Many contemporaries are convinced that in the past historians paid little attention to such an event as the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Briefly, but as clearly as possible, we will discuss this episode in the history of Russia. After all, like any war, it is in any case the history of the state.

Let's try to analyze such an event as the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly, but as clearly as possible. First of all, for ordinary readers.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)

The main opponents of this armed conflict were the Russian and Ottoman empires.

Many important events took place during it. The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly described in this article) left its mark on the history of almost all participating countries.

On the side of the Porte (the historically acceptable name for the Ottoman Empire) were Abkhaz, Dagestan and Chechen rebels, as well as the Polish Legion.

Russia, in turn, was supported by the Balkans.

Causes of the Russian-Turkish War

First of all, let's look at the main reasons for the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly).

The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the significant increase in national consciousness in some Balkan countries.

This kind of public sentiment was associated with the April Uprising in Bulgaria. The cruelty and mercilessness with which the Bulgarian rebellion was suppressed forced some European countries (especially the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for Christians located in Turkey.

Another reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the defeat of Serbia in the Serbo-Montenegrin-Turkish War, as well as the failed Constantinople Conference.

Progress of the war

On April 24, 1877, the Russian Empire officially declared war on the Porte. After the Chisinau solemn parade, Archbishop Paul at a prayer service read out the manifesto of Emperor Alexander II, which spoke of the beginning of military action against the Ottoman Empire.

In order to avoid intervention by European states, the war had to be carried out “quickly” - in one company.

In May of the same year, troops of the Russian Empire were introduced into the territory of the Romanian state.

Romanian troops, in turn, began to take an active part in the conflict on the side of Russia and its allies only three months after this event.

The organization and preparedness of the Russian army was noticeably affected by the military reform carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander II.

The Russian troops included about 700 thousand people. The Ottoman Empire had about 281 thousand people. Despite the significant numerical superiority of the Russians, a significant advantage of the Turks was the possession and equipping of the army with modern weapons.

It is worth noting that the Russian Empire intended to spend the entire war on land. The fact is that the Black Sea was completely under the control of the Turks, and Russia was allowed to build its ships in this sea only in 1871. Naturally, it was impossible to build a strong flotilla in such a short period of time.

This armed conflict was fought in two directions: Asian and European.

European Theater of Operations

As we mentioned above, with the beginning of the war, Russian troops were brought into Romania. This was done to eliminate the Danube fleet of the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the crossings of the Danube.

The Turkish river flotilla could not resist the actions of enemy sailors, and soon the Dnieper was crossed by Russian troops. This was the first significant step towards Constantinople.

Despite the fact that the Turks were able to briefly delay the Russian troops and gain time to strengthen Istanbul and Edirne, they were unable to change the course of the war. Due to the inept actions of the military command of the Ottoman Empire, Plevna capitulated on December 10.

After this event, the active Russian army, which at that time numbered about 314 thousand soldiers, was preparing to go on the offensive again.

At the same time, Serbia resumes hostilities against the Porte.

On December 23, 1877, a raid through the Balkans was carried out by a Russian detachment, which at that moment was under the command of General Romeiko-Gurko, thanks to whom Sofia was occupied.

On December 27-28, the battle of Sheinovo took place, in which the troops of the Southern detachment took part. The result of this battle was the encirclement and defeat of the 30 thousandth

On January 8, the troops of the Russian Empire, without any resistance, captured one of the key points of the Turkish army - the city of Edirne.

Asian Theater of Operations

The main objectives of the Asian direction of the war were to ensure the security of their own borders, as well as the desire of the leadership of the Russian Empire to break the Turks’ concentration exclusively on the European theater of operations.

The Abkhaz rebellion that occurred in May 1877 is considered to be the beginning of the Caucasian Company.

Around the same time, Russian troops leave the city of Sukhum. It was possible to return it back only in August.

During operations in Transcaucasia, Russian troops captured many citadels, garrisons and fortresses: Bayazit, Ardagan, etc.

In the second half of the summer of 1877, hostilities were temporarily “frozen” for the reason that both sides were awaiting the arrival of reinforcements.

Beginning in September, the Russians began to adhere to siege tactics. So, for example, the city of Kars was taken, which opened the victorious path to Erzurum. However, its capture never took place due to the conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty.

