Alexander Ivanovich Herzen - Russian revolutionary, writer, philosopher.
The illegitimate son of a wealthy Russian landowner I. Yakovlev and a young German bourgeois woman Louise Haag from Stuttgart. Received the fictitious surname Herzen - son of the heart (from German Herz).
He was brought up in Yakovlev's house, received a good education, became acquainted with the works of French educators, and read the forbidden poems of Pushkin and Ryleev. Herzen was deeply influenced by his friendship with his talented peer, the future poet N.P. Ogarev, which lasted throughout their lives. According to his memoirs, the news of the Decembrist uprising made a strong impression on the boys (Herzen was 13, Ogarev was 12 years old). Under his impression, their first, still vague dreams of revolutionary activity arise; During a walk on the Sparrow Hills, the boys vowed to fight for freedom.
In 1829, Herzen entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow University, where he soon formed a group of progressively thinking students. His attempts to present his own vision of the social order date back to this time. Already in his first articles, Herzen showed himself not only as a philosopher, but also as a brilliant writer.
Already in 1829-1830, Herzen wrote a philosophical article about Wallenstein by F. Schiller. During this youthful period of Herzen’s life, his ideal was Karl Moor, the hero of F. Schiller’s tragedy “The Robbers” (1782).
In 1833, Herzen graduated from the university with a silver medal. In 1834, he was arrested for allegedly singing songs discrediting the royal family in the company of friends. In 1835, he was sent first to Perm, then to Vyatka, where he was assigned to serve in the governor’s office. For organizing an exhibition of local works and the explanations given to the heir (the future Alexander II) during its inspection, Herzen, at the request of Zhukovsky, was transferred to serve as an adviser to the board in Vladimir, where he got married, having secretly taken his bride from Moscow, and where he spent the happiest and bright days of your life.
In 1840, Herzen was allowed to return to Moscow. Turning to fictional prose, Herzen wrote the novel “Who is to Blame?” (1847), the stories “Doctor Krupov” (1847) and “The Thieving Magpie” (1848), in which he considered his main goal to expose Russian slavery.
In 1847, Herzen and his family left Russia, going to Europe. Observing the life of Western countries, he interspersed personal impressions with historical and philosophical research (Letters from France and Italy, 1847–1852; From the Other Shore, 1847–1850, etc.)
In 1850–1852, a series of Herzen’s personal dramas took place: the death of his mother and youngest son in a shipwreck, the death of his wife from childbirth. In 1852, Herzen settled in London.
By this time he was perceived as the first figure of the Russian emigration. Together with Ogarev, he began to publish revolutionary publications - the almanac "Polar Star" (1855-1868) and the newspaper "Bell" (1857-1867), the influence of which on the revolutionary movement in Russia was enormous. But his main creation of the emigrant years is “The Past and Thoughts.”
“The Past and Thoughts” by genre is a synthesis of memoirs, journalism, literary portraits, autobiographical novel, historical chronicle, and short stories. The author himself called this book a confession, “about which stopped thoughts from thoughts were collected here and there.” The first five parts describe Herzen's life from childhood until the events of 1850–1852, when the author suffered difficult mental trials associated with the collapse of his family. The sixth part, as a continuation of the first five, is devoted to life in England. The seventh and eighth parts, even more free in chronology and theme, reflect the life and thoughts of the author in the 1860s.
All other works and articles by Herzen, such as “The Old World and Russia”, “Le peuple Russe et le socialisme”, “Ends and Beginnings”, etc. represent a simple development of ideas and sentiments that were fully defined in the period 1847-1852 years in the works mentioned above.
In 1865, Herzen left England and went on a long trip to Europe. At this time he distanced himself from the revolutionaries, especially from the Russian radicals. Arguing with Bakunin, who called for the destruction of the state, Herzen wrote: “People cannot be liberated in external life more than they are liberated internally.” These words are perceived as Herzen’s spiritual testament.
Like most Russian Westernized radicals, Herzen went through a period of deep fascination with Hegelianism in his spiritual development. Hegel's influence can be clearly seen in the series of articles “Amateurism in Science” (1842–1843). Their pathos lies in the affirmation and interpretation of Hegelian dialectics as an instrument of knowledge and revolutionary transformation of the world (“algebra of revolution”). Herzen severely condemned abstract idealism in philosophy and science for its isolation from real life, for “apriorism” and “spiritism.”
