” 4

4 Druzhinin A.G. Theoretical and methodological foundations of geographical studies of culture. Author's abstract. diss.... Doctor of Geology, St. Petersburg, 1995. - P.13.

From the point of view of TOK, the following spatial levels of cultural self-organization are distinguished: global (planetary), super-regional (civilizational), regional (individual states, large administrative-territorial units of states), subregional (administrative-territorial units of the meso-level), local (administrative-territorial units of the micro-level ). At each of these levels, cultural heritage can either contribute to the development of a given spatial level or inhibit its development.

The composition (list) of the cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation is determined by the Government of the Russian Federation on the proposal of the subjects of the Federation and in agreement with the Supreme Council of the Russian Federation. The cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation is subject to a special regime of protection and use in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Cultural values, regardless of the form of ownership, are objects that have artistic, historical, archaeological and ethnographic significance.

Cultural assets include, among others:

Archaeological materials;

Rare collections and antiques, works of art. Including canvases, paintings, drawings, engravings, lithographs, prints. Sculptural works, works of decorative and applied arts and folk crafts;

Design developments and architectural projects;

Rare manuscripts, autographs, documents, collections of letters, books, printed publications and their collections;

Architectural monuments, memorial burials, as well as park and natural landscape objects associated with the life of cultural figures or with major historical events and outstanding personalities;

Postage stamps separately or in collections, other philatelic materials;

Coins, medals, seals and other collectible materials;

Unique musical instruments;

Archives, archival funds and collections, including audio, photo, video film archives, as well as scientific and technical documentation;

Ethnological and anthropological materials;

Rare collections and specimens of flora and fauna, mineralogy, anatomy and objects of interest for paleontology;

Objects related to historical events in the life of the peoples of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the development of society and the state, the history of science and technology, as well as the life of outstanding figures of science, state, culture and art.

Objects included in the State Register are withdrawn from civil circulation and cannot be destroyed, moved, altered, reproduced or restored without special permission; collections or collections of objects that collectively represent special artistic or historical interest cannot be separated.

The use of objects of national cultural heritage in any way incompatible with their historical, artistic and religious purpose is not tolerated. Items belonging to religious and cult organizations and being cultural values ​​can be used taking into account their religious purpose.

The special regime of national cultural heritage does not apply to works during the life of its author (authors) and for fifty years after his (their) death. The preemptive right to use architectural monuments belongs to cultural institutions. Responsibilities for proper maintenance and preservation of objects of national cultural heritage rest with their owners or users. Failure to comply with this obligation entails withdrawal of the granted right in court on a reimbursable basis. If the owners or users do not have the material or other capabilities to maintain an object of national cultural heritage, the state assumes the costs.

2.Renaissance humanism

2.1. Foundations of the Humanistic Italian Renaissance

The stage of civil humanism is coming, the birthplace of which, like humanism in general, is the city of Florence. Civic humanism is associated with the works of Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, Poggio Bracciolini, Giannozzo Manetti, Leon Battista Alberti. They expanded the range of problems associated with man, paying special attention to his place in society, his rights and responsibilities to the state. Among the important features of humanism of this period is attention to the socio-economic and political side of society.

This direction became significant in the conditions of the democratic system of Florence (before the emergence of tyranny in 1434) against the backdrop of other small states where tyranny reigned. Republican Florence, which resisted Milan, gave birth to a spirit of patriotism in humanists, and politicians and statesmen took their opinion into account. The humanists themselves sought to spread their ideas among more citizens.

Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) became the first humanist to be offered the high post of Chancellor of Florence precisely because of his views. He remained in this post until the end of his life. Having become chancellor, through personal contacts, letters, books, Salutatti expanded the influence of humanism on Florence.