In addition to Austria and England, Serbia and Romania were also dissatisfied with the terms of this truce. It was believed that their services in the war were not appreciated. This was the beginning of the birth of a new - Berlin - Congress.

Results of the Russian-Turkish war

At the final stage, we will summarize the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly).

There was an expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire: more specifically, Bessarabia, which was lost during the

In exchange for helping the Ottoman Empire defend against the Russians in the Caucasus, England stationed its troops on the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly discussed by us in this article) played a big role in international relations.

It gave rise to a gradual shift away from confrontation between the Russian Empire and Great Britain for the reason that countries began to focus more on their own interests (for example, Russia was interested in the Black Sea, and England in Egypt).

Historians and the Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878. Briefly, in general terms, we characterize the event

Despite the fact that this war is not considered a particularly significant event in the history of the Russian state, a considerable number of historians have studied it. The most famous researchers whose contribution was noted as the most significant are L.I. Rovnyakova, O.V. Orlik, F.T. Konstantinova, E.P. Lvov, etc.

They studied the biographies of participating commanders and military leaders, significant events, and summed up the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in the presented publication. Naturally, all this was not in vain.

Economist A.P. Pogrebinsky believed that the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, which briefly and quickly ended with the victory of the Russian Empire and its allies, had a huge impact primarily on the economy. The annexation of Bessarabia played an important role in this.

According to the Soviet politician Nikolai Belyaev, this military conflict was unjust and aggressive in nature. This statement, according to its author, is relevant both in relation to the Russian Empire and in relation to the Porte.

It can also be said that the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in this article, primarily showed the success of the military reform of Alexander II, both in organizational terms and in technical terms.

COURSE OF EVENTS

The inability to improve the situation of Christians in the Balkans by peaceful means and the rise of national self-awareness in the Balkan countries led to Russia declaring war on Turkey in April 1877. The Russian army crossed the Danube, captured the Shipka Pass, and after a five-month siege forced the Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna.

The size of the Russian expeditionary force in the Balkans at the beginning of the war was about 185 thousand people, and by the end of the war it reached half a million. The raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war.

As a result of the war, the San Stefano Preliminary Treaty was concluded. However, its terms provoked a sharply negative reaction from the great powers, who feared Russia's enormously increased influence in the Balkans. They forced Russia to revise the treaty, and it was actually replaced by the Berlin Treaty signed at the Berlin Congress on June 1/13, 1878. As a result, the acquisitions of Russia and the Balkan states that fought on the side of Russia for their independence were greatly reduced, and Austria-Hungary and England They even received certain gains from a war in which they did not take part. The statehood of Bulgaria was restored, the territory of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania was increased. At the same time, Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina went to Austria-Hungary.

Having occupied Tyrnov, General Gurko collected information about the enemy and on June 28 moved to Kazanlak, bypassing the Shipka Pass. In extreme heat and along mountain paths, the Advance Detachment covered 120 miles in 6 days. Shipka's double attack from the north (July 5) and south (July 6) was unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the news of Gurko’s crossing of the Balkans had such an effect on the Turks that their detachment occupying Shipka abandoned its excellent position, abandoned all its artillery at the pass and retreated to Philippopolis.

On July 7, Shipka was taken without a fight. We lost about 400 people and captured 6 guns and up to 400 prisoners at the pass. […]

By the evening of the 17th, Gurko's detachments came into contact with the enemy. On the 18th and 19th a number of battles took place, which were generally successful for us. The 4th Rifle Brigade covered 75 versts in the mountains in one day on July 17-18. On July 18, near Yeni Zagra, the riflemen shot down a Turkish detachment, capturing 2 guns and losing 7 officers and 102 lower ranks. On July 19, a stubborn battle took place near Juranly, where we lost 20 officers and 498 lower ranks, but killed up to 2,000 Turks. At Eski-Zagra, the Bulgarian militia lost 34 officers and 1000 lower ranks; the entire flower of the Turkestan riflemen officers fell here. However, we failed at Eski Zagra, where the Bulgarian militia was defeated. On July 19, Gurko’s troops retreated to Shipka and Khanikioy. They risked finding themselves in a hopeless situation, but Suleiman did not pursue, being carried away by beating the Bulgarian population, and we could save Shipka. This was the only, but major positive result of the summer transition of the Balkans: by holding Shipka, we separated the actions of all three Turkish armies. Weak in numbers, Gurko's detachment did everything it could do and came out of its predicament with honor. […]