These ideas were further developed in Herzen’s main philosophical work, “Letters on the Study of Nature” (1845–1846). Continuing his criticism of philosophical idealism, Herzen defined nature as “the genealogy of thinking,” and saw only an illusion in the idea of pure being. For a materialistically minded thinker, nature is an ever-living, “fermenting substance”, primary in relation to the dialectics of knowledge. In the Letters, Herzen, quite in the spirit of Hegelianism, substantiated consistent historiocentrism: “neither humanity nor nature can be understood without historical existence,” and in understanding the meaning of history he adhered to the principles of historical determinism. However, in the thoughts of the late Herzen, the old progressivism gives way to much more pessimistic and critical assessments.
On January 21, 1870, Alexander Ivanovich Herzen died. He was buried in the Père Lachaise cemetery. His ashes were later transported to Nice and buried next to his wife's grave.
Bibliography
1846 - Who is to blame?
1846 - Passing by
1847 - Doctor Krupov
1848 - Thieving Magpie
1851 - Damaged
1864 - Tragedy over a glass of grog
1868 - Past and thoughts
1869 - For the sake of boredom
Film adaptations
1920 - Thieving Magpie
1958 - Thieving Magpie
Interesting Facts
Elizaveta Herzen, the 17-year-old daughter of A.I. Herzen and N.A. Tuchkova-Ogareva, committed suicide because of unrequited love for a 44-year-old Frenchman in Florence in December 1875. The suicide had a resonance; Dostoevsky wrote about it in his essay “Two Suicides.”
Illegitimate son of a wealthy landowner Ivan Alekseevich Yakovlev and a German woman, Louise Ivanovna Haag. At birth, the father gave the child the surname Herzen (from the German word herz - heart).
Received a good home education. From his youth he was distinguished by his erudition, freedom and open-mindedness. The December events of 1825 had a great influence on Herzen's worldview. Soon he met his distant paternal relative Nikolai Platonovich Ogarev and became his close friend. In 1828, they, being like-minded people and close friends, swore an oath of eternal friendship on Sparrow Hills in Moscow and showed their determination to devote their whole lives to the struggle for freedom and justice.
Herzen was educated at Moscow University, where he became friends with a number of progressive-minded students who formed a circle in which a wide range of issues relating to science, literature, philosophy and politics were discussed. After graduating from the university in 1833 with a candidate of science degree and a silver medal, he became interested in the teachings of the Saint-Simonists and began to study the works of socialist writers of the West.
A year later A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev and their other comrades were arrested for freethinking. After spending several months in prison, Herzen was exiled to Perm, and then to Vyatka to the office of the local governor, where he became an employee of the newspaper Gubernskie Vedomosti. There he became close to the exiled architect A.I. Vitberg. Then Herzen was transferred to Vladimir. For some time he was allowed to live in St. Petersburg, but soon he was exiled again, this time to Novgorod.
Since 1838 he has been married to his distant relative Natalya Aleksandrovna Zakharyina. The parents did not want to give Natalya to the disgraced Herzen, so he kidnapped his bride, married her in Vladimir, where he was in exile at that time, and confronted his parents with a fait accompli. All contemporaries noted the extraordinary affection and love of the Herzen spouses. Alexander Ivanovich more than once turned to the image of Natalya Alexandrovna in his works. In marriage he had three children: a son, Alexander, a professor of physiology; daughters Olga and Natalya. The last years of the couple's life together were overshadowed by Natalya Alexandrovna's sad infatuation with the German Georg Herwegh. This ugly story, which made all its participants suffer, ended with the death of Natalya Alexandrovna from childbirth. The illegitimate child died along with his mother.
In 1842, Herzen received permission to move to Moscow, where he lived until 1847, pursuing literary activities. In Moscow, Herzen wrote the novel “Who is to Blame?” and a number of stories and articles dealing with social and philosophical issues.
In 1847, Alexander Ivanovich left for Europe, living alternately in France, Italy, and Switzerland and working in various newspapers. Disillusioned with the revolutionary movement of Europe, he sought a different path for the development of Russia than the Western one.