All Salutati's activities were subordinated to the desire to improve society as a whole. His personal library became the forerunner of public libraries. According to Poggio, Salutati wanted to give all scientists the opportunity to use the books they needed. Books that can teach a person something good, Salutati reasoned, “... undoubtedly there is wisdom,”1 in front of which gold and silver lose their value. Like other humanists, antiquity played a special role in Salutati’s work. Many humanists spent a lot of time searching for historical remains of that era, searching for them throughout Europe. The discovery of new manuscripts was an event of extreme importance for those keen on antiquity, and every interested person sought to become acquainted with their contents as quickly as possible. Due to the lack of public libraries, finds were copied. This facilitated contacts among humanists; they actively corresponded with each other, providing information about new finds, exchanging them, and showing a keen interest in the fate of libraries whose owners had died. But there were also those who did not want to enter this kind of “community”; having sources, they did not give the opportunity to use them. In a letter to Master Jacopo Tederisi, Salutati expressed his attitude towards those who did not want to cooperate: “He who hides books is unfair to everyone; he does not hide his own, but carries away and steals someone else’s” 1 . In the letter, he strongly condemned such actions, but at the same time noted that knowledge obtained from texts is like food for the suffering.

Respecting and using the thoughts of ancient philosophers, Salutati recognized paganism at times when “true mercy had not yet descended from heaven”, did not consider them better than their time: “after all, we achieve perfection if we follow Christian teaching” 2.

He recognized the controversial thoughts of any authorities, as well as the existence of other opinions different from his own. Everyone can think, he thought, as he wishes, he has the right not to be constrained by authorities, who do not need to be evaluated “more than they should” 3.

Considering the topic of nobility, Salutati came to the conclusion that “noble is the one who is by nature disposed to virtue” 4 . A reasonable, fair, intelligent and courageous person is noble. Natural nobility, according to Salutati, is “a property of the spirit... (which) does not distinguish either patricians or horsemen from the plebeians” 5. Even a slave by nature, and not by coincidence, can become noble if he can rise to a new level and develop the listed qualities.

Thus, Salutati, speaking about hermitage, high positions, wealth and dignity, expresses the opinion that any way of life is pleasing to God, provided that it is filled with virtue. Nothing can spoil a person if the person himself strives for good. A person who is weak by nature will not be able to use any way of life appropriately and will not bring benefit to society, and a bad person, in any way of life, is capable of causing harm to people.

Of the humanists discussed in this work, his students were

Leonardo Bruni and Poggio Bracciolini.

Leonardo Bruni (1370 (74) - 1440) was born in Arezzo into a poor family, but thanks to his talents he managed to become chancellor of the Florentine Republic.

Bruni translated from Greek Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Demosthenes, Aeschylus, etc. He called Coluccio Salutati his teacher. Poggio Bracciolini wrote about him: “In his writings, Bruni defended active life, the ideas of the common good and civic judgment, and emphasized the social value of intellectual activity” 6. After Broni's death, subsequent chancellors ceased to play a significant role in politics, as power in Florence gradually concentrated in the hands of Cosimo de' Medici.

While engaged in translations, Bruni, like other humanists, became imbued with great respect for the ancient classics. About the Greeks he writes that they are “Ultimately ... more exalted” 7 than his contemporaries. However, he admitted that, unlike ancient thinkers, his contemporaries act for the sake of another life, a heavenly one. As a Christian, he recognized the afterlife, but in his letters and writings he spoke exclusively about earthly life. Bruni contributed to the re-evaluation of Epicurus, whose views had been declared godless for centuries. In the treatise “Introduction to Moral Philosophy,” he compared the ethics of the Epicureans with the ethical teachings of the Stoics and Peripatetics, as a result, raising the value of the ethics of Epicurus, silently rejecting the assessment given to it by the Middle Ages.

Virtue is undoubtedly significant for a person, but Bruno considers civic consciousness to be its highest manifestation.

Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459) came from a poor family from Terranova. At the request of Salutati, in 1403 he received the post of apostolic scribe in the Roman Curia. Since 1423, he held the position of apostolic secretary with interruptions. In 1453 he accepted the post of chancellor in Florence, where he remained until his death. However, at this time, humanist chancellors ceased to play a significant role, power in Florence was concentrated in the rivers of Cosimo de Medici.

Antiquity seemed to him a more perfect time than his own; he considered it an honor to be compared with the sages of antiquity. He had great respect for those who achieved great fame through translations of ancient sages and writing independent works.