Having lost 19 days after the affair at Eski Zagra (when he could have captured Shipka almost unhindered), on August 7 Suleiman with 40,000 and 54 guns approached the Shipka Pass. Radetzky's troops, who defended the Balkans, and also had the task of covering the left flank of the Plevna group and the right flank of the Rushchuk detachment, were scattered along the front 130 miles from Selvi to Kesarev. On Shipka itself there were 4,000 people (the Oryol regiment and the remnants of the Bulgarian militia) with 28 guns. Having spent another day, Suleiman stormed the strongest part of the Russian positions at the pass on August 9.

Thus began the famous six-day Battle of Shipka. Attacks followed attacks, camp followed camp. Having fired their cartridges, tormented by a cruel thirst, the defenders of the “Eagle’s Nest” - Oryol and Bryansk - fought back with stones and rifle butts. On August 11, Suleiman was already celebrating victory, but then at the decisive moment, like thunder from a clear sky, “Hurray!” 4th Infantry Brigade, which marched 60 miles with lightning speed in forty-degree heat. Shipka was saved - and on these hot cliffs the 4th Infantry Brigade earned its immortal name of the “Iron Brigade”.

The 14th division of General Dragomirov arrived here, Radetsky himself personally began to control the battle, and on August 13, the buglers of the Suleiman camps began to play the all-clear. On August 9, by the evening we had 6,000 people; the Turks who stormed had 28,000 and 36 guns. On August 10, Radetzky moved reserves to Shipka; The Turks, repelled the day before, fought an artillery battle all day. August 11 was a critical day. The Russian position was covered from three sides. The 16th Rifle Battalion arrived in time at a critical moment on the croup of Cossack horses, rushing from the spot with bayonets. On August 12, the 2nd brigade of the 14th division arrived, and on August 13, the Volyn regiment arrived. Radetzky launched a counterattack (personally leading a company of Zhytomyr residents with bayonets). On August 13 and 14, battles were fought with varying degrees of success. Dragomirov was wounded, and the commander of the 2nd brigade of the 9th division, General Derozhinsky, was killed. Our damage: 2 generals, 108 officers, 3338 lower ranks. The Turks showed theirs at 233 officers and 6527 lower ranks, but in fact it is twice as large - in a letter to Seraskiriat, Suleiman urgently demanded 12,000 - 15,000 people to replenish the loss. To have an idea of the conditions of protection for Shipka, it is enough to note that water for our wounded had to be delivered 17 miles away!

RESTRICTIONS AT SEA

Since the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878. Makarov's energy, ingenuity and perseverance found new application. As is known, by virtue of the Paris Treaty of 1856, Russia was deprived of the right to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, and although this treaty was annulled in 1871, Russia still had to create a strong military fleet in the Black Sea by the beginning of the Russian-Turkish War did not have time and, except for floating batteries, wooden corvettes and several schooners, had nothing there. Türkiye by this time had a large fleet with strong artillery. On the Black Sea, she could use 15 battleships, 5 screw frigates, 13 screw corvettes, 8 monitors, 7 armored gunboats and a large number of small ships.

The balance of forces in the Black Sea was far from being in Russia's favor. Given the small number of naval forces, it was necessary to find effective methods of combating the strong Turkish fleet. The solution to this problem was found by Makarov.

CAPTAIN-LIEUTENANT MAKAROV

At the end of 1876, the inevitability of war with Turkey became clear. Makarov received command of the ship "Grand Duke Konstantin". After a stubborn struggle, he carried out his idea of arming the ship with high-speed mine boats, raised on special davits, and placed on it artillery of 4-inch rifled guns and one 6-inch mortar.

At first, the boats were armed with pole and towing mines, the use of which required that the boat approach almost closely to the enemy ship.