After the death of his wife in Nice, A.I. Herzen moved to London, where he organized the publication of the free Russian press: Polar Star and Kolokol. Speaking with a freedom-loving and anti-serfdom program for Russia, Herzen’s “Bell” attracted the attention and sympathy of the progressive part of Russian society. It was published until 1867 and was very popular among the Russian intelligentsia.
Herzen died in Paris and was buried in the Père Lachaise cemetery, then his ashes were transported to Nice.
Publications in the Literature section
Founder of Russian socialism
Writer and publicist, philosopher and teacher, author of the memoirs “The Past and Thoughts”, founder of Russian free (uncensored) book printing, Alexander Herzen was one of the most ardent critics of serfdom, and at the beginning of the 20th century he turned out to be almost a symbol of the revolutionary struggle. Until 1905, Herzen remained a banned writer in Russia, and the complete collection of the author’s works was published only after the October Revolution.
Alexander Herzen was the illegitimate son of a wealthy landowner Ivan Yakovlev and a German woman, Louise Haag, and therefore received the surname that his father came up with for him - Herzen (“son of the heart”). The boy did not have a systematic education, but numerous tutors, teachers and educators instilled in him a taste for literature and knowledge of foreign languages. Herzen was brought up on French novels, the works of Goethe and Schiller, and the comedies of Kotzebue and Beaumarchais. The literature teacher introduced his student to the poems of Pushkin and Ryleev.
“The Decembrists woke up Herzen” (Vladimir Lenin)
The Decembrist uprising made a great impression on 13-year-old Alexander Herzen and his 12-year-old friend Nikolai Ogarev; biographers claim that the first thoughts about freedom, dreams of revolutionary activity in Herzen and Ogarev arose precisely then. Later, as a student at the Faculty of Physics and Technology at Moscow University, Herzen took part in student protests. During this period, Herzen and Ogarev became friends with Vadim Passek and Nikolai Ketcher. A circle of people is forming around Alexander Herzen, just like him, who are keen on the works of European socialists.
This circle did not last long, and already in 1834 its members were arrested. Herzen was exiled to Perm, and then to Vyatka, but, partly at the request of Zhukovsky, our hero was transferred to Vladimir. It is believed that it was in this city that Herzen lived his happiest days. Here he got married, secretly taking his bride from Moscow.
In 1840, after a short stay in St. Petersburg and service in Novgorod, Herzen moved to Moscow, where he met Belinsky. The union of two thinkers gave Russian Westernism its final form.
“Hegel’s philosophy - revolution” (Alexander Herzen)
Herzen's worldview was formed under the influence of left-wing Hegelians, French utopian socialists and Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach. The Russian philosopher saw a revolutionary direction in Hegel’s dialectics; it was Herzen who helped Belinsky and Bakunin overcome the conservative component of Hegelian philosophy.
Having moved to the Mother See, Herzen became the star of Moscow salons; in oratory skills he was second only to Alexei Khomyakov. Publishing under the pseudonym Iskander, Herzen began to acquire a name in literature, publishing both works of art and journalistic articles. In 1841–1846, the writer worked on the novel “Who is to Blame?”
In 1846, he received a large inheritance after the death of his father and a year later he left for Paris, from where he sent four “Letters from Avenue Marigny” to Nekrasov for Sovremennik. They openly promoted socialist ideas. The writer also openly supported the February Revolution in France, which forever deprived him of the opportunity to return to his homeland.
“In the history of Russian social thought, he will always occupy one of the very first places”
Until the end of his days, Alexander Herzen lived and worked abroad. After the victory of General Cavaignac in France, he left for Rome, and the failure of the Roman Revolution of 1848–1849 forced him to move to Switzerland. In 1853, Herzen settled in England and there, for the first time in history, created a free Russian press abroad. The famous memoirs “The Past and Thoughts,” essays and dialogues “From the Other Shore” also appeared there. Gradually, the philosopher's interests moved from the European revolution to Russian reforms. In 1857, Herzen founded the magazine Kolokol, inspired by ideas that appeared in Russia after the Crimean War.
The special political tact of Herzen the publisher, who, without retreating from his socialist theories, was ready to support the reforms of the monarchy as long as he was confident in their effectiveness and necessity, helped “The Bell” become one of the important platforms on which the peasant issue was discussed. The magazine's influence declined when the issue itself was resolved. And Herzen’s pro-Polish position in 1862–1863 pushed him back toward that part of society that was not inclined toward revolutionary ideas. To young people, he seemed backward and outdated.