Like other humanists, Bracciolini was interested, first of all, in man himself and the problems associated with him. In his opinion, most people do not live, but eke out a miserable existence, living their lives in vain without accomplishments for the benefit of others. But there are people about whom we can say that they live a full life, Bracciolini wrote: “There are two kinds of people who lead a life worthy of respect in the distance from military glory: some are those who devote their mental strength to governing the state and, while governing it, endure difficulties for the common good; others are those who, being devoted to leisure devoted to science, live peacefully away from the noise of people’s life.” 8 . Thus, Bracciolini treated both the hermit and the active life equally well, the main thing for him was what the result was. Bracciolini is unoriginal in that, like other humanists, he called philosophy the most important of the sciences, but he is interesting in that he constantly made it clear to the reader that his opinion on various issues could be criticized.

In his works, Bracciolini gives the reader several opinions on the issues discussed, providing the opportunity to figure out for himself which point of view is correct. He avoids explicit teaching, resorting to it only in those rare cases when he is confident in the correctness of his statements.

Giannozzo Manetti (1396-1459) was born in Florence into a wealthy family. He was engaged in trade and banking. Manetti took up humanism late. Was a participant in diplomatic missions. Clashes with the Medici forced him to leave the city. Manetti found refuge in the papal curia of Nicholas V, and then at the court of the Neapolitan king Alfonso of Aragon.

Manetti, like other figures of civic humanism, was interested in society and reflected on its best structure. Referring to the "prince of philosophers Aristotle", Manetti argued that there were three types of legitimate government: monarchy, rule by the best men and democracy. A monarch in power must strive for the well-being of his subjects and benefit them, otherwise he will become a tyrant. The best people are awarded by power for their outstanding qualities. People with intelligence and virtues should be in power in order to instruct all citizens by their example. The duty of every citizen is to have a responsible attitude towards the elected authorities: “For otherwise, loud scandals, wars, conspiracies, exodus of citizens, their expulsion, destruction of houses and similar misfortunes will begin” 9 .

He considered the purpose of his treatise to convince readers of the superiority of man over the world around him and that it is necessary to make every effort to achieve virtues because with their help one can become happier. Manetti wrote that thanks to virtues you can “become like the immortal god himself, for your purpose - to understand and act - is common with the work of the omnipotent God.” 10 .

Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) was born into a wealthy Florentine trading and banking family who lived in exile in Genoa. He studied Latin, Greek, Italian and mathematics in Padua, and studied law in Bologna. In 1428 he was given the opportunity to return to Florence. In 1432, Alberti took the position of papal secretary and abriviator, and together with the papal curia he moved to different cities in Italy. Alberti was a versatile person; he believed that a scientist was interested in everything around him, including “...ancient examples of things preserved in temples and theaters, from which, just like from the best mentors, one can learn a lot” 11 . He owns a number of scientific and literary works, works in the field of the theory of new Italian art, and projects of architectural structures.

Not all scholars associate Alberti's name with civic humanism.

The basis for this is that Alberti did not strive for an active political life. He preferred a quiet life in a villa to political intrigue, where there is “no noise, no gossip, no other madness, to which in the city, among the townspeople, there is no end in sight: suspicions, fears, slander, injustice, fights and much more to talk about.” disgusting and scary to remember” 12. However, in general, his attitude towards the state and the city corresponds to the views of civil humanists and for this reason he can be considered among the representatives of this movement.

Alberti saw benefit in any kind of human activity. For example, Petrarch considered not all sciences useful to man, but Alberti was confident that people are obliged to study and use everything that God created for them. Any knowledge and science is necessary and useful for a person; it is important to study everything that exists. Any science is like boards that help people stay afloat in the stormy waters of a river. The creators of sciences provided people with “great help” and are worthy to be called gods, there are also those who are worthy to be called demigods “They deserved this by enlarging these boards, adding pieces of others to them, and also by the fact that for them the most beautiful thing is to collect these boards among the cliffs and on distant shores, build new ones in their likeness, and devote all their strength to helping the other swimmers" 13 . This is how Alberti shows his attitude towards scientists. He considered them helpers and saviors of people.