The first attack with such mines was carried out on May 12, 1877 on a Turkish patrol ship. The mine touched its side, but did not explode due to a malfunction of the fuse (as the study showed, 30% of the fuses did not explode due to their careless manufacture). The Sulina attack on June 9 also failed. On August 24, a mine attack was carried out on the Sukhumi roadstead: the Turkish battleship was damaged, but did not sink and was taken by the Turks in tow to Batum. Although there were Whitehead self-propelled mines [torpedoes] in the warehouse in Nikolaev, they were released to Makarov only in July 1877, i.e. almost four months after the start of the war, considering that the mines, which cost 12,000 rubles apiece, were “too expensive to waste.”

The torpedo attack launched on the night of December 28 was unsuccessful: the torpedoes did not hit the enemy battleship and jumped ashore. But the next torpedo attack was successful. On the night of January 26, 1878, a Turkish patrol steamer was attacked and sunk in the Batumi roadstead.

Makarov’s most brilliant deed was the diversion of an enemy battleship assigned to guard Colonel Shelkovnikov’s detachment (the latter had to retreat under pressure from superior Turkish forces along a narrow road that ran along the edge of a steep cliff rising above the sea). Makarov caused the battleship to chase after the Konstantin, and at this time Shelkovnikov, unnoticed, led his detachment without any losses.

For the brilliant actions of the steamer "Konstantin" Makarov received the highest military awards in his rank (St. George 4th degree and golden weapons) and was additionally promoted to the rank of lieutenant captain, and then captain of the 2nd rank and awarded the rank of aide-de-camp.

SAN STEFAN PRILIMINAR PEACE TREATY

The Sublime Porte will have the right to use passage through Bulgaria to transport troops, military supplies and provisions along certain routes to areas outside the Principality and back. Within three months from the date of ratification of this act, in order to avoid difficulties and misunderstandings in the application of this right, the conditions for its use will be determined, by agreement of the Sublime Porte with the administration in Bulgaria, by a special charter, ensuring, among other things, the military needs of the Sublime Porte.

It goes without saying that the above-mentioned right applies exclusively to Ottoman regular troops, while the irregulars - Bashi-Buzouks and Circassians - will certainly be excluded from it. […]

ARTICLE XII

All fortresses on the Danube will be demolished. From now on there will be no more fortifications on the banks of this river; There will also be no military courts in the waters of the Romanian, Serbian and Bulgarian principalities, except for ordinary stationary and small vessels intended for the needs of the river police and customs administration. […]

ARTICLE XXIV

The Bosporus and Dardanelles will be open, both in time of war and in time of peace, to the merchant ships of neutral powers coming from or going to Russian ports. As a result, the Sublime Porte undertakes to no longer establish an invalid blockade of the ports of the Black and Azov Seas, as inconsistent with the exact meaning of the declaration signed in Paris

San Stefano Preliminary Peace Treaty San Stefano, February 19/March 3, 1878 // Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856-1917. M., 1952 http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/FOREIGN/stefano.htm

FROM SAN STEFAN TO BERLIN

On February 19, 1878, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. Under its terms, Bulgaria received the status of an autonomous principality. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained complete independence and significant territorial increments. Southern Bessarabia, seized by the Treaty of Paris, was returned to Russia, and the Kars region in the Caucasus was transferred.

The provisional Russian administration that ruled Bulgaria developed a draft constitution. Bulgaria was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Personal and property rights were guaranteed. The Russian project formed the basis of the Bulgarian Constitution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly in Tarnovo in April 1879.

England and Austria-Hungary refused to recognize the terms of the Peace of San Stefano. At their insistence, in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Congress was held with the participation of England, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey. Russia found itself isolated and was forced to make concessions. The Western powers categorically objected to the creation of a unified Bulgarian state. As a result, Southern Bulgaria remained under Turkish rule. Russian diplomats only managed to achieve that Sofia and Varna were included in the autonomous Bulgarian principality. The territory of Serbia and Montenegro was significantly reduced. The Congress confirmed the right of Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In a report to the Tsar, the head of the Russian delegation, Chancellor A.M. Gorchakov wrote: “The Berlin Congress is the darkest page in my career!” The king noted: “And in mine too.”

The Berlin Congress, undoubtedly, did not brighten the diplomatic history of not only Russia, but also the Western powers. Driven by petty momentary calculations and envy of the brilliant victory of Russian weapons, the governments of these countries extended Turkish rule over several million Slavs.