In his homeland, he was a pioneer in promoting the ideas of socialism and the European positivist and scientific worldview of 19th century Europe. Georgy Plekhanov openly compared his compatriot with Marx and Engels. Speaking about Herzen’s “Letters”, Plekhanov wrote:
“One can easily think that they were written not in the early 40s, but in the second half of the 70s, and, moreover, not by Herzen, but by Engels. To such an extent the thoughts of the first are similar to the thoughts of the second. And this striking similarity shows that Herzen’s mind worked in the same direction in which the mind of Engels, and therefore Marx, worked.”.
Russian revolutionary, philosopher, writer A. I. Herzen was born in Moscow on March 25, 1812. He was born from the extramarital affair of a wealthy landowner Ivan Yakovlev and a young German woman of bourgeois blood, Louise Haag, originally from Stuttgart. They came up with the surname Herzen for their son (translated from German as “heart”).
The child grew up and was brought up on Yakovlev’s estate. He was given a good education at home, he had the opportunity to read books from his father’s library: works by Western educators, poems by banned Russian poets Pushkin and Ryleev. While still a teenager, he became friends with the future revolutionary and poet N. Ogarev. This friendship lasted a lifetime.
Herzen's youth
When Alexander was thirteen years old, the December Uprising took place in Russia, the events of which forever influenced Herzen's fate. Thus, from a very young age, he had eternal idols, patriotic heroes who came out to Senate Square to consciously die for the sake of the future new life of the younger generation. He swore an oath to avenge the execution of the Decembrists and continue their work.
In the summer of 1828, on the Sparrow Hills in Moscow, Herzen and Ogarev swore an oath to devote their lives to the struggle for the freedom of the people. The friends remained faithful to the oath for the rest of their lives. In 1829, Aleksandr began his studies at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow University. In 1833 he graduated from it, receiving a candidate's degree. During their student years, Herzen and Ogarev gathered around themselves progressive young people of like-minded people. They were interested in issues of freedom, equality, and education. The university management considered Herzen a dangerous freethinker with very daring plans.
Arrest and exile. Herzen's marriage
A year after graduating from the university, he was arrested for active propaganda activities and exiled to Perm, then transferred to Vyatka, then to Vladimir. The harsh conditions of exile in Perm and Vyatka changed during his stay in Vladimir for the better. Now he could travel to Moscow and meet with friends. He took his bride N.A. Zakharyina from Moscow to Vladimir, where they got married.
The years 1838 - 1840 were especially happy for the young couple. Herzen, who had already tried his hand at literature before, was not noted for his creative achievements during these years. He wrote two romantic dramas in verse (“Licinius”, “William Pen”), which have not survived, and the story “Notes of a Young Man”. Aleksandr Ivanovich knew that creative imagination was not his element. He was better able to realize himself as a publicist and philosopher. But nevertheless, he did not abandon his studies in the field of literary creativity.
Philosophical works. The novel "Who is to Blame?"
Having served his exile in 1839, he returned to Moscow, but soon showed imprudence in correspondence with his father and spoke harshly to the tsarist police. He was arrested again and again sent into exile, this time to Novgorod. Returning from exile in 1842, he published his work, which he had worked on in Novgorod, “Amateurism in Science,” then a very serious philosophical study, “Letters on the Study of Nature.”
During the years of exile, he began work on the novel “Who is to Blame?” In 1845 he completed the work, devoting five years to it. Critics consider the novel "Who's to Blame?" Herzen's greatest creative achievement. Belinsky believed that the author’s strength is in the “power of thought,” and the soul of his talent is in “humanity.”
"The Thieving Magpie"
Herzen wrote “The Thieving Magpie” in 1846. It was published two years later, when the author was already living abroad. In this story, Herzen focused his attention on the particularly difficult, powerless position of the serf actress. Interesting fact: the narrator in the story is a “famous artist,” the prototype of the great actor M. S. Shchepkin, who was also a serf for a long time.
Herzen Abroad
January 1847. Herzen and his family left Russia forever. Settled in Paris. But in the fall of the same year he went to Rome to participate in demonstrations and engage in revolutionary activities. In the spring of 1848 he returned to Paris, engulfed in revolution. After her defeat, the writer suffered an ideological crisis. His book of 1847-50 “From the Other Shore” is about this.