So, Alberti recognized that man is a beautiful creature and only idleness can bring a person to a state of vice. A person is the architect of his own happiness and nothing can help him if he does not work. Wisdom and efficiency help a person achieve earthly goods, and wealth and nobility given from birth can be lost in the course of life.

Lorenzo Valla is one of the prominent representatives of this time, who cannot be counted among the civil humanists. However, it is necessary to pay attention to his works, since they reflected new trends within the humanistic movement.

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) was born in Rome, his father was a lawyer. At the age of 23, he became a professor and taught rhetoric at the University of Pavia. In 1435, he took the position of secretary at the court of the Neapolitan king Alfonso of Aragon and held it for 13 years. This period was especially creative in Valla's life, despite the fact that he was forced to constantly accompany the king. He later became secretary of the Roman Curia. Valla laid the foundations for historical analysis and historical criticism, using irrefutable arguments to prove the falsity of the Donation of Constantine. Taking advantage of the war between Alfonso of Aragon and the pope, Valla in his “Discourse on the forgery of the so-called Deed of Gift of Constantine” “was able to encroach on this fabricated in the 8th century. a document with the help of which the pope for many centuries substantiated his claims to secular power over Western countries” 14.

“Valla creates a philosophical system in which Christianity merges with a modified Epicurean philosophy” 15. Valla is not the first humanist to turn to the ideas of Epicurus. His main work on ethics is “On True and False Goods” (called “On Pleasure” in the first edition).

2.2. Humanism of the Italian Renaissance

At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. In Europe, namely in Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to take shape, called the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance). The term "Renaissance" indicated a new connection with antiquity. At this time, Italian society began to take an active interest in the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome; manuscripts of ancient writers were being sought; this is how the works of Cicero and Titus Livy were found. The Renaissance was characterized by many very significant changes in the mentality of people compared to the Middle Ages. The secular motives of European culture are strengthening, various spheres of social life are becoming more and more independent and independent from the church - art, philosophy, literature, education, science. The focus of the Renaissance figures was on man, therefore the worldview of the bearers of this culture is designated by the term “humanistic” (from the Latin humanus - human).

Renaissance humanists believed that what is important in a person is not his origin or social position, but personal qualities, such as intelligence, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will, and education. A strong, talented and comprehensively developed personality, a person who is the creator of himself and his destiny, was recognized as an “ideal person.” During the Renaissance, the human personality acquires an unprecedented value; individualism becomes the most important feature of the humanistic approach to life, which contributes to the spread of the ideas of liberalism and a general increase in the level of freedom of people in society. It is no coincidence that humanists, who in general do not oppose religion and do not challenge the basic tenets of Christianity, assigned God the role of a creator who set the world in motion and does not further interfere in people’s lives.

The ideal person, according to humanists, is a “universal person”, a person who is a creator, an encyclopedist. Renaissance humanists believed that the possibilities of human knowledge are limitless, for the human mind is similar to the divine mind, and man himself is a mortal god, and in the end people will enter the territory of the heavenly sanctuaries and settle there and become like gods. Educated and gifted people during this period were surrounded by an atmosphere of universal admiration and worship; they were honored, as saints in the Middle Ages. Enjoyment of earthly existence is an indispensable part of the culture of the Renaissance. 1

At the origins of the Renaissance (Early Renaissance) in Italy stood the great Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), the author of the Comedy, which descendants express their admiration for and called the Divine Comedy. 2

Dante, Francesco Petrarch (1304-1370) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) - famous poets of the Renaissance, were the creators of the Italian literary language. Their works, already during their lifetime, became widely known not only in Italy, but also far beyond its borders, and entered the treasury of world literature.

The Renaissance is characterized by the cult of beauty, especially human beauty. Italian painting, which for a time became the leading art form, depicts beautiful, perfect people. Painting

The Early Renaissance is represented by the work of Batticheli (1445-1510), who created works on religious themes and mythological subjects, including the paintings “Spring” and “Birth of Venus”, as well as Giotto (1266-1337), who freed Italian fresco painting from the influence of Byzantine .