And yet the fruits of the Russian victory were only partially destroyed. Having laid the foundations for the freedom of the fraternal Bulgarian people, Russia has written a glorious page in its history. Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878 entered into the general context of the era of Liberation and became its worthy completion.

Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. from the beginning of the 18th to the end of the 19th century, M., 2001. http://kazez.net/book_98689_glava_129_%C2%A7_4._Russko_-_ture%D1%81kaja_vojj.html

[…] ARTICLE I

Bulgaria forms a self-governing and tribute-paying principality, under the leadership of the e.i.v. Sultan; it will have a Christian government and a people's militia. […]

ARTICLE III

The Prince of Bulgaria will be freely elected by the population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte with the consent of the powers. None of the members of the dynasties reigning in the great European powers can be elected prince of Bulgaria. If the title of Prince of Bulgaria remains unfilled, the election of a new prince will be carried out under the same conditions and in the same form. […]

The following principles will be adopted as the basis of the state law of Bulgaria: Differences in religious beliefs and confessions cannot serve as a reason for the exclusion of anyone, or the non-recognition of someone’s legal capacity in everything that relates to the enjoyment of civil and political rights, access to public positions , official occupations and distinctions, or before the departure of various free occupations and crafts in any locality. All Bulgarian natives, as well as foreigners, are guaranteed freedom and external performance of all religious services; Nor can any restrictions be made in the hierarchical structure of various religious communities and in their relations with their spiritual heads. […]

ARTICLE XIII

A province will be formed to the south of the Balkans, which will receive the name “Eastern Rumelia” and which will remain under the direct political and military authority of the e.i.v. Sultan on terms of administrative autonomy. She will have a Christian governor general. […]

ARTICLE XXV

The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina will be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. […]

ARTICLE XXVI

The independence of Montenegro is recognized by the Sublime Porte and by all those high contracting parties who have not yet recognized it. […]

ARTICLE XXXIV

The High Contracting Parties recognize the independence of the Serbian Principality […]

ARTICLE LVIII

The Sublime Porte cedes to the Russian Empire in Asia the territories of Ardahan, Kars and Batum, with the port of the latter, as well as all the territories contained between the former Russian-Turkish border and the next border line. […]

The Alashkert Valley and the city of Bayazet, ceded to Russia by Article XIX of the Treaty of San Stefano, are returned to Turkey. […]

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly)

Historians highlight the increase in national self-awareness in the Balkan countries as the main reason for the outbreak of hostilities. This kind of sentiment in society was associated with the so-called April Uprising, which occurred in Bulgaria. The mercilessness and cruelty with which this rebellion was suppressed forced European states (together with the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for their brothers in faith who were in Turkey.

So, on the twenty-fourth of April 1877, Russia declared war on the Porte. Archbishop Paul, at a prayer service after the Chisinau parade, reads the manifesto of Alexander the Second, who announced the start of the war against the Ottoman Empire. Already in May of the same year, Russian troops were introduced onto Romanian soil.

The military reform of Alexander II also affected the preparedness and organization of the army. The Russian army consisted of almost seven hundred thousand people.

The army's transfer to Romania was made to eliminate the Danube fleet, which controlled most of the Danube crossings. The small Turkish river flotilla was unable to fight back and very soon the Dnieper was crossed by Russian troops, which was the first step towards Constantinople. The next important step is the siege of Plevna, which capitulated on the tenth of December. After this, Russian troops of three hundred thousand people prepared for the offensive.

During the same period, Serbia resumed actions against the Porte, and on December 23, 1877, a detachment of General Romeiko-Gurko carried out a raid through the Balkans, thanks to which Sofia was taken.

On the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth of December, an important battle takes place at Sheinovo, the result of which is the defeat of the Turkish army of thirty thousand.

The main tasks of the Asian direction of the Russian-Turkish war were to ensure border security and the desire to break the concentration of the Turks on the European border.

Historians are accustomed to consider the Abkhaz rebellion that took place in May 1877 to be the beginning of the Caucasian campaign. During the same period, the city of Sukhum was abandoned by the Russians and it was only possible to return it in August. During the Transcaucasian operations, Russian troops captured many citadels and fortresses. However, in the second half of the summer of 1877, military operations “frozen” while awaiting reinforcements.

Beginning in the fall, Russian troops adhered exclusively to siege tactics. For example, this is how they took the city of Kars, the capture of which never took place due to the truce.