1851 was tragic for Herzen: a shipwreck claimed the lives of his mother and son. And in 1852 his beloved wife died. In the same year, he left for London and began work on his main book, “Past and Thoughts,” which he wrote for sixteen years. It was a book - a confession, a book of memories. In 1855 he published the almanac “Polar Star”, in 1857 - the newspaper “Bell”. Herzen died in Paris on January 9, 1870.
A.I. Herzen
Even as a child, Herzen met and became friends with Nikolai Ogarev. According to his memoirs, the Decembrist uprising made a strong impression on the boys (Herzen was 13, Ogarev was 12 years old). Under his impression, their first, still vague dreams of revolutionary activity arise. One day, during a walk on the Sparrow Hills, the boys vowed to devote their lives to the fight for freedom.
A. Herzen is the illegitimate son of a wealthy landowner Ivan Alekseevich Yakovlev and a young German woman, Henrietta Haag. The boy's surname was invented by his father: Herzen (from German herz - heart) - “son of the heart.”
He received a good education, graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow University. While still a student, he, together with his friend N. Ogarev, organized a circle of student youth, in which socio-political issues were discussed.
In the mainstream of the polemics between “Westerners” and “Slavophiles,” Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812 - 1870) occupies a special place. He not only belonged to the “Westerners” party, but in a certain sense he led it, was its ideological leader.
The essence of the controversy between these two groups of Russian intellectuals was the difference in understanding of the historical process and the place of Russia in it. The “Slavophiles” proceeded from the fact that Europe, having outlived its time, was rotting, and Russia had its own historical path of development, in no way similar to the Western one. “Westerners” argued that the principle of historical development has universal significance for humanity, but due to a number of circumstances it received expression most adequately and fully in Western Europe, and therefore has universal significance.
In 1847, having obtained permission to visit Europe, Herzen left Russia, as it turned out, forever. In 1848, Herzen witnessed the defeat of the French Revolution, which had a deep ideological impact on him. Since 1852, he settled in London, where already in 1853 he founded a free Russian printing house and began publishing the almanac “Polar Star”, the newspaper “Bell” and the periodical “Voices from Russia”. The publications of Herzen's free Russian printing house became the first uncensored press in Russia, which had a huge influence not only on socio-political, but also on philosophical thought.
Philosophical views
In 1840, having returned from exile, Herzen met the circle of Hegelians, which was headed by Stankevich and Belinsky. He was impressed by their thesis of the complete rationality of all reality. But the radical revolutionaries repulsed him with their intransigence and readiness to make any, even unreasonable, sacrifices for the sake of revolutionary ideas. As a follower of Hegel, Herzen believed that the development of humanity proceeds in steps, and each step is embodied in the people. Thus, Herzen, being a “Westernizer,” shared with the “Slavophiles” the belief that the future belongs to the Slavic peoples.
Socialist ideas
"The Theory of Russian Socialism" by A.I. Herzen
After the suppression of the French Revolution of 1848, Herzen came to the conclusion that the country in which it was possible to combine socialist ideas with historical reality was Russia, where communal land ownership was preserved.
The Russian peasant world, he argued, contains three principles that make it possible to carry out an economic revolution leading to socialism:
1) everyone’s right to land
2) communal ownership of it
3) worldly management.
He believed that Russia had the opportunity to bypass the stage of capitalist development: “The man of the future in Russia is a man, just like a worker in France.”
Herzen paid great attention to ways to implement the social revolution. However, Herzen was not a supporter mandatory violence and coercion: “We do not believe that nations cannot move forward except knee-deep in blood; We bow with reverence to the martyrs, but with all our hearts we wish that they would not exist.”
During the period of preparation of the peasant reform in Russia, the Kolokol expressed hopes for the abolition of serfdom by the government on terms favorable to the peasants. But the same “Bell” said that if the freedom of the peasants is bought at the price of Pugachevism, then this is not too expensive a price to pay. The most rapid, unbridled development is preferable to maintaining the order of Nikolaev stagnation.
Herzen's hopes for a peaceful solution to the peasant question aroused objections from Chernyshevsky and other revolutionary socialists. Herzen answered them that Rus' should be called not “to the axe,” but to the brooms, in order to sweep away the dirt and rubbish that has accumulated in Russia.