One of the most famous sculptors of that time was Donatello (1386-1466), author of a number of realistic portraiture works

1 Poets of the Renaissance. - M.: Pravda, 1989. - P. 8-9.

2Dante Alighieri. The Divine Comedy. - M.: Education, 1988. - P. 5

type, which for the first time since antiquity presented the naked body in sculpture. The largest architect of the Early Renaissance - Brunelleschi (1377-1446). He sought to combine elements of ancient Roman and Gothic styles, building temples, palaces, and chapels.

The era of the Early Renaissance ended by the end of the 15th century, and was replaced by the High Renaissance - the time of the highest flowering of the humanistic culture of Italy. It was then that ideas about the honor and dignity of man, his high purpose on Earth were expressed with the greatest completeness and force. The titan of the High Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci (1456-1519), one of the most remarkable people in the history of mankind, possessing versatile abilities and talents.

The last great representative of the High Renaissance culture was Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564) - sculptor, painter, architect and poet, creator of the famous statue of David.

The next stage in Renaissance culture is the Late Renaissance, which is generally believed to have lasted from the 40s. XVI century to the end of the 16th – first years of the 17th centuries.

Italy, the birthplace of the Renaissance, was the first country where the Catholic reaction began. In the 40s XVI century here the Inquisition, persecuting the leaders of the humanist movement, was reorganized and strengthened. In the middle of the 16th century. Pope Paul IV compiled the “Index of Forbidden Books”, which was subsequently replenished many times with new works. This list included works that believers were forbidden to read under threat of excommunication, since, in the opinion of the church, they contradicted the basic tenets of the Christian religion and had a detrimental effect on the minds of people. The Index also includes works by some Italian humanists, in particular Giovanni Boccaccio. Banned books were burned; the same fate could well have befallen their authors and all dissidents who actively defended their views and did not want to compromise with the Catholic Church. Many leading thinkers and scientists died at the stake. Thus, in 1600, in Rome, in the Square of Flowers, the great Giordano Bruno, the author of the famous work “On Infinity, the Universe and Worlds,” was burned.

Many painters, poets, sculptors, and architects abandoned the idea of ​​humanism, striving to adopt only the “manner” of the great figures of the Renaissance.

The humanistic movement was a pan-European phenomenon: in the 15th century. Humanism goes beyond the borders of Italy and quickly spreads throughout Western European countries. Each country had its own characteristics in the development of the Renaissance culture, its own national achievements, and its own leaders.

2.3.Humanism goes beyond the borders of Italy

In Germany, the ideas of humanism became known in the middle of the 15th century, exerting a strong influence on university circles and the progressive intelligentsia.

An outstanding representative of German humanistic literature was Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), who sought to show the divine in man himself.

The revival in Germany is inextricably linked with the phenomenon of the Reformation - the movement for the reform of the Catholic Church, for the creation of a “cheap church” without partings and fees for rituals, for the purification of Christian teaching from all incorrect positions that are inevitable in the centuries-old history of Christianity. The movement for the Reformation in Germany was led by Martin Luther (1483-1546), 3rd doctor of theology and monk of the Augustinian monastery. He thought. That faith is an internal state of a person. That salvation is given to man directly from God, and that to come to God

it is possible without the mediation of the Catholic clergy. Luther and his supporters refused to return to the Catholic Church and protested the demand to renounce their views, marking the beginning of the Protestant movement in Christianity. Martin Luther was the first to translate the Bible into German, which greatly contributed to the success of the Reformation.

Victory of the Reformation in the middle of the 16th century. caused a social upsurge and the growth of national culture. Fine art reached a remarkable blossoming.