The war between the Russian and Ottoman empires lasted from April 12, 1877 to February 18, 1878. A number of Balkan states also acted on Russia’s side. The result of the war was the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Ottoman rule, the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the acquisition of broad autonomy by Bulgaria. In addition, Russia annexed the Kara region and Southern Bessarabia, and Romania annexed Silistra. Also, part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary.

Prerequisites
The 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle for independence among the peoples of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. After a series of uprisings in 1815, autonomy was achieved for Serbia. In 1829, under the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey granted autonomy to Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1830, after many years of war, it recognized the independence of Greece. In 1866-1869 there was an uprising in Crete, which was suppressed by the Porte. Nevertheless, the islanders managed to achieve a number of privileges. In 1875, the Bosnian uprising began, in 1876 - the April uprising in Bulgaria, which were suppressed by the Ottoman government. The cruelty of the Turks caused outrage in Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and numerous Russian volunteers fought on the side of the Serbs. Russia, eager to reassert its influence in the Balkans, began mobilizing its army, but to start the war it was necessary to ensure that the Western powers would not enter the conflict on Turkey's side. The Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, it was also possible to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On April 24, 1878, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.

Strengths of the parties

In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a force of 186 thousand, and in the Caucasus about 90 thousand soldiers. In addition, the Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea, and the Porte also had the Danube flotilla.

Progress of the war

In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania; on June 27, the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Danube and began to advance deeper into enemy territory. On July 7, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass, trying to encircle the Turkish troops located there. As a result, on July 19, the Turks occupied Shipka without a fight. On July 15, the troops of General Kridener occupied Nikopol, but at the same time a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha occupied the fortress of Plevna, which was located on the right flank of the Russian troops. To successfully continue the campaign, it was necessary to take the fortress, but two hasty assaults on July 20 and 31 were unsuccessful. In August, Turkish troops tried to dislodge Russian units from Shipka, but encountered fierce resistance and were forced to withdraw four days later.

On September 11, the third assault on Plevna was launched, despite local successes, which also ended unsuccessfully for the Russian troops. After this, it was decided to begin a tight siege of the fortress, for which General Totleben was called from St. Petersburg. At this time, Suleiman Pasha’s army tried several times to break through the Shipka Pass, but failed each time.

In December 1877, the garrison of Plevna attempted to break through the positions of the Russian troops, but the grenadier corps withstood the attack of the Turks, after which they retreated back to the city and capitulated.

After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, continued to move south. On December 25, General Gurko’s detachment crossed the Churyak pass and occupied Sofia on January 4, 1878. In early January, the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Balkan ridge. On January 10, detachment M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo, capturing 22 thousand soldiers and officers. Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Plovdiv, where on January 15-17 it was defeated by Gurko's detachment, losing more than 20 thousand people.

On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople, and on January 30, Russian troops approached the suburbs of Istanbul.

In the Caucasian theater, the Turks managed to occupy the Black Sea coast in May after the uprising in Abkhazia, but already in August they were forced to retreat. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at the Battle of Aladzhi and besieged Kars, which surrendered on November 18.

Results
On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was signed. According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles. The terms of peace were not satisfied by the great powers, and under their pressure Russia was forced to take part in the Berlin Congress, at which the results of the peace were revised. The territory of Bulgaria was reduced, Bayazet remained with Turkey, in addition, Great Britain received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary received Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Nevertheless, the main result of the war - the independence of the Balkan peoples - was not revised.

In artistic culture

Painting:

Artist V.V. Vereshchagin dedicated his Balkan series of paintings to the war. In addition to him, a series of paintings dedicated to the war was created by N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.

Literature:

Garshin V.M. From the memoirs of Private Ivanov. 1885.

Akunin Boris. Turkish gambit. 1998.

Pikul V. Bayazet. 1960.

Vasiliev B. They were and were not. 1981.

Cinema:

Heroes of Shipka, 1960

Yulia Vrevskaya, 1978 (dir. Nikola Korabov)

Bayazet, 2003 (dir. Andrey Chernykh, Nikolay Istanbul)

Turkish Gambit, 2005 (Dir. Janik Faziev)

Institute of Noble Maidens, 2010-2013 (dir. Yuri Popovich, Sergei Danelyan)