“Having called for an ax,” Herzen explained, “you must master the movement, you must have organization, you must have a plan, strength and readiness to lay down your bones, not only grabbing the handle, but grabbing the blade when the ax diverges too much.” There is no such party in Russia; therefore, he will not call for an ax until “there remains at least one reasonable hope for a solution without an axe.”
Herzen paid special attention to the “international union of workers,” that is, to the International.
Ideas about the state
The problems of the state, law, and politics were considered by him as subordinate to the main ones - social and economic problems. Herzen has many opinions that the state does not have its own content at all - it can serve both reaction and revolution, depending on which side has the power. The view of the state as something secondary in relation to the economy and culture of society is directed against the ideas of Bakunin, who considered the primary task of destroying the state. “An economic revolution,” Herzen objected to Bakunin, “has an immense advantage over all religious and political revolutions.” The state, like slavery, wrote Herzen, is moving towards freedom, towards self-destruction; however, the state “cannot be thrown off like dirty rags until a certain age.” “From the fact that the state is a form transitory - Herzen emphasized, “it does not follow that this form is already past."
Herzen's views on pedagogy
Herzen did not specifically deal with this issue, but, being a thinker and public figure, he had a well-thought-out concept on issues of education:
2) children, according to Herzen, should develop freely and learn respect for work, aversion to idleness, and selfless love for their homeland from the common people;
3) called on scientists to bring science out of the classroom walls and make its achievements public domain. He wanted secondary school students, along with natural science and mathematics, to study literature (including the literature of ancient peoples), foreign languages, and history. A.I. Herzen noted that without reading there is and cannot be any taste, no style, no multilateral development. Herzen wrote two special works in which he explained natural phenomena to the younger generation: “The Experience of Conversations with Young People” and “Conversations with Children.”
Literary activity
Herzen's ideas could not help but be expressed in his literary works and in numerous journalism.
"Who is guilty?", novel in two parts(1846)
"By passing by" story (1846 G.)
"Doctor Krupov" story (1847 G.)
"The Thief Magpie" story (1848 G.)
"Damaged", story (1851 G.)
"Tragedy over a glass of grog" (1864 G.)
"For boredom's sake" (1869 G.)
Newspaper "Bell"
"Bell"
This was the first Russian revolutionary newspaper, published by A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev in exile at the Free Russian Printing House in 1857-1867. As a continuation of the closed Bell, a newspaper was published in French in 1868 "Kolokol"(“La cloche”), addressed primarily to a European reader.
In the first years of the existence of the Free Russian Printing House, the authorship of most of the published articles belonged to Herzen himself. In 1855, Herzen began publishing the almanac "Polar Star", and the situation changed dramatically: there was not enough space in it to publish all the interesting materials - publishers began to publish a supplement to the almanac, the newspaper "Bell". The first issues of Kolokol were published once a month, but the newspaper began to gain popularity, and it began to be published twice a month with a volume of 8 or 10 pages. The sheets were printed on thin paper, which was easier to smuggle through customs illegally. The regular uncensored publication turned out to be in demand among readers. Taking into account additional prints, over the ten years of the newspaper's existence, about half a million copies were published. The publication was immediately banned in Russia, and in the first half of 1858, the Russian government managed to achieve an official ban on “The Bell” in other European countries. However, Herzen manages to create ways for the relatively safe delivery of correspondence from Russia through a number of reliable addresses.
The Bell also published literary works that were subordinated to the tasks of agitation and exposing the policies of the authorities. In the newspaper one could find poetry by M. Yu. Lermontov (“Alas! how boring this city is...”), N. A. Nekrasov (“Reflections at the Main Entrance”), accusatory poems by N. Ogarev and others. As in “Polar star”, “Kolokol” publishes excerpts from “Past and Thoughts” by A. Herzen.
Since 1862, interest in the Bell begins to decline. More radical movements are already appearing in Russia, which “called Rus' to the axe.” Despite Kolokol's condemnation of terrorism, after the assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II, the newspaper continues to lose readers. Correspondence from Russia almost stops coming. In 1867, the publication again returned to a single issue per month, and on July 1, 1867, with N. Ogarev’s poem “Goodbye!” reports that “the Bell will fall silent for a while.” But in 1868, the Bell ceased to exist.