The founder of the Reformation in Switzerland was Ulrich Zwingli. In 1523, He carried out a church reform in Zurich, during which church rites and services were simplified, a number of church holidays were canceled, some monasteries were closed, and church lands were secularized. Subsequently, the center of the Swiss Reformation moved to Geneva, and the Reformation movement was led by Calvin (1509-1562). 4 The Reformation triumphed in Switzerland in the 40s. XVI century, and this victory largely determined the general cultural atmosphere in society: excessive luxury, lavish festivities, and amusements were condemned, and honesty, hard work, determination, and strict morals were approved. These ideas were particularly widespread in the Nordic countries. The largest representative of Renaissance culture in the Netherlands was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1496-1536). The significance of the works of the great humanist and educator, including his famous “In Praise of Stupidity,” for the education of freethinking and a critical attitude towards scholasticism and superstition is truly invaluable. In England, the center of humanistic ideas was the University of Oxford, where the leading scientists of that time worked - Grosin, Linacre, Colet. Development of humanistic views in

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3 Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. -M.: Soviet Encyclopedia.1989.-P.329.

4 Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. -M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.-P.242

the field of social philosophy is associated with the name of Thomas More (1478-1535), the author of “Utopia”, who presented to the reader an ideal, in his opinion, human society: in it everyone is equal, there is no private property, and gold is not valuable - it is made from chains for criminals.

The greatest figure of the English Renaissance was William Shakespeare (1564-16160), creator of the world famous tragedies Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and historical plays.

The revival in Spain was more controversial than in other European countries: many humanists here did not oppose Catholicism and the Catholic Church.

In France, the humanist movement began to spread only at the beginning of the 16th century. An outstanding representative of French humanism was Francois Rabelais (1494-1553), who wrote the satirical novel Gargantua and Pantagruel.

The largest representative of the culture of France in the 16th century. was Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). His main work, “Experiments,” was a reflection on philosophical, historical, and ethical topics. Montaigne proved the importance of experimental knowledge and glorified nature as a teacher of man. Montaigne's “Experiences” were directed against scholasticism and dogmatism and affirmed the ideas of rationalism; this work had a significant impact on the subsequent development of Western European thought.

The Renaissance is over. Western Europe has entered a new period in its history. 5

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5Markova A.N. History of world culture. M., 1995.P.125-132.

Conclusion

Genuine progressiveness also cannot conflict with humanism and other criteria. In order to achieve progress, one must not harm people, the interests of the country or nature. Progress does not exist for the sake of progress, which means that progressiveness does not mean achieving progress at any cost. Progressivity is achieving progress through the emancipation and elevation of the human spirit, its moral and aesthetic development.

Cultural heritage should be approached not only critically, but also specifically historically, consciously mastering it, not submitting to it, but using it in the creation of a new, independent civil society.

The diversity of ancient ideas about man was food for the minds of humanists. Many of them not only admired this time, but considered it the best. Opposing those ideas of the Middle Ages with which they did not agree, humanists built their evidence on the basis of the ideas of the ancient sages. They not only conveyed their thoughts, they argued with them, created a new way of looking at things. Humanists believed that every person can make mistakes and be mistaken, it follows that every statement of an authoritative person, despite all his merits, should be questioned. Thus, the attitude changes from thoughtless admiration to respect and veneration.

The task was to create a new image of man. Using ancient ideas to form their beliefs, humanists created a new culture. It is not surprising that humanists opposed the scholastic inclination to authority; their task was to create new ideas, and not to repeat ideas already expressed.

Humanists sought to make earthly life beautiful. Petrarch, despite the inconsistency, with his reasoning gave a strong impetus to the following humanists, pushed towards these ideas.

There was a radical change in the views of humanists on the human body; they shattered medieval ideas about the depravity of the body, proving the opposite.

Based on the fact that man was created in the image and likeness of God, who is the creator, humanists came to the conclusion that he wanted to create an assistant for himself on earth. Apparently this is why all humanists valued hard work so highly, which was perceived as gratitude to the creator.

Empty contemplation was deeply alien to humanists.

The desire to improve the world around us was also expressed in the emergence of civic motives among humanists. Already the first humanist Petrarch begins to take part in turbulent political events. However, solitary life was also a time for him of which he was never ashamed. Not all humanists strived for public affairs, but all emphasized the importance of work.

Salutati and Bruni gave greater preference to the social duty of man. Bracciolini treats with equal respect both works related to government and mental work.

Alberti is especially convincing in his desire to show the negative sides of an idle lifestyle; idleness for him is the source of all vices.

With the recognition that a person has the right to change the world around him, the view of fame has also changed. Human glory acquired the character of a well-deserved reward, an incentive for continuing the works of God. It was in this way that humanists justified fame in their reasoning. However, humanists did not come to this right away; the first of them only made attempts to justify this human aspiration.

The interest of humanists in the sciences in general is understandable, but there was no unambiguous attitude towards all of them. For example, Petrarch was interested only in those sciences that were related to the direct study of man, such as rhetoric, history, and linguistics. He argued that a person must first understand himself. The development of humanistic ideas has left its mark on this issue. Bruni was already much more tolerant of the natural sciences; in addition, in the first place he put sciences that study society, capable of benefiting the state as a whole. Bracciolini attached particular importance to eloquence, this tool with which one can influence others, and Manetti, in his characteristic manner, admired the very fact of human abilities to understand the world. Alberti saw science as a way to thank God and believed that everything he created should be studied. Thus, a conviction was formed in the importance of any scientific knowledge for human life. Naturally, it was common for all humanists to give preference to philosophy, especially its moral form.

Humanists, paying so much attention in their works to the moral and ethical aspects of human life, could not ignore the topic of nobility. Naturally, in the new conditions, when people of humble origin reached the top of society, this topic was very relevant.

Humanists came to a consensus and viewed it as a character trait inherent not only to aristocrats. Petrarch already associated nobility not with a high-profile surname, but with personal achievements. Salutati argued that a slave also has the opportunity to become noble, and the path to it lies through virtues. Bracciolini has very similar arguments about achieving nobility through a virtuous lifestyle, which he set out in his “Book of Nobility” where he convincingly proves that nobility is not achieved only by nobility, wealth or fame.

In the new economic conditions, humanists often turned to the topic of wealth. As a subject of discussion, this topic appears gradually in humanistic literature. In the early period, the main evaluation criterion is the moral side of the issue

Subsequently, the issue of wealth was increasingly considered from the side of usefulness to society. These motives are already visible in Salutati, although he also considered the moral side of this issue. He believed that wealth acquired through honest labor and service to society cannot spoil a person or harm him and is a reward. Bruni argued that neither wealth nor poverty makes people worse or better. For him, wealth is a blessing that leads a person to achieve happiness.

Alberti, on the one hand, called those who do not have it unhappy, on the other hand, he saw in it a factor that relaxes a person, creating a certain illusion of protection from all adversities that can harm. In general, in the development of humanistic thought, wealth is seen as a positive phenomenon.

In the era of early Italian humanism, the human desire for earthly joys was justified, man was endowed with the functions of a creator, which ultimately laid down the idea of ​​the central place of man in the overall picture of the world.

Genuine humanism, nationality, and patriotism never contradict progressiveness. If any of them contradicts it, then it is obvious that in this understanding it is already outdated. Consequently, progressiveness in some way acts as a criterion for other criteria.

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1 Salutati K. Letter to Master Jacopo Tederisi. Florence 1385(?)//Italian Renaissance. Humanism of the second half of the XIV century - the first half of the XV century: Collection of sources / Comp. and lane N.V. Revyakina.

Novosibirsk 1975. P. 10.

2 Salutati K. Letter dated June 14, 1404. Galieno da Terni//Works of Italian humanists of the Renaissance (XV century)/ Ed. L.M. Bragina.M. 1985. P. 44.

3 Ibid. P. 47

4 Italian humanism of the Renaissance: Collection of texts / Ed. S.M.Stama.

Part 1. Saratov. 1984. P. 144.

5 Ibid. P. 143.

8 Bruni L. Introduction to the science of morality//Works of Italian humanists of the Renaissance (XV century).

P. 187.

9 Manetti D. Speech composed by Messer Giannozzo Manetti and delivered by others before the high Signoria and Rectors in the palace, in which they are encouraged to rule fairly // Writings of Italian humanists of the Renaissance (XV century). P. 140.

10 Manetti. D. On the dignity and superiority of man //Italian Renaissance. Humanism of the second half of the 14th century. first half of the 15th century. P.99

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